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Groupwork
Groupwork

Third Edition

Allan Brown
First published 1986 by Ashgate Publishing
First published in paperback by Ashgate Publishing 1992
First published in hardback by Gower Publishing Company Limited

Published 2017 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa

business

Copyright © Allan Brown, 1986, 1988, 1992, 1994

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library

ISBN 13: 978-1-85742-087-6 (pbk)

Contents
Acknowledgements
Introduction to the Third Edition
1. Groupwork in Social Work

Context, definitions and aims

advantages and disadvantages
models of groupwork practice
values and ethics

2. Planning a Group: Preparation and Contract

Perspectives on aims and expectations

the group and its environment
resources and finance
group composition, size, time-scale, open groups, selection
negotiating a contract
a groupwork planning exercise

3. Leadership in Groups (Including Co-working)

Basic concepts
authority, power and control
choice of worker
co-working
potential benefits, choice of partner, preparation, in-group
skills
the skills of group leadership
use of self-disclosure

4. Group Programme and Group Process

Programme – the concept and some general considerations

 group processes and stages of development
group activities and techniques
the individual and the group – difficulties and possible
resolutions
5. Working with Groups in Day and Residential Centres

Features of residential and day centres

the concept of grouping
a classification of groups and groupings
principles and values
a repertoire of skills
use of self

6. Anti-discriminatory Groupwork: Race and Gender

Core aspects: group as social microcosm

arena for empowerment and context for confronting
oppression
gender perspectives
race perspectives
practice guidelines
framework for empowerment

7. Developing Groupwork Skills and Understanding

Training
consultation/supervision
recording
evaluation

Bibliography
Author Index
Subject Index
Acknowledgements

1st edition (1979)

I am indebted to numerous people who have shared with me their
groupwork experience, feelings and ideas. They include many group
members, social work students and teachers, social workers and
probation officers in Britain and in Michigan, USA. In particular, Frank
Maple of the University of Michigan, and Nano McCaughan, recently
of the National Institute of Social Work, London, have stimulated and
encouraged me in my interest in groupwork.
I would like to thank Christine Stones, Derek Lockhart, Phyllida
Parsloe and Brian Caddick (of Bristol University) for reading draft
chapters and offering support and critical comment.
I am grateful to Margaret Harris and Georgina Coleman for typing
drafts, and to Pain Gallagher for typing the final manuscript. It is
doubtful whether I could ever have completed the task without the
loving support of my wife, Celia, who has given me encouragement
when I most needed it.

2nd edition (1986)

I am again indebted to the many people from whom I have
continued to learn about groupwork. A special thanks this time to
Carol Keen for typing all the revised parts of the manuscript so
helpfully and efficiently.

3rd edition (1992)

