Download the full version of the ebook at ebookname.

com

Reliability Engineering Methods and Applications

1st Edition Mangey Ram (Editor)

https://ebookname.com/product/reliability-engineering-
methods-and-applications-1st-edition-mangey-ram-editor/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

Download more ebook instantly today at https://ebookname.com

Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

Power Distribution System Reliability Practical Methods

and Applications IEEE Press Series on Power Engineering
1st Edition Ali Chowdhury
https://ebookname.com/product/power-distribution-system-reliability-
practical-methods-and-applications-ieee-press-series-on-power-
engineering-1st-edition-ali-chowdhury/
ebookname.com

Mouse Genetics Methods and Protocols 1st Edition Shree Ram

Singh

https://ebookname.com/product/mouse-genetics-methods-and-
protocols-1st-edition-shree-ram-singh/

ebookname.com

Improving Product Reliability Strategies and

Implementation Quality and Reliability Engineering Series
1st Edition Mark Levin
https://ebookname.com/product/improving-product-reliability-
strategies-and-implementation-quality-and-reliability-engineering-
series-1st-edition-mark-levin/
ebookname.com

Taxation without Representation in Contemporary Rural

China Cambridge Modern China Series Thomas P. Bernstein

https://ebookname.com/product/taxation-without-representation-in-
contemporary-rural-china-cambridge-modern-china-series-thomas-p-
bernstein/
ebookname.com
The Grammar of Polarity Pragmatics Sensitivity and the
Logic of Scales 1st Edition Michael Israel

https://ebookname.com/product/the-grammar-of-polarity-pragmatics-
sensitivity-and-the-logic-of-scales-1st-edition-michael-israel/

ebookname.com

Biocidal Polymers 2nd Edition Chauhan N.P.S. (Ed.)

https://ebookname.com/product/biocidal-polymers-2nd-edition-chauhan-n-
p-s-ed/

ebookname.com

Precalculus Graphs and Models 2nd Edition Raymond A.

Barnett

https://ebookname.com/product/precalculus-graphs-and-models-2nd-
edition-raymond-a-barnett/

ebookname.com

Twenty Sixth Symposium on Biotechnology for Fuels and

Chemicals 1st Edition Hans-Joachim G. Jung

https://ebookname.com/product/twenty-sixth-symposium-on-biotechnology-
for-fuels-and-chemicals-1st-edition-hans-joachim-g-jung/

ebookname.com

12 Bones Smokehouse A Mountain BBQ Cookbook 1st Edition

Bryan King

https://ebookname.com/product/12-bones-smokehouse-a-mountain-bbq-
cookbook-1st-edition-bryan-king/

ebookname.com
Museums Media And Cultural Theory Issues in Cultural and
Media Studies Paperback 1st Edition Henning

https://ebookname.com/product/museums-media-and-cultural-theory-
issues-in-cultural-and-media-studies-paperback-1st-edition-henning/

ebookname.com
Reliability Engineering
Advanced Research in Reliability and System Assurance Engineering
Series Editor: Mangey Ram, Professor, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University),
Dehradun, India

Modeling and Simulation Based Analysis in Reliability Engineering

Edited by Mangey Ram

Reliability Engineering
Theory and Applications
Edited by Ilia Vonta and Mangey Ram

System Reliability Management

Solutions and Technologies
Edited by Adarsh Anand and Mangey Ram

Reliability Engineering
Methods and Applications
Edited by Mangey Ram

For more information about this series, please visit: https:// www.crcpress.com/
Reliability-Engineering-Theory-and-Applications/Vonta-Ram/p/book/9780815355175
Reliability Engineering
Methods and Applications

Edited by
Mangey Ram
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-59385-5 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize
to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material
has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, trans-
mitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereaf-
ter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.
com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood
Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and
registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the
CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Ram, Mangey, editor.

Title: Reliability engineering : methods and applications / edited by Mangey Ram.
Other titles: Reliability engineering (CRC Press : 2019)
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, 2018.
Series: Advanced research in reliability and system assurance engineering | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019023663 (print) | LCCN 2019023664 (ebook) | ISBN
9781138593855 (hardback) | ISBN 9780429488009 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Reliability (Engineering)
Classification: LCC TA169 .R439522 2019 (print) | LCC TA169 (ebook) | DDC
620/.00452--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019023663

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................vii
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................ix
Editor.........................................................................................................................xi
Contributors............................................................................................................ xiii

Chapter 1 Preventive Maintenance Modeling: State of the Art.............................1

Sylwia Werbińska-Wojciechowska

Chapter 2 Inspection Maintenance Modeling for Technical Systems:

An Overview....................................................................................... 41
Sylwia Werbińska-Wojciechowska

