CURRICULUM INNOVATION, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION

(Course Guide)

EDUC 404

Abdullahi Aliyu Dada

Department of Educational Foundations and Curriculum
Faculty of Education
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

EDUC4040
Introduction

The course ‘curriculum innovation, implementation and evaluation’ intends to introduce students
to the rudiments of curriculum renewal, delivery and evaluation as a core discipline in the
teacher education process. The course is expected to expose students to important aspects of the
teaching and learning process, which in the end would enable them appreciate what it take to be
a teacher.The course is intended to engender healthy discourse and interaction among students
preparatory to taking up teaching as a profession. .
It is important to note that learning this course is to be based on the active participation of the
students, learning in groups and exchanging ideas. Students would be required to exhibit interest
in learning and appreciation of key issues relating to the curriculum process.
0bjcctives
By the end of the course students would be able to:
a) Explain what is meant by curriculum innovation;
b) Identify the different types ofand how to undertake the curriculum innovation;
c) Describe the process of curriculum implementation;
d) Identify and analyse the curriculum evaluation process

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Curriculum Innovation

Innovation means doing things in new ways, and in curriculum, it means adopting different

designs for learning to help make learning more meaningful for 21st-century learners. Some

practices in education have become outmoded, and learning experiences should be redesigned to

be more relevant to student interests, abilities, and cultures. The notion curriculum innovation is

frequently referred to as being curriculum change or curriculum reform. To define innovation is

important to consider its overlapping meaning with the notion change. Therefore, it is necessary

to present the definitions of these three notions prior to factors which have influenced the

curriculum innovation. According to Fullan (1991a), innovation is not always synonymous with

change and reform, as it refers to specific curricular change. Innovations can range from single

subject changes, for example, a new reading programme, to more comprehensive changes, such

as an integrated approach to teaching children of a certain age level. This implies that innovation

has unique qualities such as novelty or deliberateness. In a similar way (Halpin, Dickson, Power,

Whitty&Gewritz, 2004), curriculum innovation refers to initiatives that are perceived to be new

by those who introduce and experience them.

Fullan (1991a) defines curriculum change as any alteration in the aspects of a curriculum such as

philosophy, values, objectives, organizational structures, materials, teaching strategies, student

experiences, assessment and learning outcomes The concept “reform” also relates to a particular

change, but it is usually concerned with more comprehensive and fundamental curriculum 39

innovations. A reform involves the restructuring of the school system, wholesale revision of the

curriculum and the like. It is based on major values changes or redirections and is often initiated

in the political system. My own view of innovation is influenced by the definitions discussed

above. It is the ideas of novel mentioned above useful, in the sense that the discourses of

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innovation discussed below are contextually considered to be new (Wangeleja, 2003). In

addition, it can also be argued that a new curriculum is an expression of new intentions (Wallin,

1981). However, the distinction between innovation and change seems to be a continuous topic

of discussion among researchers. According to Shkedi (2006), the introduction of a new

curriculum into teachers’ colleges implies a process of innovation and change. If we accept this

assertion, it means that innovation is a carrier of change. Educators may alter their daily

classroom organisation, their relationships with student teachers, and even their vision of

themselves as teacher educators (Huberman& Miles, 1984). However, it is only through a

modification of pedagogical values that innovation can be said to involve fundamental change.

For instance, teacher educators can use new materials and adopt new approaches with little or no

understanding of why they are using these new materials and approaches, which can hardly

count as fundamental alteration of behaviour (Markee, 2000). From this point of view, Harris

(2002) adds that some innovations can actually be counter-productive to improvement or are so

complex that they prove impossible to implement. Furthermore, Harris maintains that superficial

innovation can also be distraction and cannot lead to deeper change later. In the same way,

McGinn (1998) agrees that not all innovations are good, but once actors have defined a problem

it is necessary to take steps towards it resolution.

The purpose of the innovation is therefore to generate a number of possible solutions that that

can be tested in reality. Marsh (2009) reminds us that early studies in the curriculum literature

tended to view innovation as object or event similar to a new item of machinery for farmers or a

new apothecary line. Marsh further insists that more emphasis in now placed upon innovation as

a 40 process. From these perspectives, the notion innovation will be defined as proposals for

qualitative change in the curriculum that are perceived as new by teacher educators (cf. Markee,

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2000). Furthermore, this definition is suitable for all levels of innovative features such as

teaching materials, teaching approaches and values. In addition, Fullan (2008) stresses that when

innovation is the focal point, there is a need to look at the nature of the change, evidence that it is

being put into practice, the determinants of successful implementation, educators’ change,

students’ learning and achievement. We can now look at the impetus of innovation.

As Fullan (2000) points out, innovation does and will always originate from a variety of different

sources and combination of sources. For example, the proposed change may emerge from a

problem within the school, research, charismatic leaders or individuals and external agencies.

