Chapter 4(a) Powder Metallurgy

4.0 Powder Metallurgy: In this manufacturing process the parts are made by producing powders from metals
and by applying pressure and heat. The parts made by this technology have good properties. The particles of the
powder physically interlock to produce sufficient strength during applying pressure. The parts made by this process
may have good accuracy in size. Refractory materials may also be made by this process. It is used for making self
lubricating bearings.
Basic steps in Powder Metallurgy
The steps in making a product by powder metallurgy are given as Figure (5.1)
(1) Powder making
(2) Mixing or blending
(3) Compaction
(4) Sintering

Figure 4.1 Flow chart of operations used in Powder metallurgy

Manufacturing of Powder Production
There are various methods of powder production. All the powders cannot be made by the same technique as their
physical and chemical properties are different. Almost all the metals, alloys ceramics, polymers graphite can be
converted in to powder by one or more methods.
Mechanical (Figure 4.2): In this method to produce the powder the metal is disintegrated by crushing , milling.
In the final stage the particles are grounded in a ball mill in which many steel balls crush the particles to the required
size.

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Figure 4.2 Mechanical Crushing Figure 4.3 Atomization

Atomization (Figure 4.3): It is a very good method of producing powder for low temperature metals such as
lead, aluminum, zinc and tin. Iron and steel are also produced by atomization. This is most widely used method of
making powders. In this process the molten metal or alloy is passed through a nozzle, where at the throat it is
atomized by stream of water or air. Inert gas is also used for atomization. The particles are broken into smaller
droplets by the jet of water or air. The size of the droplets produced depends upon the temperature of the metal, rate
of flow, nozzle diameter.
Reduction (Figure 5.4):
The reduction method uses the reducing agents such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen to reduce metal oxides in to
metals. It is used for some refractory metals and alloys. Copper powder is also produced by reduction process.

Figure 4.4 Reduction

Electrolysis (Figure 4.5)
It is used to produce the powder of very high quality. It is similar to electroplating and is used for making powders
of silver, tantalum, tungsten, molybdenum, nickel and cobalt. In this method two electrodes called cathode and
anode are dipped in a electrolyte. During the passing of current, powder deposits on cathode. This electrode is

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removed from the tank and it is dried. After drying, the deposit is scrapped off and pulverized to produce powder of
desired size.

Figure 4.5 Electrolysis

Shotting (Figure 4.6):
In this method the molten metal is passed through a sieve and the particles are dropped in a liquid.

Figure 4.6 Shotting

Blending of Powders (Figure 4.7)
A single powder may not fulfil all the requisite properties and hence, powders of different materials with wide range
of mechanical properties are blended to form a final part. Blending is carried out for several purposes as follows.
1. Blending imparts uniformity in the shapes of the powder particles,
2. Blending facilitates mixing of different powder particles to impart wide ranging physical and mechanical
properties,
3. Lubricants can be added during the blending process to improve the flow characteristics of the powder particles
reducing friction between particles and dies,

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 4. Binders can be added to the mixture of the powder particles to enhance the green strength during the powder
compaction process.

Figure 4.7 Blending

Powder Compaction (Figure 4.8) :-
The principle goal of the compaction process is to apply pressurize and bond the particles to form a cohesion among
the powder particles. This is usually termed as the green strength. The compaction exercise imparts the following
effects.
1. Reduces voids between the power particles and enhance the density of the consolidated powder,
2. Produces adhesion and bonding of the powder particles to improve green strength in the consolidated powder
particles,
3. Facilitates plastic deformation of the powder particles to conform to the final desired shape of the part,
4. Enhances the contact area among the powder particles and facilitates the subsequent sintering process.
Compaction is carried out by pouring a measured amount of metallic powder into the die cavity and applying
pressure by means of one or more plungers. To improve uniformity of pressure and reduce porosity in the
compacted part, compressive forces from both the top and the bottom sides are necessary. The requisite compacting
pressure depends on the specific characteristics and initial shape of the particles, the method of blending and the
application of the lubricants.

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 Figure 4.8 Compaction
Sintering (Figure 4.9):-
Sintering refers to the heating of the compacted powder perform to a specific temperature (below the melting
temperature of the principle powder particles while well above the temperature that would allow diffusion between
the neighbouring particles). Sintering facilitates the bonding action between the individual powder particles and
increase in the strength of the final part. The heating process must be carried out in a controlled, inert or reducing
atmosphere or in vacuum for very critical parts to prevent oxidation. Prior to the sintering process, the compacted
powder perform is brittle and confirm to very low green strength. The nature and strength of the bond between the
particles depends on the mechanism of diffusion and plastic flow of the powder particles, and evaporation of volatile
material from the in the compacted preform. Bonding among the powder particles takes places in three ways: (1)
melting of minor constituents in the powder particles, (2) diffusion between the powder particles, and (3)
mechanical bonding. The time, temperature and the furnace atmosphere are the three critical factors that control the
sintering process. Sintering process enhances the density of the final part by filling up the incipient holes and
increasing the area of contact among the powder particles in the compact perform

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Figure4.9 Steps of sintering

4.2 Advantages of Powder Metallurgy

(1) There is no loss of material. The parts can be made clean and bright.
(2) The composition of the part can be controlled.
(3) Close dimensional tolerances can be obtained.
(4) Nonmetallic substances can be added easily.
(5) A wide range of properties such as density, porosity and particle size can be obtained.
(6) Magnetic cores with special properties can also be made.
(7) Production rate is high and the time required is less.
(8) Skillness of labor is not required.
(9) Composition, structure and properties can be easily controlled.