Chapter 3 Application of Stochastic Processes in Degradation Modeling:

An Overview....................................................................................... 79
Shah Limon, Ameneh Forouzandeh Shahraki,
and Om Prakash Yadav

Chapter 4 Building a Semi-automatic Design for Reliability Survey with

Semantic Pattern Recognition........................................................... 107
Christian Spreafico and Davide Russo

Chapter 5 Markov Chains and Stochastic Petri Nets for Availability and
Reliability Modeling......................................................................... 127
Paulo Romero Martins Maciel, Jamilson Ramalho Dantas,
and Rubens de Souza Matos Júnior

Chapter 6 An Overview of Fault Tree Analysis and Its Application in Dual

Purposed Cask Reliability in an Accident Scenario......................... 153
Maritza Rodriguez Gual, Rogerio Pimenta Morão, Luiz
Leite da Silva, Edson Ribeiro, Claudio Cunha Lopes,
and Vagner de Oliveira

Chapter 7 An Overview on Failure Rates in Maintenance Policies.................. 165

Xufeng Zhao and Toshio Nakagawa

v
vi Contents

Chapter 8 Accelerated Life Tests with Competing Failure Modes:

An Overview..................................................................................... 197
Kanchan Jain and Preeti Wanti Srivastava

Chapter 9 European Reliability Standards........................................................ 223

Miguel Angel Navas, Carlos Sancho, and Jose Carpio

Chapter 10 Time-Variant Reliability Analysis Methods for Dynamic

Structures.......................................................................................... 259
Zhonglai Wang and Shui Yu

Chapter 11 Latent Variable Models in Reliability............................................... 281

Laurent Bordes

Chapter 12 Expanded Failure Modes and Effects Analysis: A Different

Approach for System Reliability Assessment................................... 305
Perdomo Ojeda Manuel, Rivero Oliva Jesús, and Salomón
Llanes Jesús

Chapter 13 Reliability Assessment and Probabilistic Data Analysis of

Vehicle Components and Systems..................................................... 337
Zhigang Wei

Chapter 14 Maintenance Policy Analysis of a Marine Power Generating

Multi-state System............................................................................. 361
Thomas Markopoulos and Agapios N. Platis

Chapter 15 Vulnerability Discovery and Patch Modeling: State of the Art........ 401
Avinash K. Shrivastava, P. K. Kapur, and Misbah Anjum

Chapter 16 Signature Reliability Evaluations: An Overview of Different

Systems.............................................................................................. 421
Akshay Kumar, Mangey Ram, and S. B. Singh

Index....................................................................................................................... 439
Preface
The theory, methods, and applications of reliability analysis have been developed
significantly over the last 60 years and have been recognized in many publications.
Therefore, awareness about the importance of each reliability measure of the system
and its fields is very important to a reliability specialist.
This book Reliability Engineering: Methods and Applications is a collection of
different models, methods, and unique approaches to deal with the different techno-
logical aspects of reliability engineering. A deep study of the earlier approaches and
models has been done to bring out better and advanced system reliability techniques
for different phases of the working of the components. Scope for future develop-
ments and research has been suggested.
The main areas studied follow under different chapters:
Chapter 1 provides the review and analysis of preventive maintenance modeling
issues. The discussed preventive maintenance models are classified into two main
groups for one-unit and multi-unit systems.
Chapter 2 provides the literature review on the most commonly used optimal
inspection maintenance mode using appropriate inspection strategy analyzing the
complexity of the system whether single or multi-stage system etc. depending on the
requirements of quality, production, minimum costs, and reducing the frequency of
failures.
Chapter 3 presents the application of stochastic processes in degradation modeling
to assess product/system performances. Among the continuous stochastic processes,
the Wiener, Gamma, and inverse Gaussian processes are discussed and applied for
degradation modeling of engineering systems using accelerated degradation data.
Chapter 4 presents a novel approach for analysis of Failure Modes and Effect
Analysis (FMEA)-related documents through a semi-automatic procedure involving
semantic tools. The aim of this work is reducing the time of analysis and improving
the level of detail of the analysis through the introduction of an increased number of
considered features and relations among them.
Chapter 5 studies the reliability and availability modeling of a system through
Markov chains and stochastic Petri nets.
Chapter 6 talks about the fault tree analysis technique for the calculation of
reliability and risk measurement in the transportation of radioactive materials.
This study aims at reducing the risk of environmental contamination caused due to
human errors.
Chapter 7 surveys the failure rate functions of replacement times, random, and
periodic replacement models and their properties for an understanding of the com-
plex maintenance models theoretically.
Chapter 8 highlights the design of accelerated life tests with competing failure
modes which give rise to competing risk analysis. This design helps in the prediction
of the product reliability accurately, quickly, and economically.