Wangeleja (2003), for example, identified sources of innovation such as research findings, and

recommendations from various annual meetings of heads of schools and principals of teachers’

colleges.

Katunzi (2000) adds fundamental changes made in primary and secondary school curriculum as

another source. The changes have a consequence on the organisation of the teacher education

curriculum because of the correspondence which exists with schools (Maandag, Deinum,

Hofman&Buitink, 2007). An additional challenge is that with a more diverse population of

students who have a broad range of abilities, innovations must be linked to curriculum goals as

well as being challenging and differentiated to provide for an array of learning experiences.

It is clear that student teachers are educated for a certain concrete school practice. Therefore, it is

important that they are made familiar with the school curriculum (Kansanen, 1987). From this

point of view, in many countries with a mandated national curriculum for schools, there is a

tendency to include all the components which make up the school curriculum in teacher

education programmes (Clark, 2005). The problem is that educational change focused on schools

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often proceeds in advance of changes in the teacher education curriculum (Lewin& Stuart,

2003).

Cheng (1996) relates the initiation of innovation with three approaches: A simplistic curriculum

innovation approach, Component development approach and Dynamic curriculum innovation

approach.

In the first approach, change is planned by administrators or external experts, in the second it is

imposed by administrators or external experts, while in the third teachers participate in planning

change. The dynamic approach is regarded as more powerful in conceptualising curriculum

innovation because it focuses on the teachers’ active role, their involvement and commitment to

curriculum planning and their own professional development. Onwu and Mogari (2004)

underline that teacher educators’ participation in planning curriculum innovation contributes to a

successful outcome. This innovation can be named as a simplistic approach because educators

were not actively involved in the process of planning and developing the curriculum.

The simplistic approach can also be described as top-down innovation and it has consequences

for the educators’ ownership. The issue of ownership of innovation is worthy of consideration

because it is a significant factor in educators’ responses to curriculum innovation (Carter, 1998).

Educators own change when they feel they have some control over the situation (Ruddluck,

1988), and in order to feel a sense of control they have to recognise what it is in college,

classrooms and in themselves that makes change difficult to accomplish.

They also have to understand, at the level of principle, what they are trying to achieve, why they

are trying to achieve it, and how any new possibilities might match the logic of their analysis of

the need for change. The term 1understanding in this context refers to having an adequate sense

of how the curriculum works for the purpose of making practical decisions about how to proceed

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(Allwright cited in Lamie, 2004). Ownership in the change process is described in the following

terms.

The role of ownership is subtlety in the change process. Clearly, shared ownership of something

new on the part of large numbers of people is tantamount to real change but the real fact is that

ownership is not acquired that easily. And when people are apparently in favour of a particular

change, they may not “own it” in the sense of understanding it and being skilled at it; that is, they

may not know what they are doing. Ownership in the sense of clarity, commitment is a

progressive process. True ownership is not something that occurs magically at the beginning, but

is something that comes out the other end of a successful change process (Fullan, 2001, 92).

Furthermore, Ruddluck (1988) points out that ownership of change is associated with the so-

called bottom-up initiative after the top-down models of the 60s and 70s. Morris (1985) shows

that there is always a gap between the large-scale top-down curriculum development initiative at

the central level and the implementation outcomes at the grassroots of the school system.

Similarly,Marsh (1997) argues that top-down changes can cause confusion andstress and may

lead to the rejection of new policies. Fullan (1982), for instance,points out that in the initial

stages of imposed changes educators are often moreconcerned with how change will affect them

personally than about itseducational justification. Furthermore, Sikes (1996) discloses that

educators seetheir role in different ways; for instance, some see their chief purpose is

gettingstudent teachers through the examination, some see themselves as transmitters

ofparticular knowledge or skills and yet others have instrumental orientation inseeing teaching

primarily as a means of salary earning. As a result, there is aneed for teacher educators to be

involved in the process of curriculum innovation.

Models of Curriculum Innovation

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Various scholars have proposed different models of innovation. For instance, Ronald Havelock

(1969) identified three main models of innovation:

 Research, Development, and Diffusion (RD&D) model

 Social Interaction (SI) model

 Problem-Solving (PS) model

The Research, Development and Diffusion (RD&D) Model

In this model, an idea or practice is conceived at the central planning unit and then fed into the

system. RD&D is effective where curriculum development is done on a large scale and ideas

have to reach wide geographical areas and isolated users. It is a highly organized, rational

approach to innovation. Following is a logical sequence of activities in using the RD&D model:

 basic research by a central project team which develops a new curriculum devises and

designs prototyped materials,

 field trials of the prototyped materials and redesign them where necessary,

 mass production of the modified prototyped materials,

 mass dissemination or diffusion of the innovation through courses, conferences, and

workshops, and

 implementation of the innovation by the users (school, teachers, and pupils).