4.3 Limitations of Powder Metallurgy

(1) Pure metal powders are very expansive to make.
(2) Size of the parts to be produced is limited.
(3) Making of an alloy like steel, brass and bronze is difficult.
(3) The strength is usually low in comparison to the parts made by conventional method.
(4) The problem of porosity in parts is observed.
(5) The impact strength and ductility is usually low.
(6) The die design limitation imposes a threat to the shape of the parts produced.
(7) Because the dies are very costly so, the process is not economical.
4.4 Applications
It is used for making gears, cams, actuating levers, parts of car, air craft, gas engine, turbines, electric clocks, sewing
machines, refrigerators and vacuums cleaners. It is also used for making parts of gun, porous bearings.

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 UNIT 4(b)
Manufacturing of Plastic Components

Plastic :- Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semi synthetic organic
amorphous solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically
polymers of high molecular weight, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or
reduce costs.
Types of Plastics:- Plastics can be divided into two major categories:
1. Thermoset or thermosetting plastics:- Those plastics which are hardened by heat and Once cooled
these plastics retain their shapes and cannot return to their original form.
 They are hard and durable. Thermosets can be used for auto parts, aircraft parts and tires.
 Examples include polyurethanes, polyesters, epoxy resins and phenolic resins.
2. Thermoplastics:- Thermoplastics can soften upon heating and return to their original form.
 They are easily molded and extruded into films, fibers and packaging.
 Less rigid than thermosets
 Examples include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Thermoset or Thermosetting Plastics:-
1. Polyurethane Plastics: - Polyurethane plastics belong to the group that can be thermosetting.
Polyurethane is the only plastic which can be made in both rigid and flexible foams. The flexible
polyurethane foam is used in mattresses, carpets, furniture etc. The rigid polyurethane foam is used in
chair shells, mirror frames and many more. Due to the property of high elasticity, some polyurethane
plastics are used in decorative and protective coatings. The high elasticity makes these polyurethane
plastics resistant to a chemical attack.
2. Epoxy:- Epoxies are used in numerous ways. In combination with glass fibers, it is capable of
producing composites that are of high strength and that are heat resistant. This composite is typically
used for filament wound rocket motor casings in missiles, in aircraft components, and in tanks, pipes,
tooling jigs, pressure vessels, and fixtures. Epoxies are also found in gymnasium floors, industrial
equipment, sealants, and protective coatings in appliances.
3. Phenolic:- Phenol plastics are thermosetting resins used in potting compounds, casting resins, and
laminating resins. They can also be used for electrical purposes and are a popular binder for holding
together plies of wood for plywood.
Thermoplastics
1. Vinyl Plastics: - Vinyl plastics belong to the thermoplastic group. Vinyl plastics are the sub-polymers
of vinyl derivatives. These are used in laminated safety glasses, flexible tubing, molded products etc.
2.Polyacrylics Plastics: - Polyacrylics belong to the group of thermoplastics. Polyacrylics are
transparent and decorative. Polyacrylics plastics can be shaped in any form like the windshields for
airplane.
3. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC):- Polyvinyl Chloride, commonly referred to as PVC or vinyl, PVC has
resistant to abrasion, weather and chemical. Today, it is commonly found in upholstery (thick soft

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materials used to cover chairs, car seats, etc.) wall coverings, flooring, siding, pipe, and even apparel.
In fact, vinyl is perhaps the best known of all plastics.
4. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PETE):- PETE is one the most recycled plastic. It finds usage in
various bottles like that of soda and cooking oil, etc.
5. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE):- HDPE is generally used in detergent bottles and in milk jugs.
6. Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE):- LDPE finds its usage in dry cleaning bags, food storage
containers etc.
7. Polypropylene (PP):- PP is commonly used in bottle caps and drinking straws.
8. Polystyrene (PS):- PS is used in cups, plastic tableware etc.
Plastic Processes
1. Moulding Process
2. Calendaring Process
3. Thermoforming
4. Casting
5. Fabrication Process
1. Moulding Processes
i. Compression Moulding
ii. Transfer Moulding
iii. Injection Moulding

(a) Compression moulding:- It is a high pressure forming process in which the molten plastic material
is squeezed directly into a mould cavity, by the application of heat and pressure to conform to the
shape of the mold. It is used for most of thermosetting plastics and some thermoplastic.