I would like to acknowledge the major contribution of my former
colleague, Roger Clough, to many of the ideas inChapter 5 which we
developed together in Groups and Groupings.
I am indebted to Margaret Boushel, Jenny Lewis, Tara Mistry and
Christine Weaver for reading a draft of Chapter 6 and offering many
helpful comments for improving it.
Celia has once again been amazingly patient and supportive as I
have spent numerous evenings and weekends banging away on my
word processor and filling the house with the whirr of the noisy
printer!
Introduction to the Third Edition
It is now thirteen years since the first edition of this book appeared,
and what exciting developments there have been in groupwork in
Britain, Europe and all over the world since that time! The hope I
expressed in my introduction to the second edition that a specialist
groupwork journal would be published in Britain/Europe before the
third edition appeared has become a reality with the launch of the
journal Groupwork in 1988. The large number of references in this
edition to articles which have appeared in that journal are testimony
to the contribution it has already made to the development of
groupwork theory and practice. A further measure of this progress
has been the launch of an annual European Groupwork Symposium
in 1991. Whilst these are healthy indications of the growing
independent strength of groupwork on this side of the Atlantic it is
important to acknowledge our indebtedness to our friends and
colleagues in North America for their inspiration and support in all
these developments.
It is against this background that I have been preparing this third
edition. I have been particularly conscious of the need to give much
more detailed consideration to two topics not given adequate
coverage in earlier editions, as well as to revising and expanding
some other key sections.
The first of the two new chapters (5) addresses the issue of
groupwork in day and residential centres. These are two settings
where so much happens in groups of different kinds, yet the
literature has barely recognised, much less actually addressed, the
special features of these groups and 'groupings' (a term coined to
describe the many different kinds of gathering that occur), it is
essential to recognise that life and work in these group living
settings require special kinds of group skills in addition to those
already well established for fieldwork groups.
 The second new chapter (6) is an attempt to understand the
significance of race and gender in groups and groupwork practice,
and to begin to develop a framework for anti-discriminatory practice.
This chapter has been a considerable challenge for me, writing
inescapably from the perspective of a white middle-class man. I
hope that readers who have not as yet given very much thought to
the issues I address will find it helpful and influential in their
practice, and others, particularly those from oppressed groups, will
be spurred on both to critique the level I have reached in my
understanding, and to put their own perspective and understanding
into writing new formulations which will take us all further forward
as we seek to be genuinely anti-discriminatory in our work together
in groups.
Other sections of the book which have been extended and revised
include those on: group composition; open groups; aspects of co-
working; and groupwork consultation.
Finally, I have updated the bibliography to include references for
some of the important material that has been published in the last
six years. The bibliography is now quite lengthy and should be a
useful source of reference for more experienced groupworkers. To
make it more manageable for those relatively new to groupwork I
have asterisked (*) a range of publications which between them
provide a good basis for groupwork practice and theory.
1 Groupwork in Social Work