The model can be summarized as follows:

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Figure 2 – Research, Development and Diffusion Model

This model is used in areas that have centralized systems of education, such as universities or

departments of education.

The Social Interaction (SI) Model

The model grew out of the progressive education movement in the 1930s when it split into two

camps: one that focused on the individual student as a learner and the other on society as an

education laboratory (Ellis, 2004). This view sees students as capable of reforming society with

support from leadership to provide a curriculum that may become “a classroom without walls”

and a community where students and teachers can ultimately change the world (Ellis, 2004).

This model operates through social interaction and emphasizes communication. It stresses the

importance of interpersonal networks of information, opinion of leadership, personal contacts,

and social integration. The model also has its roots in the notion of democratic communities

“helping students to be as well as to become.” (Sergiovanni, 1994).

The SI model also stresses the relationship of the individual to other people and society, and the

instructional methods used by teachers in the classroom to facilitate group work. The model is

student-centered, and students are encouraged to interact with each other in a structured setting.

When implementing this strategy, students often serve as facilitators of content and help their

peers construct meaning. The students are to question, reflect, reconsider, seek help and support,

and participate in group discussions. The three most common strategies include:

 group projects,

 group discussions, and

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  cooperative learning (Patel, 2013).

The interactions are often face-to-face but may also be interactive using online tools and

technologies. The steps of instruction using social interaction often vary, but they have these

steps:

Figure

16.3 – Si Model (Patel, 2013).

The Problem Solving (Ps) Model

The PS model is based on the assumption that innovation is part of a problem-solving process.

The following steps are characteristic of the PS model.

Figure 16.4 – PS Model (Bishop, 1985, p. 182)

The PS model is referred to as a “periphery-center” approach to innovation. The innovations are

initiated, generated, and applied by the teachers and schools based on their needs. Such

innovations have strong user commitment and the best chance for long term survival.

In this model, the receiver is actively involved in finding an innovation to solve their own unique

problem. The model is flexible enough to encompass all types of innovations, including

materials, methods, and groupings of learners.

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Thus, the PS model is local in nature, usually limited in size, and may not be of high quality

compared with more centralized approaches to curriculum development.

RD & D Initiative that Supports PS and SI

There are several examples of the RD&D curriculum model, but one of the most established

initiatives that is research-based and designed to support higher education curricula is the Centre

for Innovation in Engineering and Science Education or CIESE at the Stevens Institute of

Technology in New Jersey. For the past 20 years, it has strengthened the STEM initiative by

designing and promoting multidisciplinary STEM curricula for educators that can be accessed

globally for high school curriculum. The lessons and projects are research-based, and also

promote problem-based learning, collaboration, higher-order thinking skills, and critical analysis

through the integration of science, technology, engineering, mathematics as well as language arts

and social studies. Many of the CIESE projects use real-time data from scientific and

government databases. These curricula engage students in global collaboration using pooled data

from shared databases, and also involve student publishing on the Web.

Unique and primary source information is available to students. One of the innovative features of

the CIESE programme, the Real-World Learning Objects, has a library of instructional activities

that supports the teaching of discrete topics such as exponential functions in mathematics or

genetic traits in biology that are appropriate for high school (CIESE, Stevens Institute of

Technology, 2020).

The interdisciplinary STEM projects that make use of online real-time data focus on

collaborative projects that connect students to peers and experts around the world, so there is an

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element of the SI as well as the PS models. This initiative fits into all three categories of

curriculum innovation at varying levels.

The project catalog is organised by science (life, Earth, physical, environmental); technology

(real-time data, online collaboration, primary sources, robotics); engineering (systems, civil,

mechanical, electrical, general); math (numbers and operations, algebra, geometry, trigonometry,

data analysis). Most of the projects overlap more than one category.

SI Technology

With the swift progression of in-class to online teaching, technology has taken center stage with

online learning platforms, remote class and small group meetings, and individual student-teacher

conferences, and a host of tech tools that are being developed. Since the SI model depends on the

students interacting with each other, technology can support learning in other ways such as

discussion forums and chat rooms.

Teachers can monitor students, promote on-task behaviors, and help students through e-

conversations. The primary source of information is the internet which opens the door to a vast

amount of data that may or may not be accurate or relevant. It is up to the teacher to show

students strategies for sifting this information.

Since the curriculum is based on social issues and democracy in the classroom, students must

have a say in the curriculum (Bean, 1997). It also requires students to practice social skills so

they can learn effectively in a group.

Building Innovative Curriculum

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The steps and procedure for building Innovative Curriculum includes:

Researching

Environment-scanning builds up detailed knowledge of the school, parents, community, history

and social context, taking account of the capabilities, needs and interests of pupils as well as the

strengths and expertise of its staff. Successful work that the school has undertaken so far is built

on to facilitate change as well as ensure continuity and curriculum coherence. Research is carried

out into a range of possible curricular models before changes are trialled and implemented.