Working:- In this process, a correct amount of plastic material is placed in a heated mould and then
forced to conform to the shape of the mold, as the mold closes. The mould is closed for sufficient time
to allow chemical changes (polymerization) to complete, so that product is sufficiently hardened.
Product is removed by ejector pin.
Advantages:-
1) Relatively low initial cost
2) Low maintenance
3) Product has low residual stress

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4) Retain mechanical and electrical properties
Disadvantages:-
1) It is not economical for a small number of parts
2) Sometimes secondary process (trimming) is required
3) Sometimes uneven parting lines are observed
4) There is limitation on mould depth
Applications:
1) Car tyres / rubber tyres.
2) Rubber gaskets or seals.
3) Handles.
4) Electrical components.
5) Automotive parts.

(b) Transfer moulding:- Transfer molding is a manufacturing process in which molding material is
forced into a mold. Transfer molding is different from compression molding in that the mold is
enclosed rather than open to the fill plunger resulting in higher dimensional tolerances and less
environmental impact. In this, heat and pressure are applied to the molding material outside the
mould. It is used for thermosetting plastic.

Working:- The pre-heated molding compound is placed in the transfer pot and then plunger
compress the molding material through sprue into the mold cavity. The mould is closed for sufficient
time to allow chemical changes (polymerization) to complete, so that product is sufficiently
hardened. Product is removed by ejector pin.
Advantages:-
1) Production speed higher than compression molding
2) Fast setup time and lower setup costs than injection molding
3) Product consistency better than compression molding, allowing tighter tolerance and more
intricate parts
4) Lower maintenance costs than injection molding

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 Disadvantages:-
1) Wastes more material than compression molding (scraps of thermosets are not re-useable)
2) Production speed lower than injection molding
Applications:-
1) Integrated circuits
2) Connectors
3) Pins
4) Plugs
5) Coils

(C) Injection moulding:- It is used for thermoplastic polymers. Material is fed into a heated barrel,
mixed, and forced into a mold cavity where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the mold cavity.
The method is suitable for the mass production of products with complicated shapes.

Working:- The process start with feeding plastic material in the hopper above the heating barrel of the
machine. The material is pushed along the heated barrel by reciprocating screw. The entire screw is then
plunged forward to force the plastic into the mould. The ram is held under pressure for a few seconds so
that the moulded part can solidify. It then retracts slightly, and the mould open and ejector pin eject the
product.
Advantages:
1) Fast production
2) Low labour costs
3) Design flexibility
4) Can be used to produced very small parts
5) Good products consistency

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Disadvantages:-
1) High initial cost of injection moulding machine
2) Mould are also costly
Applications:-
1) Milk cartons,
2) Packaging
3) Bottle caps
4) Automotive dashboards
5) Pocket combs

2. Blow moulding
The process involves heating a plastic tube (known as a preform or parison) and placed it into the cavity
of a mold. Then use compressed air to inflate the molten plastic like a balloon so that it takes the shape
of the mold and produced hollow plastic parts.

Fig. Blow moulding

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Advantages:-
1) high rate of production
2) low tooling cost
Disadvantages:-
1) include a high scrap rate,
2) a limited control over wall thickness
3) some difficulty of trimming away excess plastic

3. Extrusion:-
Generally all thermoplastic materials can be extruded into various shapes like tubes, rods, pipes, sheets
etc.

The process consists of feeding the powdered plastic from the hopper into the heated chamber. A
rotating screw carries this material forward and forces it out through the heated orifice of the die. The
orifice carries the desired shape of the product. After leaving the die, the product is suitably cooled by
water or air-blast.
Advantages:-
1) Low initial setup costs
2) Fast setup time
3) Low production costs
Disadvantages:-
1) Moderate production speed
2) Average precision
3) Limited to parts with a uniform cross section

4. Thermoforming:-
Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming
temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product.

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The plastic sheets used in thermoforming are usually made by extrusion. The sheet of plastic material is
first heated to become a flexible membrane. This soft, rubber-like membrane is placed on the mold and
stretched to cover the entire surface. Vacuum, external air pressure, and mechanical forces are used to
rid the air bubbles and improve the surface quality. The plastic part remains in the mold until it
solidifies. Excess material is trimmed after the part is removed from the mold.
Advantages:-
1) Low initial setup costs
2) Fast setup time
3) Low production costs
4) Less thermal stresses than injection molding and compression molding
5) More details and better cosmetics than rotational-molded products
Disadvantages:-
1) Geometries limited to thin shells or shallow shapes
2) One side of the product can be precisely controlled by the mold dimensions while the other side
cannot.

5. Rotational moulding:- Rotational molding involves a heated hollow mold which is filled with a
charge or shot weight of material. It is then slowly rotated (usually around two perpendicular axes),
causing the softened material to disperse and stick to the walls of the mold.

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Advantages:-
1) With proper design, parts assembled from several pieces can be molded as one part, eliminating
high fabrication costs.
2) For additional strength, reinforcing ribs can be designed into the part. Along with being designed
into the part, they can be added to the mold

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