1

1 Outline briefly the main principles of the use of magnetic resonance to obtain information For
about internal body structures. Examiner’s
Use

.................................................................................................................................................

a
aky
.................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................

Sh
.................................................................................................................................................

dra
.................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................

an
.................................................................................................................................................

Ch
.................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................

jit
.................................................................................................................................................
Sa
.................................................................................................................................................
by

............................................................................................................................................. [8]
ed
ng
rra
ea
dr
d an
ile
mp
Co

© UCLES 2008 9702/04/M/J/08

 2

2 (a) Explain the main principles behind the use of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic information For
about internal body structures. Examiner’s
Use

..........................................................................................................................................

a
aky
..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

Sh
..........................................................................................................................................

ra
..........................................................................................................................................

nd
..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

ha
.................................................................................................................................... [4]

tC
(b) Data for the acoustic impedances and absorption (attenuation) coefficients of muscle
and bone are given in Fig. 11.1.
aji
acoustic impedance absorption coefficient
yS
/ kg m–2 s–1 / m–1

muscle 1.7 × 106 23

db

bone 6.3 × 106 130

e

Fig. 11.1
ng

The intensity reflection coefficient is given by the expression

rra

(Z2 – Z1)2
.
(Z2 + Z1)2
rea

The attenuation of ultrasound in muscle follows a similar relation to the attenuation of

X-rays in matter.
nd

A parallel beam of ultrasound of intensity I enters the surface of a layer of muscle of

thickness 4.1 cm as shown in Fig. 11.2.
da

muscle bone
ile

beam of
ultrasound
mp

4.1 cm
Co

Fig. 11.2

© UCLES 2009 9702/04/M/J/09

 3

The ultrasound is reflected at a muscle-bone boundary and returns to the surface of the For
muscle. Examiner’s
Use

Calculate

a
aky
(i) the intensity reflection coefficient at the muscle-bone boundary,

Sh
ra
nd
ha
coefficient = ............................................... [2]

tC
(ii) the fraction of the incident intensity that is transmitted from the surface of the muscle
to the surface of the bone,
aji
yS
e db
ng

fraction = ............................................... [2]

rra

(iii) the intensity, in terms of I, that is received back at the surface of the muscle.
rea
nd
da
ile

intensity = ............................................ I [2]

mp
Co

© UCLES 2009 9702/04/M/J/09

 4 For
Examiner’s
Use
3 (a) State what is meant by acoustic impedance.

..........................................................................................................................................

a
......................................................................................................................................[1]

aky
(b) Explain why acoustic impedance is important when considering reflection of ultrasound
at the boundary between two media.

Sh
..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

ra
......................................................................................................................................[2]

nd
(c) Explain the principles behind the use of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic information

ha
about structures within the body.

..........................................................................................................................................

tC
..........................................................................................................................................
aji
..........................................................................................................................................
yS
..........................................................................................................................................
db

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
e
ng

..........................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................[5]
rra
rea
nd
da
ile
mp
Co

© UCLES 2007 9702/04/O/N/07

 5

4 (a) Distinguish between the images produced by CT scanning and X-ray imaging. For
Examiner’s
.......................................................................................................................................... Use

a
..........................................................................................................................................

aky
..........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [3]

Sh
(b) By reference to the principles of CT scanning, suggest why CT scanning could not be

dra
developed before powerful computers were available.

..........................................................................................................................................

an
..........................................................................................................................................

Ch
..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

jit
..........................................................................................................................................
Sa
..........................................................................................................................................
by

...................................................................................................................................... [5]
ed
ng
rra
ea
dr
d an
ile
mp
Co

© UCLES 2008 9702/04/O/N/08

 6

5 Outline briefly the main principles of the use of magnetic resonance to obtain diagnostic For
information about internal body structures. Examiner’s
Use

.................................................................................................................................................

a
aky
.................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................

Sh
.................................................................................................................................................

dra
.................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................

an
.................................................................................................................................................

Ch
.................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................

jit
.................................................................................................................................................
Sa
.................................................................................................................................................
by

........................................................................................................................................... [6]
ed
ng
rra
ea
dr
d an
ile
mp
Co

© UCLES 2009 9702/41/O/N/09

 7

6 (a) A typical spectrum of the X-ray radiation produced by electron bombardment of a metal For
target is illustrated in Fig. 10.1. Examiner’s
Use

a
intensity

aky
Sh
dra
0
wavelength

an
Fig. 10.1

Ch
Explain why

(i) a continuous spectrum of wavelengths is produced,

jit
Sa
..................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................
by

..................................................................................................................................
ed

............................................................................................................................ [3]
ng

(ii) the spectrum has a sharp cut-off at short wavelengths.