Ethos-building

An ethos for change is created which allows freedom for experimentation, supported risk-taking

and the trialling and piloting of curriculum innovation. Support for newly qualified and less

experienced teachers is seen as part of the portfolio of responsibilities for both middle and senior

leaders.

Trialling

Including opportunities to trial and review planning and recording formats is seen as central to

the process of change. Use can be made of in-school best practice such as the Early Years

Foundation Stage as a model for cross-curricular learning. Working in collaboration with other

schools in order to share good practice is seen as an important method of enhancing curriculum

innovation.

Implementation

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A clear and understood timeline for implementation is created that is made explicit in the school

development plan. Steps and stages between the initial innovatory idea and its eventual

implementation need to be clear from the outset and communicated to everyone concerned.

Evolutionary and dynamic change is created proceeding from small, achievable beginnings to

more widespread changes that are constantly reviewed, modified and adapted to changing

circumstances and requirements.

Evaluation and review

Systematic analysis of successes and failures is undertaken, based on targets set out in the

strategic plan followed by adjustment for innovation.

Achieving effective innovation

Innovation is more likely to be successful when the factors set out are in place.

1 Teachers and school leaders see the potential benefit for pupils, their professional

satisfaction, and for the school and community as a whole.

2 All school personnel are committed to and believe in its underlying values.

3 All teachers and leaders are involved in the process of innovation, from the initial idea to

its implementation and review.

4 Teachers trust and respect the leadership team.

5 All school staff are able to see the benefits and gains made by pupils.

6 Proposed change is integral and closely inter-related with the short-, medium- and long-

term aims of the school development plan, as well as the school’s continuing professional

development programme.

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7 It is school-created and school-driven, and is less likely to be sustained when it is derived

from published schemes of work, materials or programmes of learning that are external to the

school.

Summary

Curriculum changes occur because societies have new needs and issues. These changes may be

in response to curriculum evaluations or reviews, or the culture. Curriculum may also change in

response to economic, social, and political issues as well as access to technology and curricular

innovations. On the other hand, it is the introduction of something new that makes the difference

from previous practices. Exemplary initiatives, programmes, and schools make use of

innovations. STEM and STEAM curriculums can support students to achieve in the sciences,

technology, engineering, and mathematics, as well as art, social studies, and literacy by

integrating these subjects. Many exemplary schools focus on closing the achievement gap for

students who live in high needs areas. Sal Khan is an innovator who has a vision for the future of

education that will benefit people in the U.S. and globally.

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\

Curriculum Implementation

The term ‘implementation’ according to Hornby (2000), implementation is an act of putting into

effect a plan already mapped out. Implementation simply means putting a plan, scheme’

decision, proposal, intention, an agreement, policy or idea into effect. It is the bedrock of any

plan, the determinant of a plan’s success or failure. It is the moving force of any plan without

which a plan ‘is only good intention’ Mezieobi (2013:67) Obanya (2004), defines

implementation of curriculum as day-to-day activities which school management and classroom

teachers undertake in the pursuit of the objective of any given curriculum. Gbamanja (2009)

asserts that “implementation is the stage at which the planned curriculum will be actualized”.

The decision taken on what should be studied and how it should be studied will be implemented

or put into practice at the stage. This is the stage that lies exclusively within the school and the

teachers who form the instrument for implementation. Social studies curriculum implementation,

therefore, refers to a process in social studies curriculum engineering concerned with instilling

life into a dormant or inert social studies curriculum plan or document, in the sense of

operationalizing it with a view to achieving specified educational objectives. Curriculum

implementation entails putting into practice the officially prescribed courses of study, syllabuses

and subjects (Chikumbi and Makamure 2000). Obanya (2004) defines implementation of

curriculum as day-to-day activities which school management and classroom teachers undertake

in the pursuit of the objective of any given curriculum. Considering the above, curriculum

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implementation is a process of putting a designed and well-planned curriculum in to practice.

Offorma (1994), stresses that the implemented curriculum determines the extent to which

educational objectives are achieves. The extent of achievement of those objectives depends on

the effectiveness of the implemented curriculum. Curriculum implementation is not restricted to

sheer translation of curriculum proposals or decision into practice. It involves a complex of

activities, materials, personnel and other factors which when appropriately harnessed constitute

integral parts of curriculum implementation. These include the schools, which are the major

implementation theater, the teachers, curriculum materials, students, teacher training institutions,

administrative and political factors, examination bodies, and the public or community members

(Mezieobi 2013:68). This opinion or definition given by Mezieobi is said to be comprehensive,

because, it embraced all the stakeholders responsible for curriculum implementation.

It is not unfair to say that usually most of the attention and energy of early curriculum developers

was focused on the production side of their enterprise, on the materialized "plan" or "product".