vii
viii Preface

Chapter 9 presents an analysis, classification, and orientation of content to encour-

age researchers, organizations, and professionals to use IEC standards as applicable
procedures and/or as reference guides. These standards provide methods and math-
ematical metrics known worldwide.
Chapter 10 discusses the time-variant reliability analysis methods for real-life
dynamic structures under uncertainties and vibratory systems having high nonlinear
performance. These methods satisfy the accuracy requirements by considering the
time correlation.
Chapter 11 presents a few reliability or survival analysis models involving latent
variables. The latent variable model considers missing information, heterogeneity of
observations, measurement of errors, etc.
Chapter 12 highlights the failure mode and effects analysis technique that esti-
mates the system reliability when the components are dependent on each other and
there is common cause failure as in redundant systems using the logical algorithm.
Chapter 13 provides an overview of the current state-of-the-art reliability assess-
ment approaches, including testing and probabilistic data analysis approaches, for
vehicle components and systems, vehicle exhaust components, and systems. The new
concepts include a fatigue S-N curve transformation technique and a variable trans-
formation technique in a damage-cycle diagram.
Chapter 14 is an attempt to develop a semi-Markov model of a ship’s electric
power generation system and use multi-state systems theory to develop an alterna-
tive aspect of maintenance policy, indicating the importance of the human capital
management relating to its cost management optimization.
Chapter 15 discusses the quantitative models proposed in the software security
literature called vulnerability discovery model for predicting the total number of
vulnerabilities detected, identified, or discovered during the operational phase of
the software. This work also described the modeling framework of the vulnerability
discovery models and vulnerability patching models.
Chapter 16 discusses the signature and its factor such as mean time to failure,
expected cost, and Barlow-Proschan index with the help of the reliability function
and the universal generating function also using Owen’s method for a coherent sys-
tem, which has independent identically, distributed elements.
Throughout this book, engineers and academician gain great knowledge and help
in understanding reliability engineering and its overviews. This book gives a broad
overview on the past, current, and future trends of reliability methods and applica-
tions for the readers.

Mangey Ram
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), India
Acknowledgments
The Editor acknowledges CRC Press for this opportunity and professional sup-
port. My special thanks to Ms. Cindy Renee Carelli, Executive Editor, CRC Press/
Taylor & Francis Group for the excellent support she provided me to complete this
book. Thanks to Ms. Erin Harris, Editorial Assistant to Mrs. Cindy Renee Carelli,
for her follow up and aid. Also, I would like to thank all the chapter authors and
reviewers for their availability for this work.

Mangey Ram
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), India

ix
Editor
Dr. Mangey Ram received a PhD degree major in Mathematics and minor in
Computer Science from G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, India. He has been a Faculty Member for over 11 years and has taught
several core courses in pure and applied mathematics at undergraduate, postgradu-
ate, and doctorate levels. He is currently a Professor at Graphic Era (Deemed to be
University), Dehradun, India. Before joining Graphic Era, he was a Deputy Manager
(Probationary Officer) with Syndicate Bank for a short period. He is Editor-in-Chief
of International Journal of Mathematical, Engineering and Management Sciences
and the guest editor and member of the editorial board of various journals. He is
a regular reviewer for international journals, including IEEE, Elsevier, Springer,
Emerald, John Wiley, Taylor & Francis, and many other publishers. He has pub-
lished 150-plus research publications in IEEE, Taylor & Francis, Springer, Elsevier,
Emerald, World Scientific, and many other national and international journals of
repute and presented his works at national and international conferences. His fields
of research are reliability theory and applied mathematics. Dr. Ram is a Senior
Member of the IEEE, life member of Operational Research Society of India, Society
for Reliability Engineering, Quality and Operations Management in India, Indian
Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, member of International Association
of Engineers in Hong Kong, and Emerald Literati Network in the UK. He has been
a member of the organizing committee of a number of international and national
conferences, seminars, and workshops. He was conferred with the Young Scientist
Award by the Uttarakhand State Council for Science and Technology, Dehradun,
in 2009. He was awarded the Best Faculty Award in 2011; the Research Excellence
Award in 2015; and the Outstanding Researcher Award in 2018 for his significant
contribution in academics and research at Graphic Era (Deemed to be University)
in, Dehradun, India.