rra

..................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................ [1]
ea
dr
d an
ile
mp
Co

© UCLES 2009 9702/42/O/N/09

 8

(b) The variation with photon energy E of the linear absorption coefficient  of X-rays in soft For
tissue is illustrated in Fig. 10.2. Examiner’s
Use

a
300

aky
µ / cm–1

200

Sh
dra
100

an
0

Ch
10 30 50 70
E / keV

Fig. 10.2 jit

Sa
(i) Explain what is meant by linear absorption coefficient
by

..................................................................................................................................
ed

..................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................
ng

............................................................................................................................ [3]
rra

(ii) For one particular application of X-ray imaging, electrons in the X-ray tube are
accelerated through a potential difference of 50 kV.
ea

Use Fig. 10.2 to explain why it is advantageous to filter out low-energy photons
from the X-ray beam.
dr

..................................................................................................................................
an

..................................................................................................................................
d

..................................................................................................................................
ile

............................................................................................................................ [3]
mp
Co

© UCLES 2009 9702/42/O/N/09

7 Explain the main principles behind the generation of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic For
information about internal body structures. Examiner’s
Use

.................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................

ya
.................................................................................................................................................

ak
.................................................................................................................................................

Sh
.................................................................................................................................................

ra
.................................................................................................................................................

d
.................................................................................................................................................

an
.................................................................................................................................................

Ch
.................................................................................................................................................
jit
.................................................................................................................................................
Sa

.................................................................................................................................................
by

.................................................................................................................................................
ed

........................................................................................................................................... [6]
ng
r ra
r ea
nd
da
ile
mp
Co

© UCLES 2010 9702/43/M/J/10 [Turn over

8 (a) Briefly explain the principles of CT scanning. For
Examiner’s
.......................................................................................................................................... Use

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

ya
..........................................................................................................................................

ak
..........................................................................................................................................

Sh
..........................................................................................................................................

ra
..........................................................................................................................................

d
an
...................................................................................................................................... [6]

Ch
jit
Sa
by
ed
ng
r ra
r ea
nd
da
ile
mp
Co

© UCLES 2010 9702/41/M/J/10

 (b) A simple section through a body consists of four voxels, as illustrated in Fig. 10.1. For
Examiner’s
section Use

directions
of viewing

ya
ak
Sh
Fig. 10.1

ra
An X-ray image of the section is obtained by viewing along each of the directions shown
in Fig. 10.1.

d
The detector readings for each direction of viewing are summed to give the pattern of

an
readings shown in Fig. 10.2.

Ch
25 22
jit
34 31
Sa
by

Fig. 10.2
ed

For any one direction, the total of the detector readings is 16.
ng

(i) For the pattern of readings of Fig. 10.2, state the magnitude of the background
reading.
ra

background reading = ................................................ [1]

r
ea

(ii) On Fig. 10.1, mark the pattern of pixels for the four-voxel section. [2]
r
nd
da
ile
mp
Co

© UCLES 2010 9702/41/M/J/10 [Turn over

 20

10 (a) (i) State what is meant by the acoustic impedance of a medium. For
Examiner’s
.................................................................................................................................. Use

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) Data for some media are given in Fig. 10.1.

k ya
medium speed of ultrasound acoustic impedance
/ m s–1 / kg m–2 s–1

ha
air 330 4.3 × 102

aS
gel 1500 1.5 × 106
soft tissue 1600 1.6 × 106
7.0 × 106

dr
bone 4100

an
Fig. 10.1

Ch
Use data from Fig. 10.1 to calculate a value for the density of bone.

jit
Sa
by
ed
ng

density = .................................... kg m–3 [1]

rra

(b) A parallel beam of ultrasound has intensity I. It is incident at right-angles to a boundary

between two media, as shown in Fig. 10.2.
ea

boundary
dr

incident
intensity I
an

transmitted
intensity IT
d

reflected
le

intensity IR
pi

acoustic impedance Z1 acoustic impedance Z2

m

Fig. 10.2
Co

The media have acoustic impedances of Z1 and Z2. The transmitted intensity of the
ultrasound beam is IT and the reflected intensity is IR.