The idea was: If the product is good and if it is widely enough disseminated, it will be adopted

by the realm of practice. However, history showed that many – some say: most (e.g. Fullan and

Pomfret, 1977) – curriculum projects of the 60s and 70s have not been put into practice in a way

curriculum developers had hoped. And that practitioners were not even always aware that they

violated the developers' intentions (e.g. Reinmann-Rothmeier and Mandl, 1999, p.297). For

innovating classroom practice, attention must obviously not only be given to the production

phase of a curriculum, but also to what happens after the production. What processes happen

under what circumstances if practitioners are supposed to "adopt" a curriculum?

Importance of Curriculum Implementation

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The task of curriculum delivery is basically carried out at the classroom level through teaching,

learning support, advice and guidance, coaching, mentorship, peer and collaborative learning

thereby leading to the achievement of curriculum objectives, feedback and assessment, personal

development, planning and tutoring skills, encouragement towards practice skill and

development as well as enabling access to curriculum resources (Guga and Bawa (nd:21). In

addition to what they have said, to ensuring curriculum delivery other community members apart

from a teacher do assist within and outside the school. For instance, school supervisors,

administrators, parents and examination bodies etc.

Principles of Curriculum Implementation

For a new curriculum plans to be implemented effectively in schools, certain considerations or

guidelines must be followed. Among these principles are:

1. The curriculum to be implemented should have few and clearly defined curriculum

objectives and techniques. This is aimed at reducing areas 'of conflict in terms of

understanding the curriculum plans and implementing them by teachers who are the grass-

root implementers, with minimal disruption from policy makers and other education

agencies.

2. The curriculum to be implemented should be accepted by the various stakeholders of

education, such as the parents, school boards, teachers and indeed the general public. There

should be absolute support from all the stakeholders. Lack of this support from each

stakeholder could mare the successful implementation of the new programme.

There should be an effective and efficient leadership at any level of administration committed to

the programme right from the inception through implementation.

School systems should be simple and not too rigid. This will make the teachers feel free and have

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easy access to necessary facilities needed for effective implementation of the new curriculum.

All the stakeholders have an important role in implementation of new curriculum at school level

- students, parents, teaching and non-teaching staff at schools (principals, teachers, teachers-

associates and professional support staff - pedagogues, psychologists), social partners, local

community. The support and help are provided by the respective Ministry of Education in Nigeria,

local authorities, school boards.

The effectiveness of implementation process depends on several factors. Most of all, it is needed

the consensus and involvement of all actors in the process. Each actor shall consider the

consequences on his role in the implementation process of new curriculum.

Getting familiar with the implementation process of new curriculum is based on the system of

instructions and explanations where teachers, individually and as a part of the group, are

introduced with new curriculum, aimed to develop students' knowledge, skills, attitudes and

various types of behaviours. It means introduction of new resources. Each change demands

investing efforts - to cope with a series of problems emerging in the process, to organise and

manage implementation and achieve objectives set. The implementation also requires: human

resources, financial resources and the timeframe determined by school calendar and operation

plans as well, deriving from the curriculum. The effectiveness of implementation requires

permanent action, mutual cooperation of stakeholders. Examples of mutual support in schools or

between schools or regions should cover the networking, constant communication, joint actions,

conferences, etc. In order to obtain successful implementation, the atmosphere of support is

necessary. Its characteristics are: mutual confidence and open communication between actors in

schools and out of schools, resolving problems, engagement of most members of the school staff.

The principals have a key role in such processes. They should be well acquainted with projected

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changes and holistic implementation process, willing to be involved in the process of changes

and prepared for it, and capable to put into practice various management and decision-making

strategies in order to respond to teachers' needs. In larger schools, where the role of the principal

is primarily managerial, the head of pedagogical school management (assistant director or deputy

director, organiser of the instruction for certain sector) is in charge of such tasks.

The required characteristics for efficient realisation of their responsibilities are:

1. Readiness for an open and immediate communication and cooperation with all;

2. Strengthening and building of stable school community through ensuring

professional development and career advancement for the school staff;

3. Providing external (out of school) professional evaluation, when it is needed;

4. Readiness to take risks;

5. Positive attitude towards projected changes and using the enthusiasm to motivate

others.

Models of Curriculum Implementation

There are three identified models for curriculum implementation, viz- Centre periphery model

Proliferation of center model, and Shifting center model.

Centre - Periphery Model

In this model all the materials to be used for the curriculum implementation come from the

center. There is a high concentration d everything at the center. The success of this model

depends on the strength the center in terms of the materials and personnel. Most of the times the

centre tends to produce materials which are superior to the level of teachers and students. The

problems of this model is the strict external control. This common with countries that operate a

centralised system of education in Nigeria and Russia.