Groupwork coming of age

Groupwork has come a long way in Britain since the 1960s when it
was a relatively scarce commodity. It was rarely included in social
work training courses, carried an unhelpful mystique associated with
sensitivity and encounter groups, and was often regarded as an
idiosyncratic activity in those agencies where it was practised by
innovative social workers. The available literature was North
American, In the USA at that time groupwork was already well
established as a social work method, going through a phase of being
separated off as a distinct specialism. This changed subsequently in
the 1970s when groupwork became reintegrated with mainstream
practice, and it has moved forward with a whole new vigour and
impetus since 1978 when the journal Social Work with Groups was
launched, and 1979 when the first of the North American annual
groupwork symposia was held. These symposia continue to flourish
as a source of inspiration and knowledge building for groupwork
theoreticians and practitioners.
The 1970s saw groupwork gradually being taken more seriously in
Britain, perhaps partly due to the North American influence, but more
likely due to the push for diversification and improvement of practice
intervention methods. This arose in part from the discouraging
research evaluations of the efficacy of traditional one-to-one
casework methods. A British groupwork literature began to appear at
this time and a number of introductory texts were published in the
period 1975–1980 (Davies, 1975; Douglas, 1976; Douglas, 1978;
McCaughan, 1978; Brown, 1979; Heap, 1979) offering a firmer basis
for groupwork learning during training, and for groupwork practice in
agencies. There was increasing evidence from social workers (see
Stevenson, Parsloe et al., 1978) of a widespread wish to use
groupwork methods being tempered by a lack of encouragement (if
not active opposition) in some agencies. The picture in Social Service
Departments was patchy with some appointing specialist groupwork
consultants (see Laming and Sturton, 1978; McCaughan, 1985) and
others treating groupwork as a marginal activity. The one sphere in
which group methods were used very extensively was in Intermediate
Treatment for adolescents (Jones and Kerslake, 1979). In many
Probation Areas groupwork was achieving recognition as a
mainstream method of working with offenders (see Brown and
Seymour, 1983), and this trend has continued as a recent national
survey of the amount and range of groupwork in the probation
service has confirmed (Caddick, 1991). Some voluntary agencies like
the Family Service Units were already using groups as a mainstream
method of working.
The growth of family centres and a whole range of day and short-
term residential provision, often pioneered by voluntary agencies,
offers enormous scope for working with people in groups, both
formal and informal (see Chapter 5 in this book). In parallel with
these developments in 'client' groups there has been a growing
recognition of the importance of staff groups, with a recognition of
the social work team as a group to be facilitated and developed with
the same levels of care and skill (Parsloe, 1981).
Several trends can be discerned in the development of groupwork
since about 1985. The first of these is an increased level of
sophistication in the quality of basic skills and techniques as taught
on training courses and reflected in the literature. Further basic texts
have been published (see for example, Heap, 1985; Whitaker, 1985;
Houston, 1984 and 1990a edn; Brown, A., 1986 edn; Benson, 1987;
Preston-Shoot, 1987) and a number of training manuals are in use
(see for example, Ball and Sowa, 1985; Kemp and Taylor, 1990;
Henderson and Foster, 1991). The publication since 1988 of a UK-
based journal, Groupwork, has provided a medium for the
dissemination of practice and conceptual developments, and many of
the articles which have appeared in that journal are referenced
elsewhere in this book.
A second trend is a shift from 'generic' groupwork to the specific
knowledge and skills needed for working with particular user groups
and issues, and in particular ways. Five recent publications reflect this
trend. Brown and Clough (1989) have edited a book which articulates
the experience of practitioners in day and residential settings as they
have evolved group approaches suited to group living contexts, an
area previously largely neglected in the literature. The Groupwork
journal (Kerslake and Brown, 1990) has carried a special issue on
groupwork in the sphere of child sexual abuse, where group
methods, whether with abused children, adult survivors or
perpetrators, are often the method of choice. Another special issue,
on groupwork with offenders (Brown and Caddick, 1991) gives some
indication both of the range of groups being used and the values
questions being raised about the compatibility of empowerment and
control in a criminal justice setting. The fourth publication is the full
articulation by Mullender and Ward (1991) of the self-directed model
of groupwork, an approach predicated on specific principles of
empowerment and a facilitator role for the worker. The fifth is the
first book in the UK specifically on a feminist groupwork perspective,
by Butler and Wintram (1991).
The third trend is that illustrated by the last two publications,
namely a deep concern about inequalities and social discrimination
being replicated in groups. The response is recognising the need to
develop practice principles and methods which provide positive action
both for equality of opportunity in in-group experience, and positive
action through groups to confront discrimination in the wider
communities and groupings to which group members and others
belong. One of the tasks for groupwork theorists and practitioners in
the 1990s is to develop a truly anti-discriminatory methodology.
A fourth trend is the beginning of a shift from a rather insular
'British' perspective on groupwork – and indeed on social work as a
whole – to closer links with European colleagues and groupwork
developments in their countries. This is primarily part of the wider
political 'Europeanisation' but there are some signs of specific
groupwork progress. One of these is a special European issue of
Groupwork (Heap, 1989) and another is the inception of what are
anticipated to be annual European Groupwork Symposia, the first
having been held in London in 1991.
 Notwithstanding all these positive trends we are still at a very early
stage in the development of research into, and formal evaluation of,
groupwork. The research-based case for groupwork is no more
proven, but certainly no less so, than that for casework. Because of
the complexity of researching groupwork practice, and of mounting
comparative studies, it will be a long time before definitive research
evidence becomes available. Even then, it will probably only be useful
at a level of sophistication which discriminates between different
methods of groupwork, matched to particular needs, user groups and
objectives. There are however some straws in the wind, particularly
across the Atlantic. The former journal Small Group Behaviour has
been renamed Small Group Research and under the editorship of
Charles Garvin is more oriented towards social groupwork than its
predecessor. Also in North America there is now an organisation
concerned solely with groupwork research and its dissemination. One
of the big debates is the pros and cons of quantitative and qualitative
research methods. The small UK-based literature on groupwork
research includes material on evaluation methods (Caddick, 1983;
Preston-Shoot, 1988) and articles on quantitative methods (Birrell-
Weisen, 1991; and from Israel, Cwikel and Oron, 1991). I anticipate
that significant progress will be made in our understanding of
qualitative methods in the coming years, including illuminative
evaluation techniques (Gordon, 1992).
In the absence of major research data, those of us who are
committed to the development of groupwork as a method of
intervention to stand on at least equal terms with other methods,
base our commitment mainly on subjective criteria, 'soft' evaluation
techniques, our values and personal experience. For example, I know
personally that some groups can be a very effective context and
means of help for some individuals, because I have experienced this
potency at first hand. As a group member, I have been helped with
my own painful and difficult personal problems on several occasions,
and I have facilitated or co-worked with numerous groups in which I
have witnessed the efficacy of the group as a context in which people
can help each other, develop skills and solve problems. This group
capacity for empowerment extends beyond mutual aid within the
group to individual and group influence in the wider commmunity and
organisational systems (see Chapter 6). Follow-up studies and
consumer feedback confirm this conviction at a subjective level, as do
many journal articles which attempt to evaluate a particular group's
'success'. (Those which 'fail' are rarely written about, but may be
equally illuminating!) Also, as outlined elsewhere in this chapter, the
unique peer-relationships aspect of the group setting creates a whole
range of potential benefits.
I do not see groupwork as a social work panacea however, and the
following pages indicate both its potential and its hazards. It will be
shown that groupwork is an umbrella term for a wide range of
activities, actions and therapies, and that there are certain basic
concepts and skills which can be relatively easily acquired by the
practitioner who wishes to extend her or his repertoire of creative
response to complex human need.