(i) State the relation between I, IT and IR.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

© UCLES 2010 9702/41/O/N/10

 21

(ii) The reflection coefficient a is given by the expression For

Examiner’s
Use
(Z2 – Z1)2
a= .
(Z2 + Z1)2

Use data from Fig. 10.1 to determine the reflection coefficient a for a boundary

ya
between

k
1. gel and soft tissue,

ha
aS
dr
an
Ch
jit
Sa a = .................................................. [2]

2. air and soft tissue.

by
ed
ng
rra
ea

a = .................................................. [1]
dr

(c) By reference to your answers in (b)(ii), explain the use of a gel on the surface of skin
during ultrasound diagnosis.
an

..........................................................................................................................................
d

..........................................................................................................................................
le

..........................................................................................................................................
pi

...................................................................................................................................... [3]
m
Co

© UCLES 2010 9702/41/O/N/10 [Turn over

 19

Section B For
Examiner’s
Answer all the questions in the spaces provided. Use

9 (a) (i) State, with reference to X-ray images, what is meant by sharpness.

ya
..................................................................................................................................

k
.............................................................................................................................. [1]

ha
(ii) Describe briefly two factors that affect the sharpness of an X-ray image.

aS
1. ...............................................................................................................................

dr
..................................................................................................................................

an
2. ...............................................................................................................................

Ch
..................................................................................................................................
[3]

jit
(b) An X-ray image is taken of the skull of a patient. Another patient has a CT scan of
Sa
his head.
By reference to the formation of the image in each case, suggest why the exposure to
radiation differs between the two imaging techniques.
by

..........................................................................................................................................
ed

..........................................................................................................................................
ng

..........................................................................................................................................
rra

..........................................................................................................................................
ea

...................................................................................................................................... [4]
dr
d an
le
m pi
Co

© UCLES 2010 9702/43/O/N/10 [Turn over

 22

11 The linear attenuation (absorption) coefficient µ for X-ray radiation in bone, fat and muscle is For
given in Fig. 11.1. Examiner’s
Use
µ / cm–1
bone 2.9
fat 0.90
muscle 0.95

ya
Fig. 11.1

k
ha
(a) A parallel X-ray beam of intensity I0 is incident either on some bone or on some
muscle.

aS
The emergent beam has intensity I.
I
Calculate the ratio for a thickness of

dr
I0

an
(i) 1.5 cm of bone,

Ch
jit
Sa
by
ed

ratio = ................................................ [2]

ng

(ii) 4.6 cm of muscle.

rra
ea
dr
d an
le

ratio = ................................................ [1]

pi

(b) Suggest why, on an X-ray plate, the contrast between bone and muscle is much greater
m

than that between fat and muscle.

Co

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [3]

© UCLES 2010 9702/43/O/N/10

 20

10 (a) State what is meant by the acoustic impedance Z of a medium. For

Examiner’s
.......................................................................................................................................... Use

...................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) Two media have acoustic impedances Z1 and Z2.

a
The intensity reflection coefficient α for the boundary between the two media is given

ky
by
(Z2 – Z1)2

ha
α= .
(Z2 + Z1)2

aS
Describe the effect on the transmission of ultrasound through a boundary where there is
a large difference between the acoustic impedances of the two media.

dr
..........................................................................................................................................

an
..........................................................................................................................................

Ch
..........................................................................................................................................

jit
...................................................................................................................................... [3]
Sa
(c) Data for the acoustic impedance Z and the absorption coefficient μ for fat and for muscle
are shown in Fig. 10.1.
by
ed

Z / kg m–2 s–1 μ / m–1

ng

fat 1.3 × 106 48

rra

muscle 1.7 × 106 23

a

Fig. 10.1
re

The thickness x of the layer of fat on an animal, as illustrated in Fig. 10.2, is to be

nd

investigated using ultrasound.

surface S
da

fat muscle
le

incident
pi

ultrasound
m
Co

Fig. 10.2

© UCLES 2011 9702/41/M/J/11

 21

The intensity of the parallel ultrasound beam entering the surface S of the layer of fat is I. For
The beam is reflected from the boundary between fat and muscle. Examiner’s
The intensity of the reflected ultrasound detected at the surface S of the fat is 0.012 I. Use

Calculate

(i) the intensity reflection coefficient at the boundary between the fat and the muscle,

a
ky
ha
aS
dr
an
coefficient = .................................................. [2]

Ch
(ii) the thickness x of the layer of fat.

jit
Sa
by
ed
ng

x = .......................................... cm [3]
a rra
re
nd
da
le
pi
m
Co

© UCLES 2011 9702/41/M/J/11 [Turn over

 22

10 Explain briefly the main principles of the use of magnetic resonance to obtain diagnostic For
information about internal body structures. Examiner’s
Use

.................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................

a
.................................................................................................................................................

ky
.................................................................................................................................................

ha
.................................................................................................................................................

aS
.................................................................................................................................................

dr
.................................................................................................................................................

an
.................................................................................................................................................

Ch
.................................................................................................................................................

jit
.................................................................................................................................................
Sa
........................................................................................................................................... [8]
by
ed
ng
a rra
re
nd
da
le
pi
m
Co

© UCLES 2011 9702/42/M/J/11