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Proliferation of Centre Model

This model is an improvement over the center periphery model because there is a multiplication

of centres from primary centres to secondary centres, is like teaching the trainers, trainers are

trained at the primary center and they will in turn go to secondary centres to train other

personnel. The Primary Education Implementation Programme (PEIP) and National Population

Commission (NPC) training system employed this model. In the case of PEIP training, primary

teachers are trained by mobile teachers who then move to Local government centre and train the

other teachers there. The problem with model is that after the mobile teachers complete their

training, they move to secondary centres leaving the primary center vacant. This is a shift from

centralize system even though it still has the elements of centralization.

Shifting Centre Model

The idea here is that innovations can be adopted in different simultaneously, if there is adequate

communication between the centres. Here, there is the possibility of what is called transfer of

learning. Unlike the proliferation of centre model, in the shifting center model, attention is given

to every centre one after the other. so much involvement of both the internal members and

external members. Ij is less external influence. This corresponds with planning curriculum at

local level or even at state level. The idea here is that the implementation curriculum package

moves from one centre to another.

Stages in Curriculum Implementation

Stages in curriculum implementation are the necessary taken in order to have a successful

implementation of a new curriculum Pratt (1980) outlined five stages for implementing a new

curriculum, namely: -

1. Pilot testing of the new curriculum.

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2. Revision of the curriculum.

3. Field testing of the curriculum,

4. Revision of the curriculum.

5. Full-scale implementation.

Pilot testing is the first step to be taken in implement curriculum. It involves implementing the

curriculum at a very sa which little emphasis is placed on reproducing actual classroom coal and

practicability of the curriculum. The classroom teachers operate the curriculum at grass-root

level. As the curriculum is prepared at a higher level, its implementation in the form of

classroom instruction must be evaluated. As teachers are hardly involved in curriculum planning,

curriculum intensions are often twisted around during the implementation stage in an effort to

shape the curriculum to suit the practical realities on ground. Data obtained from the evaluation

exercise provides the basis for teachers and decision makers to make the best choices of

instructional objectives, content, instructional media and evaluation methods among other things

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Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation is concerned with assessing the value of a programme of study (all the

planned learning experiences over a multiyear period for a given group of learners), a field of

study (all the planned learning experiences over a multiyear. That broader perspective mentioned

above requires a less constricting view of both the purposes and foci of curriculum evaluation. In

reviewing the literature and acquiring a broader understanding of purpose, two concepts

delineated by Guba and Lincoln (1981) seem especially useful: merit and worth. Merit, as they

use the term, refers to the intrinsic value of an entity—value that is implicit, inherent, and

independent of any applications. Ohuche and Akeju (1977) defines evaluation as a quality

control system that is used to determine the effectiveness or otherwise of the teaching-learning

process. They added that evaluation is a tool for the clarification of significant goals and

objectives of education. Indeed, evaluation is a continuous process that is interrelated with other

parts of the curriculum because it is brought into play at every critical stage of curriculum

planning and development. Lawton (1979) adds that evaluation involves measurement and also

includes value judgment. It is, in addition, about data gathering on the dynamics, effectiveness,

acceptability and efficiency of the curriculum for decision making.

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Merit is established without reference to a context. Worth, on the other hand, is the value of an

entity in reference to a particular context or a specific application. It is the “payoff” value for a

given institution or group of people. Thus, a given English course may seem to have a great deal

of merit in the eyes of experts: It may reflect sound theory, be built on current research, and

embody content that experts deem desirable. The same course, however, may have relatively

little worth for a teacher instructing unmotivated working-class youth in an urban school: It may

require teaching skills that the teacher has not mastered and learning materials that the students

cannot read. In this sense, then, curriculum evaluation should be concerned with assessing both

merit and worth.

Ndubisi (1981) sums up curriculum evaluation to mean a continuous process which looks for the

diagnosis of strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum; identification of the outcome of

instructions; recognition of the need for teacher improvement; identification of the need for

review of the curriculum. Curriculum evaluation is very essential in education because it is used

to transform quantitative data into qualitative interpretations as an educational programme is

assessed and judgment made on its effectiveness and efficiency

By implication, Baba (2014) is of the view that curriculum evaluation should have as its concern

four areas or scope:

1. Design quality: are the curriculum documents and guides of the highest quality to provide

students with a rigorous curriculum supported by research-based pedagogy? Does the curriculum

demonstrate awareness of current national and local standards and incorporates them in the

development of curriculum guides and documents?

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2. Implementation Monitoring: The aim of this type of evaluation is to identify the strengths

and weaknesses of the written curriculum to determine what should be revised or modified. It is

also used to determine the degree to which teachers are actually implementing the written

curriculum.

3. Student Performance Assessment: this is to determine the degree to which students are

achieving learner outcomes as established in the written curriculum.

4. Curriculum Effectiveness: The aim of this evaluation is to determine how effective the

implemented curriculum is in accomplishing the overall mission and goals of the school district

or national policy.

Functions of Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation performs varied functions in teaching-learning process. Some of these

functions are:

• Directing teaching-learning activities;

• Diagnosis

• Motivation;

•. Feedback to teachers, parents and curriculum developers; and

• Validation of teaching-learning process.