What is groupwork?

Most books on groupwork begin with a detailed analysis of

definitions, firstly of the term 'small group' and then of the term
'groupwork'. For the purpose of this book we shall assume that
readers share some common notion of what a small group is, but
that there is more confusion about what is meant by groupwork. We
shall therefore dispose rapidly of the former by taking E J. Thomas's
(1967) working definition of a small group as 'a collection of
individuals who are interdependent with one another and who share
some conception of being a unit distinguishable from other collections
of individuals'. This covers the key concepts of a defined
membership, interdependence and boundary ('distinguishable' implies
some boundary). We need to add the size of the collection of
individuals, which for a small group would normally be thought of as
in the range 3–12 persons, and the notion that groups exist for some
purpose, however ill-defined.
Other documents randomly have
different content
 When aunt Abby and Julia came back with the eggs, the flies were
stealing the sugar and the kittens were lapping the milk from the pan.
I wonder if those kittens told their mother that Ellen gave each of
them a rap on the ear.
 CHAPTER V.
A VISIT.

One morning Mr. Cary and uncle Benjamin started for a long day’s
ride.
When her papa kissed Julia good-by, tears came in her eyes.
“My heartache will come back again,” she said.
But work is a good thing for a sad heart, and aunt Abby had plenty
of that for Julia. There were a hundred babies in feathers, out of
doors, which Julia liked to feed. For breakfast, dinner, and supper,
and for lunches between, Julia carried them food in a tin pail.
There were turkeys, chickens, and ducks.
When they saw aunty and Julia and the tin pail coming, they knew
they should be fed. So out of the coops came chickens and turkeys,
peeping and chirping like little birds. And up from the little pond
waddled the tiny ducks. It was fun to see how fast they came; how
they tumbled down and hopped over one another in a hungry
scrabble.
Aunt Abby thought Julia would not miss her dear father so much if
she were with Anne and Rose. So after dinner they went to visit
them.
 The little girls had but few playthings, but the kitten made fun
enough for them. Anne had already taught her puss to play with a
string.
Before tea was quite ready for the grown folks, Anne and Rose
took a box of very small dishes out on the grass, and set a table of
their own. Their mamma gave them a part of each dish she had for
her own guest, which made a nice feast.
They laughed and ate a great deal, and drank a great many cups
of tea. But as the most of their tea came out of the milk-pitcher, and
the rest from the teakettle, it did not keep either of them awake that
night.
They had romped so hard, that soon after tea aunt Abby thought
best for Julia to say “Good-night,” and each of the little tea-drinkers
was soon asleep.
Julia told her papa the next day about her good visit, and said she
chased those same kittens all night. Aunt Abby said that was
because she had been so wild, and had got so tired.
 CHAPTER VI.
JULIA AND PUSSY GO HOME.