xi
Contributors
Misbah Anjum Kanchan Jain
Amity Institute of Information Department of Statistics
Technology Panjab University
Amity University Chandigarh, India
Noida, India
Rivero Oliva Jesús
Laurent Bordes Departamento de Engenharia Nuclear
Laboratory of Mathematics and its Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Applications—IPRA, UMR 5142 (UFRJ)
University of Pau and Pays Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Adour—CNRS—E2S UPPA
Pau, France Salomón Llanes Jesús
GAMMA SA
Jose Carpio La Habana, Cuba
Department of Electrical, Electronic
and Control Engineering P. K. Kapur
Spanish National Distance Education Amity Centre for Interdisciplinary
University Research
Madrid, Spain Amity University
Noida, India
Jamilson Ramalho Dantas
Departamento de Ciência da Akshay Kumar
Computação Centro de Informática Department of Mathematics
da UFPE—CIN Recife Graphic Era Hill University
Pernambuco, Brasil Dehradun, India
and
Shah Limon
Departamento de Ciência da Industrial & Manufacturing
Computação Universidade Federal Engineering
do Vale do São Francisco— North Dakota State University
UNIVASF Campus Salgueiro Fargo, North Dakota
Salgueiro, Pernambuco, Brasil
Claudio Cunha Lopes
Maritza Rodriguez Gual Department of Reactor Technology
Department of Reactor Technology Service ( SETRE)
Service (SETRE) Centro de Desenvolvimento da
Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN
Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Belo Horizonte, Brazil

xiii
xiv Contributors

Paulo Romero Martins Maciel Vagner de Oliveira

Departamento de Ciência da Department of Reactor Technology
Computação Centro de Informática Service (SETRE)
da UFPE—CIN Recife Centro de Desenvolvimento da
Pernambuco, Brasil Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Perdomo Ojeda Manuel
Instituto Superior de Tecnologías y Agapios N. Platis
Ciencias Aplicadas Department of Financial and
Universidad de La Habana (UH) Management Engineering
La Habana, Cuba University of the Aegean
Chios, Greece
Thomas Markopoulos
Department of Financial and Mangey Ram
Management Engineering Department of Mathematics; Computer
University of the Aegean Science & Engineering
Chios, Greece Graphic Era (Deemed to be University)
Dehradun, India
Rubens de Souza Matos Júnior
Coordenadoria de Informática Instituto Edson Ribeiro
Federal de Educação, Ciência e Centro de Desenvolvimento da
Tecnologia de Sergipe, IFS Lagarto Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN
Sergipe, Brasil Belo Horizonte, Brazil

Rogerio Pimenta Morão Davide Russo

Department of Reactor Technology Department of Management,
Service (SETRE) Information and Production
Centro de Desenvolvimento da Engineering
Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN University of Bergamo
Belo Horizonte, Brazil Bergamo, Italy

Toshio Nakagawa Carlos Sancho

Department of Business Administration Department of Electrical, Electronic
Aichi Institute of Technology and Control Engineering
Toyota, Japan Spanish National Distance Education
University
Miguel Angel Navas Madrid, Spain
Department of Electrical, Electronic
and Control Engineering Ameneh Forouzandeh Shahraki
Spanish National Distance Education Civil & Industrial Engineering
University North Dakota State University
Madrid, Spain Fargo, North Dakota
Contributors xv

Avinash K. Shrivastava Zhigang Wei

Department: QT, IT and Operations Tenneco Inc.
International Management Institute Grass Lake, Michigan
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Sylwia Werbin′ska-Wojciechowska
Luiz Leite da Silva Department of Operation and
Department of Reactor Technology Maintenance of Logistic,
Service (SETRE) Transportation and Hydraulic
Centro de Desenvolvimento da Systems Faculty of Mechanical
Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN Engineering
Belo Horizonte, Brazil Wroclaw University of Science and
Technology
S. B. Singh Wrocław, Poland
Department of Mathematics,
Statistics & Computer Science Om Prakash Yadav
G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Civil & Industrial Engineering
Technology North Dakota State University
Pantnagar, India Fargo, North Dakota

Christian Spreafico Shui Yu

Department of Management, School of Mechanical and Electrical
Information and Production Engineering
Engineering University of Electronic Science and
University of Bergamo Technology of China
Dalmine, Italy Chengdu, China

Preeti Wanti Srivastava Xufeng Zhao

Department of Operational Research College of Economics and Management
University of Delhi Nanjing University of Aeronautics and
New Delhi, India Astronautics
Nanjing, China
Zhonglai Wang
School of Mechanical and Electrical
Engineering
University of Electronic Science and
Technology of China
Chengdu, China
 1 Preventive Maintenance
Modeling
State of the Art
Sylwia Werbińska-Wojciechowska

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................1
1.2 Preventive Maintenance Modeling for Single-Unit Systems.............................3
1.3 Preventive Maintenance Modeling for Multi-unit Systems............................. 14
1.4 Conclusions and Directions for Further Research...........................................24
References.................................................................................................................26