Curriculum evaluation directs everything that happens within and outside the four walls of the

classroom, outside the school environment and beyond. It determines how the teacher teachers,

what he/she teaches, the way and manner the learner learns.

Types of Curriculum Evaluation

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 As mentioned earlier, evaluation is the process of determining the significance or worth of

programmes or procedures. Scriven (1967) differentiated evaluation as formative evaluation and

summative evaluation. These he explains as follows:

Formative evaluation

The term formative indicates that data is gathered during the formation or development of

the curriculum so that revisions to it can be made. Formative evaluation may include determining

who needs the programme (eg. secondary school students), how great is the need (eg. students need

to be taught ICT skills to keep pace with expansion of technology) and how to meet the need (eg.

introduce a subject on ICT compulsory for all secondary school students). In education, the aim of

formative evaluation is usually to obtain information to improve a programme.

In formative evaluation, experts would evaluate the match between the instructional

strategies and materials used, and the learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve. For example, it

is possible that in a curriculum plan the learning outcomes and the learning activities do no match.

One want students to develop critical thinking skills but there are no learning activities which

provide opportunities for students to practice critical thinking. Formative evaluation by experts is

useful before full-scale implementation of the programme. Review by experts of the curriculum

plan may provide useful information for modifying or revising selected strategies.

In formative evaluation learners may be included to review the materials to determine if

they can use the new materials. For example, so they have the relevant prerequisites and are they

motivated to learn. From these formative reviews, problems may be discovered. For example, in

curriculum document may contain spelling errors, confusing sequence of content, inappropriate

examples or illustrations. The feedback obtained could be used to revise and improve instruction or

whether or not to adopt the programme before full implementation.

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Summative evaluation

The term summative indicates that data is collected at the end of the implementation of the

curriculum programme. Summative evaluation can occur just after new course materials have been

implemented in full (i.e. evaluate the effectiveness of the programme), or several months to years

after the materials have been implemented in full. It is important to specify what questions one

want answered by the evaluation and what decisions will be made as a result of the evaluation. One

may want to know if learners achieved the objectives or whether the programme produced the

desired outcomes. For example, the use of a specific simulation software in the teaching of

geography enhanced the decision making skills of learners. These outcomes can be determined

through formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and examinations. Also of concern

is whether the innovation was cost-effective. Was the innovation efficient in terms of time to

completion? Were there any unexpected outcomes? Besides, quantitative data to determine how

well students met specified objectives, data could also include qualitative interviews, direct

observations, and document analyses.

Other types of evaluation include Diagnostic, Placement and Remediation. These types of

evaluation aim at identifying deficiencies, suitability of a learner for a specific purpose and/or

where to direct help so that the learner will learn with relative ease. What should be born in mind is

that these types of evaluation can take any form of the initial evaluation types identified.

Instruments forCurriculum Evaluation

There are various types of devices used in educational evaluation including tests, direct

observations, interviews, questionnaires and rating scales etc.

Tests

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There are many types used in the classroom but the four main types that are being studied in this

unit are: oral, objective, essay and performance test.

a) Oral Tests

Oral tests include those requiring oral performance as in the languages or singing, or wherever

the oral productions of sounds are required. These tests are measured according to the criteria set

out for performance by the tester.

(b) Objective Tests

These include the multiple choice and the alternative forms. Others include the short answer type

in which words or phrases are supplied. It is commonly used at instructional level to measure

students’ achievement in an instructional programme.

(c) Essay Tests

This involves writing freely in sentences, responses to the question asked by the instructional

evaluator. So, the student is free to choose his words, embellish them the way he likes, and

organise ideas the way he wants, that would reflect his own unique style of writing. Both the

essay and objective tests are most commonly used by teachers.

Tests

The most commonly used evaluation devices by the teacher to evaluate students’ performance in

the educational programme are the essay and objective tests. Although details of principles of

test construction are not within the scope of the present study or course, you will be provided

with some insight on how to construct good essay and objective tests.

Constructing good Essay Tests

The following important points must be borne in mind in constructing good essay tests.

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(i) The questions must be related to the objective of the course as well as the content; (i.e. what

was taught);

(ii) The language must be concise or specific, not ambiguous so that students know exactly what

is required of them;

(iii) The students should be given opportunity of free expression; in order words the questions

should require free response not one word or one sentence answers. For example, “What is the

capital of Nigeria” requires only one word answer, and this is not an essay-type of question.

Consider this: “Discuss the factors that have been responsible for rapid urban-rural drift in

Nigeria in the last ten years”. The latter is a question requiring free flow of students ideas and

expression but the former is not. The latter is a good example of essay questions;

(iv) The time to answer the questions must be born in mind when constructing essay tests;

students need to be given a specific time limit but which must be sufficient to answer the

questions.