One morning Julia was riding with her uncle, when they passed
Anne and Rose on their way to school. Anne’s kitten had followed
them so slyly, it was not seen till they were near the schoolhouse
door.
Uncle Benjamin bade them teach the puss its a-b-cs.
 “Good-by!” said Julia. “I am going home to-morrow.”
Anne and Rose were sorry they could not see this dear little friend
again.
The next morning, when Julia awoke, Ellen had the bags and
baskets ready to take home again. No, not quite ready, for one
basket was to hold the kitten, and Ellen called Julia to get up and
catch it, to be in time for their journey.
Kitty seemed to know they wanted to take her away from her
mother and sister pussy, and she tried to keep out of their way.
 But Charley and Johnny were as cunning as she, and caught her
at last.

Ellen said puss had gone in the pantry. Charley peeped in, but did
not see her. He heard a stir of the paper on the shelf, and stood still
at the door. He saw a mouse leap off the shelf, and before he could
hit it with his cap, it had run into a hole in the floor, and got out of the
way of boy and kitten; for kitty jumped from behind the flour-barrel
where she had hid, and Charley caught her.
 Johnny held the basket while Charley put her in it. Then Ellen tied
the cover down. Julia had put in that basket some bits of meat for
kitty’s lunch; and in another she had a bottle of milk and Johnny’s old
tin cup, to give puss a drink while on the boat.
But before the carriage was out of the lane, the kitten was out of
the basket, and everybody saw her wildly running back to the woods.
“My kitty! O my kitty! I can never go without her!” cried Julia.
“Here, Johnny!” shouted uncle Benjamin, as he turned his horses
round, “you and Charley scamper after that kitten.”
The boys leaped over the stone wall.
“But this will make us late for the boat,” said Mr. Cary.
“Wont the cars do as well? I can’t bear to let the little girl go
without the kitten that was so ‘pesshus.’”
They drove back to the shade of the willow-tree by the gate. Aunt
Abby had stood there watching them. She said if kitty did not come
back soon, they must wait for her and take to-morrow’s boat. But
then they heard the boys shout, and soon the funny fellows came out
of the woods with the runaway.
Papa Cary tied the cover this time, and puss was surely fast.
Again the loving good-bys were said under the old willow, and
Julia could not tell if she were most glad or sorry to start for home.
Kitty did not get overboard. She drank a cup of city milk—poor
thing!—at bed time, beside the bed Julia and Ellen made for her in
the storeroom, where, cook said, there were plenty of mice.
 CHAPTER VII.
AT HOME.

Julia loved the kitten, and the kitten loved Julia. Once more the
halls rang with the little girl’s merry laugh.
Puss learned some smart tricks.
Mr. Cary showed Julia how she might teach the kitten to jump
through her arms.
Clasping her little hands, and holding her arms out like a hoop,
she would kneel on the floor. Puss would step over her hands, held
so low. Then Julia held her arms up a little; and soon the kitten could
hop through this pretty hoop. By-and-by Julia could stand up, and
the kitty would come when she called “Puss! puss!” and jump
through her arms, which was a pretty sight.
Ellen, too, grew fond of puss, and was very kind to her. She would
play with Ellen’s spools of thread, and roll about her ball of mending-
cotton, while the good nurse sat sewing with Julia beside her.
So this simple kitten, one of the humblest of God’s creatures,
helped to make poor motherless Julia a happy child.
 Transcriber’s Notes

pg 42 Changed: My heartache will come baek again

to: My heartache will come back again
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JULIA CARY
AND HER KITTEN ***

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