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Preventive maintenance (PM) is an important part of facilities management in many
of today’s companies. The goal of a successful PM program is to establish consistent
practices designed to improve the performance and safety of the operated equip-
ment. Recently, this type of maintenance strategy is applied widely in many techni-
cal systems such as production, transport, or critical infrastructure systems.
Many studies have been devoted to PM modeling since the 1960s. One of the first
surveys of maintenance policies for stochastically failing equipment—where PM
models are under investigation—is given in [1]. In this work, the author investigated
PM for known and uncertain distributions of time to failure. Pierskalla and Voelker [2]
prepared another excellent survey of maintenance models for proper scheduling and
optimizing maintenance actions, which Valdez-Flores and Feldman [3] updated later.
Other valuable surveys summarize the research and practice in this area in different
ways (e.g., [4–18]. In turn, the comparison between time-based maintenance and
condition-based maintenance is the authors’ area of interest, e.g., in works [19,20]).
In this chapter, the author focuses on the review and summary of recent PM
policies developed and presented in the literature. The adopted main maintenance
models classification is based on developments given in [15–18]. The models classi-
fication includes two main groups of maintenance strategies—single- and multi-unit
systems. The main scheme for classification of PM models for technical system is
presented in Figure 1.1.

1
2 Reliability Engineering

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE (PM) FOR TECHNICAL SYSTEMS

PM FOR SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS PM FOR MULTI-UNIT SYSTEMS

Age-based PM policies Sequential PM policies BASIC MODELS FOR HYBRID PM MODELS

SYSTEMS WITHOUT
COMPONENTS * inspection maintenance modeling
DEPENDENCE * spare parts provisioning policy
Periodic PM policies Failure limit policies
* dynamic reliability maintenance
Extended PM models for
single-unit systems
Repair limit policies

BASIC MODELS FOR SYSTEMS

WITH COMPONENTS
Repair cost limit policies Repair time limit policies
DEPENDENCE

* group maintenance policy

* opportunistic maintenance policy
* cannibalization maintenance

FIGURE 1.1 The classification for preventive maintenance models for technical system.
(Own contribution based on Wang, H., European Journal of Operational Research, 139,
469–489, 2002; Werbińska-Wojciechowska, S., Technical System Maintenance, Delay-time-
based modeling, Springer, London, UK, 2019; Werbińska-Wojciechowska, S., Multicomponent
technical systems maintenance models: State of art (in Polish), in Siergiejczyk, M. (ed.),
Technical Systems Maintenance Problems: Monograph (in Polish), Publication House of
Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland, pp. 25–57, 2014.)

Many well-known research papers focus on PM models dedicated for optimi-

zation of single-unit systems performance. The well-known maintenance models
for single-unit systems are age-dependent PM and periodic PM models. In these
areas, the most frequently used replacement models are based on age replacement
and block replacement policies. The basic references in this area are [3,15,22,23].
The maintenance policies comparison is presented, e.g., in works [24–29].
According to Cho and Parlar [4], “multi component maintenance models are con-
cerned with optimal maintenance policies for a system consisting of several units
of machines or many pieces of equipment, which may or may not depend on each
other.” In 1986, Thomas, in his work [30], presents classification of optimal mainte-
nance strategies for multi-unit systems. He focuses on the models that are based on
one of three types of dependence that occurs between system elements—economic,
failure, and structural. According to the author, economic dependence implies that
an opportunity for a group replacement of several components costs less than sepa-
rate replacements of the individual components. Stochastic dependence, also called
failure or probabilistic dependence, occurs if the condition of components influences
the lifetime distribution of other components. Structural dependence means that com-
ponents structurally form a part, so that maintenance of a failed component implies
maintenance of working components. These definitions are adopted in this chapter.
Literature reviews are given, e.g., in works [5,31–33] that are compatible with
research findings given in [30]. More comprehensive discussion in maintenance from
an application point of view can be found in [34,35]. For other recent references, see,
e.g., [8,18,23]. A detailed review of the most commonly used PM policies for single-
and multi-unit systems is presented in subchapters 1.2 and 1.3.
Preventive Maintenance Modeling 3