Advantages/Disadvantages of Essay Tests

(i) It is easy to set but more difficult to mark than the objective test;

(ii) Enables the teacher evaluate learners ability to interpret knowledge;

(iii) It promotes writing skills;

(iv) Scoring of essay tests may be subjective unless an adequate marking scheme is provided.

This is one of its major disadvantages.

Constructing Good Objective Tests

Objective tests are more difficult to set but much easier to score than the essay type. Also,

objective tests permit the evaluator to test according to the taxonomy of educational objectives in

all the three domains. In constructing a good objective test, it is important to make a test plan

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which will cover the objectives of the lessons. Study the test plan reproduced below for a

discussion of test plan. You will see that this plan is spread across the three domains of

educational objectives.

Note:

(i) That in constructing objective tests, all the domains of educational objectives plus the levels

were taken into consideration;

(ii) That A: B: C stand for cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of educational

objectives respectively;

(iii) That number 1,2,3,4,5,6 across the Table represent the different levels of each of the

educational objectives; (you studied this in earlier units, remember);

(iv) That the major themes taught during instruction were under the “content” column;

(v) That the number of questions (objective items) set was according to the emphasis laid by the

teacher in teaching each theme. For example, on the theme “Growth of the Empires” 10 tems

were set under knowledge level of the cognitive domain while 4 were set on the corresponding

first level of the affective domain and none was set on the corresponding first level of the

psychomotor domain;

(vi) That the total number of items in each showed the varying emphasis of the teacher during

instruction. Thus, you will have seen that constructing an objective test is much more laborious

than constructing essay tests, but the objective test gives more room to cover all the domains of

educational objectives.

To obtain impressions of how a programme operates without interrupting the programme; it is

possible to review the memos, minutes, etc to get comprehensive and historical information

about the implementation of the programme. However, there is need to be quite clear about what

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we are looking for as there may be a load of documents. By way of summary, here is a tabular

presentation of tools that can be used in the course of evaluation.

Questionnaire/Rating Scales

These forms of evaluation involve responses to questions which seek to assess the curriculum.

They are usually on a response pattern of Yes/No, True/False, or a Likert – type scale ranging

from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

Direct Observations

Direct observations involve, as the name implies, a direct observation of learners or other

implementers of the curriculum. Students are observed to find out if certain skills or habits

expected by learners are being demonstrated or not, e.g. making ceramics from clay. The

implementers of the curriculum e.g. teachers are also observed to assess their competence levels

and to detect other flaws in the curriculum.

Interviews

Interviews involve oral questioning of students to find out if the change in behaviour, attitude or

skills has taken place. It is also used by the curriculum designer to find out from the

implementers how the curriculum is being implemented and whether there are some problems in

order to modify it.

Table Showing Summary of Evaluation Instruments

Method Purpose Advantages Challenges

questionnaires, when need to quickly -can complete -might not get careful

surveys, and/or easily get lots anonymously feedback

checklists of information from -inexpensive to -wording can bias

people in a non- administer client's responses

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 threatening way -easy to compare and -are impersonal

analyze -in surveys, may need

-administer to many sampling expert

people - doesn't get full story

-can get lots of data

-many sample

questionnaires already

exist

Interviews when want to fully -get full range and depth -can take much time

understand someone's of information -can be hard to analyze

impressions or -develops relationship and compare

experiences, or learn with client -can be costly

more about their -can be flexible with -interviewer can bias

answers to client client's responses

questionnaires

documentation when want impression -get comprehensive and -often takes much time

review of how program historical information -info may be

operates without -doesn't interrupt incomplete

interrupting the program or client's -need to be quite clear

program; is from routine in program about what looking for

review of applications, -information already -not flexible means to

finances, memos, exists get data; data restricted

minutes, etc. -few biases about to what already exists

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 information

observation to gather accurate -view operations of a -can be difficult to

information about how program as they are interpret seen behaviors

a programme actually actually occurring -can be complex to

operates, particularly -can adapt to events as categorize observations

about processes they occur -can influence

behaviors of program

participants

-can be expensive

focus groups explore a topic in -quickly and reliably get -can be hard to analyze

depth through group common impressions responses

discussion, e.g., about -can be efficient way to -need good facilitator

reactions to an get much range and for safety and closure

experience or depth of information in -difficult to schedule 6-

suggestion, short time 8 people together

understanding - can convey key

common complaints, information about

etc.; useful in programs

evaluation and

marketing

case studies to fully understand or -fully depicts client's -usually quite time

depict client's experience in program consuming to collect,

experiences in a input, process and organize and describe

program, and conduct results -represents depth of

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 comprehensive -powerful means to information, rather than

examination through portray program to breadth

cross comparison of outsiders

cases

It is interesting to note that each of these instruments can be used not just for one purpose but for

multiple instances. For instance, questionnaire can be used to identify, determine, confirm and/or

assess a giving situation.

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