1.2 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE MODELING

FOR SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS
First, the PM models for single-unit systems are investigated. Here a unit may be
perceived as a component, an assembly, a subsystem, or even the whole system
(treated as a complex system). The main classification for maintenance models of
such systems is given in Figure 1.2. The comparisons concerning different PM
policies are given in works [22,24,25,28,29,36–38].
One of the most commonly used PM policies for single-unit systems is an age
replacement policy (ARP) that was developed in the early 1960s [39]. Under this
policy, a unit is always replaced at its age T or at failure, whichever occurs first [40].
The issues of ARP modeling have been extensively studied in the literature since
the 1990s. The main extensions that are developed for this maintenance policy apply
to minimal repair, imperfect maintenance performance, shock modeling, or inspec-
tion action implementation. Following this, in the known maintenance models, the
PM at T and corrective maintenance (CM) at failure might be either minimal, imper-
fect, or perfect. The main optimization criteria are based on maintenance cost struc-
ture. Therefore, in the case of the simple ARP, the expected cost per unit of time for
an infinite time span is given as [39,41]:

cr F (T ) + c p F (T )
C (T ) = T (1.1)

∫ F (t )dt
0

where:
C(T) is the long-run expected cost per unit time
cp is the cost of preventive replacement of a unit
cr is the cost of failed unit replacement
F(t) is the probability distribution function of system/unit lifetime: F (t ) = 1 − F (t )

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE (PM) FOR SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS

ARP MODELS FOR BRP MODELS FOR SEQUENTIAL PM MODELS LIMIT PM MODELS FOR
SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS FOR SINGLE-UNIT SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS
*minimal repair implementation *minimal repair implementation
*perfect/imperfect repair *perfect/imperfect repair *minimal repair implementation
*shock modelling *shock modeling *finite/infinite time horizon
*cost/availability/reliability *cost/availability constraints *hybrid models
constraints *inspection policy
*inspection policy *finite/infinite time horizon
*new/used unit maintenance
modeling
*negligible/non-negligible downtime LIMIT PM MODELS FOR LIMIT PM MODELS FOR
SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS

*perfect/imperfect repair
*finite/infinite time horizon
*dynamic reliability models
*mixed PM models

REPAIR-TIME LIMIT REPAIR-COST LIMIT

POLICY POLICY

*finite/infinite time horizon *perfect/imperfect maintenance

*different modeling approaches *inspection performance
*mixed PM models *mixed PM models

FIGURE 1.2 The classification for PM models for single-unit systems.

4 Reliability Engineering

The first investigated group of ARP models apply to minimal repair implementa-
tion. Minimal repair is defined herein as “the repair that put the failed item back
into operation with no significant effect on its remaining life time” [39]. A simple
ARP model with minimal repair is given in [42], where the author investigates a
one-unit system that is replaced at first failure after age T. All failures that happen
before the age T are minimally repaired. The model is based on the optimization of
the mean cost rate function. The extension of this model is given in [43,44], where
the authors develop the ARP with minimal repair and general random repair cost.
The continuation of this research also is given in [45], where the author introduces
the model for determining the optimal number of minimal repairs before replace-
ment. The main assumptions are compatible with [43,44] and incorporate minimal
repair, replacement, and general random repair cost.
A similar problem is analyzed later in [46], where the authors investigate PM with
Bayesian imperfect repair. In the given PM model, the failure that occurred (for the
unit age Ty < T) can be either minimally repaired or perfectly repaired with random
probabilities. The expected cost per unit time is investigated for the infinite-horizon
case and the one-replacement-cycle case.
The implementation of Bayesian approach for determining optimal replacement
strategy also is given in [47]. In this paper, the authors present a fully Bayesian anal-
ysis of the optimal replacement problem for the block replacement protocol with
minimal repair and the simple age replacement protocol. The optimal replacement
strategies are obtained by maximizing the expected utility with uncertainty analysis.
The ARP with minimal repair usually is investigated with the use of mainte-
nance costs constraints for optimization performance. However, a few PM models
are developed based on availability optimization. For example, in [48] the authors
investigate the steady-state availability of imperfect repair model for repairable two-
state items. The authors use the renewal theory for providing analytical solutions for
single and multi-component systems.
In another work [49], the author introduces an ARP with non-negligible down-
times. In this work, the author develops the sufficient conditions for the ARP in the
aspect of the existence of a global minimum to the asymptotic expected cost rate.
The introduction of periodic testing or inspections in ARP performance is given
in [50]. The author in this work introduces an ARP for components whose failures can
occur randomly but are detected only by periodic testing or inspections. The devel-
oped model includes finite repair and maintenance times and cost contributions due
to inspection (or testing), repair, maintenance, and loss of production (or accidents).
The analytical solution encompasses general cost rate and unavailability equations.
The continuation of inspection maintenance and PM optimization problems is given
in [51], where the authors focus on the issues of random failure and replacement time
implementation.
In [52], the authors introduce replacement policies for a unit that is running suc-
cessive works with cycle times. In the paper, three replacement policies are defined
that are scheduled at continuous and discrete times:

• Continuous age replacement: The unit is replaced before failure at a

planned time T
Preventive Maintenance Modeling 5

• Discrete age replacement: The unit is replaced before failure at completion

of the Nwcth working cycle
• Age replacement with overtime: The unit is replaced before failure at the
first completion of some working cycle over the planned time T

Analytical equations of the expected cost rate with numerical solutions are provided.
The authors also present the comparison of given replacement policies.
Another extension of ARP modeling is given in [53], where the authors investigate
the problem of PM uncertainty by assuming that the quality of PM actions is a random
variable with a defined probability distribution. Following this, the authors analyze an
age reduction PM model and a failure rate PM model. Under the age reduction PM
model, it is assumed that each PM reduces operational stress to the existing time units
previous to the PM intervention, where the restoration interval is less than or equal to
the PM interval. The optimization criteria also is based on maintenance cost structure.
The issues of warranty policy are investigated in [54]. The author in this work
investigates a general age-replacement model that incorporates minimal repair,
planned replacement, and unplanned replacement for a product under a renewing
free-­replacement warranty policy. The main assumptions of the ARP are compatible
with [43,44]. The authors assume that all the product failures that cause minimal repair
can be detected instantly and repaired instantaneously by a user. Thus, it is assumed
in this study that the user of the product should be responsible for all minimal repairs
before and after the warranty expires. Following this, for the product with an increas-
ing failure rate function, the authors show that a unique optimal replacement age exists
such that the long-run expected cost rate is minimized. The authors also compare
­analytically the optimal replacement ages for products with and without warranty.
The warranty policy problem is analyzed in [55], where the authors propose
an age-dependent failure-repair model to analyze the warranty costs of products.
In this paper, the authors consider four typical warranty policies (fixed warranty,
renewing warranty, mixture of minimal and age-reducing repairs, and partial rebate
warranty).
The last group of ARP models applies to PM strategies based on the implementa-
tion of shock models. The simple age-based policy with shock model is presented
in [56]. In this work, the authors introduce the three main cumulative damage m ­ odels:
(1) a unit that is subjected to shocks and suffers some damage due to shocks, (2) the
model includes periodic inspections, and (3) the model assumes that the amount of
damage increases linearly with time. For the defined shock models, optimal replace-
ment policies are derived for the expected cost rate minimization.
The extension of the given models is presented in [57], where the authors study
the mean residual life of a technical object as a measure used in the age replacement
model assessment. The analytical solution is supplied with a new U-statistic test pro-
cedure for testing the hypothesis that the life is exponentially distributed against the
alternative that the life distribution has a renewal-increasing mean residual property.
Another development of general replacement models of systems subject to shocks
is presented in [58], where the authors introduce the fatal and nonfatal shocks occur-
rence. The fatal shock causes the system total breakdown and the system is replaced,
whereas the nonfatal shock weakens the system and makes it more expensive to run.
6 Reliability Engineering

Following this, the authors focus on finding the optimal T that minimizes the long-
run expected cost per unit time.
Another extension of the ARP with shock models is to introduce the minimal repair
performance. Following this, in [59] the authors extend the generalized replacement
policy given in [58] by introducing minimal repair of minor failures. Moreover, in the
given PM model, the cost of minimal repair of the system is age dependent.
Later, in [60], the authors introduce an extended ARP policy with minimal repairs
and a cumulative damage model implementation. Under the developed maintenance
policy, the fatal shocks are removed by minimal repairs and the minor shocks increase
the system failure rate by a certain amount. Without external shocks, the failure rate
of the system also increases with age due to the aging process. The optimality criteria
also are focused on the long-run expected cost per unit time. This model is extended
later in [61], where the authors consider the ARP with minimal repair for an extended
cumulative damage model with maintenance at each shock. According to the devel-
oped PM policy, when the total damage does not exceed a predetermined failure level,
the system undergoes maintenance at each shock. When the total damage has reached
a given failure level, the system fails and undergoes minimal repair at each failure.
The system is replaced at periodic times T or at Nth failure, whichever occurs first.
To sum up, many authors usually discuss ARPs of single-unit systems analyti-
cally. The main models that address this maintenance strategy also should be sup-
plemented by works that investigate the problem of ARP modeling with the use of
semi-Markov processes (see, e.g., [62,63]), TTT-plotting (see, e.g., [64]), heuristic
models (see, e.g., [65]), or approximate methods implementation (see, e.g., [66]).
The authors in [67] introduce the new stochastic order for ARP based on the com-
parison of the Laplace transform of the time to failure for two different lifetime
distributions. The comparison of ARP models for a finite horizon case based on a
renewal process application and a negative exponential and Weibull failure-time dis-
tribution is presented in [68]. The additional interesting problems in ARP modeling
may be connected with spare provisioning policy implementation (see, e.g., [69]) or
multi-state systems investigation (see, e.g., [62,70,71]).
The quick overview of the given ARPs is presented in Table 1.1.
Another popular PM policy for single-unit systems is block replacement policy
(BRP). For the given maintenance policy, it is assumed that all units in a system are
replaced at periodic intervals regardless of their individual age in kT time moments,
where k = 1, 2, 3, and so on. The maintenance problem usually is aimed at finding
the optimal cycle length T either to minimize total maintenance and operational
costs or to maximize system availability. The simple BRP, when the maintenance
times are negligible, is based on the optimization of the expected long-run mainte-
nance cost per unit time as a function of T, given as [72]:

cr N (T ) + c p
C (T ) = (1.2)
T

where:
N(t) is the expected number of failure/renewals for time interval (0,t)
TABLE 1.1
Summary of PM Policies for Single-Unit Systems
Type of Maintenance Policy Planning Horizon Optimality Criterion Modeling Method Typical References
ARP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per time unit Bayesian approach [47]
ARP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per unit time, Analytical [38]
availability function
ARP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per time unit Analytical [39,40–42,44,53,54,​
60,118]
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected cost rate Analytical [45,49,51,​56,59,61,​
66,119]
Preventive Maintenance Modeling

ARP Infinite (∞) The mean cost rate Analytical [120]

ARP Infinite (∞) The total cost rate, the expected Analytical [50]
unavailability
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected replacement cost rate Analytical [52]
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected warranty cost Analytical [55]
ARP Infinite (∞) The steady-state availability function Analytical [48]
ARP Infinite (∞) The survival function Analytical [121]
ARP Infinite (∞) The mean time to failure Analytical (Laplace [67]
transform)
ARP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per unit time, Multi-attribute value model [122]
availability, lifetime, and reliability
functions
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected long-run cost rate Heuristic model [65]
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected long-run cost rate Semi-Markov decision [63]
process
(Continued)
7
 8

TABLE 1.1 (Continued)

Summary of PM Policies for Single-Unit Systems
Type of Maintenance Policy Planning Horizon Optimality Criterion Modeling Method Typical References
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected long-run cost rate Semi-Markov process [62]
ARP Infinite (∞) The long-run average cost per unit time Proportional hazard model [64]
and TTT-plotting
ARP Infinite (∞) The total system costs Simulation model [69]
ARP Infinite (∞) State-age-dependent policy Multi-phase Markovian model [71]
ARP Infinite (∞) Mean residual life Analytical/simulation [57]
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected cost of operating the system Analytical [123]
over a time interval
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected long-run cost per unit time, Analytical [78]
the total discounted cost
ARP Infinite (∞)/finite The expected cost rate per unit time Analytical [46]
ARP Infinite (∞)/finite The long-run expected cost per unit time Analytical [43,58,124]
ARP Finite Expected cumulative cost Analytical [68]
ARP Finite Customer’s expected discounted Continuous-time Markov [70]
maintenance cost process
BRP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per time unit Analytical [72,74–80,83,​
125–127]
BRP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per time unit Analytical/semi-Markov [81]
processes
BRP Finite The long-run expected cost per time unit Analytical [7]
(Continued)
Reliability Engineering
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute
this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the
Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if
you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project
Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or
other format used in the official version posted on the official
Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at
no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a
means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project
Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™
works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or

providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project

Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different
terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain
permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3
below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on,
transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright
law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite
these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the
medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,”
such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt
data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other
medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES -

Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in
paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic
work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for
damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU
AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE,
STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH
OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER
THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR
ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE
OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If

you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of
receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you
paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you
received the work from. If you received the work on a physical
medium, you must return the medium with your written
explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the
defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu
of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or
entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.
If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund
in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set

forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’,
WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR
ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this
agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this
agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the
maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable
state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of
this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the

Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless
from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that
arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project
Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or
deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect
you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new
computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of
volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project
Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™
collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In
2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was
created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project
Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your
efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the
Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-
profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the
laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by
the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal
tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax
deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and
your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500

West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact
links and up to date contact information can be found at the
Foundation’s website and official page at
www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission
of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works
that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form
accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated
equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly
important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws

regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of
the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform
and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many
fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not
solicit donations in locations where we have not received written
confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or
determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states

where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know
of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from
donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot

make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations
received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp
our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current

donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a
number of other ways including checks, online payments and
credit card donations. To donate, please visit:
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could
be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose
network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several

printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by
copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus,
we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any
particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new
eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear
about new eBooks.