Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

Ordinary Differential Equations of

Higher-Order. Linear Equations with
Constant Coefficients.

Temirlan Ashimov

Astana IT University

July 30, 2020

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations

The Homogeneous Equation
The Nonhomogeneous Equation

Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant

Coefficients
The Homogeneous Equation
The Nonhomogeneous Equation

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

Linear Ordinary DE of order n

DEFINITION: A linear ordinary differential equation of

order n in the dependent variable y and the independent
variable x is an equation that is in, or can be expressed in, the
form
dn y dn´1 y dy
a0 (x) n
+ a 1 (x) n´1
+ . . . + an´1 (x) + an (x)y = F(x), (1)
dx dx dx
where a0 is not identically zero. We shall assume that
a0 , a1 , . . . , an and F are continuous real functions on a real
interval a ď x ď b and that a0 (x) ‰ 0 for any x on a ď x ď b.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The right-hand member F(x) is called the nonhomogeneous

term. If F is identically zero, Equation(1) reduces to

dn y dn´1 y dy
a0 (x) n
+ a 1 (x) n´1
+ . . . + an´1 (x) + an (x)y = 0(2)
dx dx dx
and is then called homogeneous.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

For n = 2, Equation(1) reduces to the second-order

nonhomogeneous linear differential equation

d2 y dy
a0 (x) 2
+ a1 (x) + a2 (x)y = F(x)(3)
dx dx
and Equation(2) reduces to the corresponding second-order
homogeneous equation

d2 y dy
a0 (x) 2
+ a1 (x) + a2 (x)y = 0.(4)
dx dx
Here we assume that a0 , a1 , a2 , and F are continuous real
functions on a real interval a ď x ď b and that a0 (x) ‰ 0 for any
x on a a ď x ď b.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

Linear Ordinary DE of order n

EXAMPLE 1: The equation

d2 y dy
2
+ 3x + x3 y = ex
dx dx
is a linear ordinary differential equation of the second order.

EXAMPLE 2: The equation

d3 y d2 y dy
3
+ x 2
+ 3x2 ´ 5y = sin x
dx dx dx
is a linear ordinary differential equation of third order.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

The Homogeneous Equation

We now consider the fundamental results concerning the

homogeneous equation

dn y dn´1 y dy
a0 (x) n
+ a1 (x) n´1
+ . . . + an´1 (x) + an (x)y = 0.(5)
dx dx dx
We first state the following basic theorem:

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Basic Theorem on Linear Homogeneous Differential

Equations
HYPOTHESIS. Let f1 , f2 , . . . fm be any m solutions of the
homogeneous linear differential equation(5).

CONCLUSION. Then c1 f1 + c2 f2 + . . . + cm fm is also a solution

of (5), where c1 , c2 , . . . , cm are m arbitrary constants.

The theorem states that if m known solutions of (5) are each

multiplied by an arbitrary constant and the resulting products
are then added together, the resulting sum is also a solution of
(5). We may put this theorem in a very simple form by means
of the concept of linear combination.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Linear combination

DEFINITION: If f1 , f2 , . . . , fm are m given functions, and

c1 , c2 , . . . , cm are m constants, then the expression

c1 f1 + c2 f2 + . . . cm fm

is called a linear combination of f1 , f2 , . . . , fm .

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Basic Theorem on Linear Homogeneous Differential

Equations
EXAMPLE: Show that linear combination of y1 = sin x and
y2 = cos x is also solution of the differential equation
d2 y
+y = 0
dx2
Linear combination of y1 and y2 is
y = c1 sin x + c2 cos x
We differentiate the solution to obtain
dy d2 y
= c1 cos x ´ c2 sin x, 2 = ´c1 sin x ´ c2 cos x
dx dx
Then we apply it to the DE
´c1 sin x ´ c2 cos x + c1 sin x + c2 cos x = 0
Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University
Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Linear Independence

DEFINITION: The n functions f1 , f2 , . . . , fn are called linearly

independent on the interval a ď x ď b if they are not linearly
dependent there. That is, the functions f1 , f2 , . . . , fn are linearly
independent on a ď x ď b if the relation

c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) + . . . + cn fn (x) = 0

for all x such that a ď x ď b implies that

c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Linear Independence

EXAMPLE 1: We assert that x and x2 are linearly independent

on 0 ď x ď 1, since c1 x + c2 x2 = 0 for all x on 0 ď x ď 1 implies
both c1 = 0 and c2 = 0.

EXAMPLE 2: We assert that x and 2x are linearly dependent on

0 ď x ď 1, since c1 x + 2c2 x = 0 for all x on 0 ď x ď 1 implies
c1 = ´2c2 (c1 = 2 and c2 = ´1).

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

General Solution
THEOREM: The n-th order homogeneous linear differential
equation

dn y dn´1 y dy
a0 (x) n
+ a 1 (x) n´1
+ . . . + an´1 (x) + an (x)y = 0(6)
dx dx dx
always possesses n solutions that are linearly independent.
Further, if f1 , f2 , . . . , fn are n linear independent solutions of (6),
then every solution f of (6) can be expressed as a linear
combination
c1 f1 + c2 f2 + . . . cn fn
of these n linear independent solutions by proper choice of the
constant c1 , c2 , . . . , cn .
Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University
Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

General Solution

DEFINITION: If f1 , f2 , . . . , fn are n linearly independent

solutions of n-th order homogeneous linear differential
equation (6) on a a ď x ď b, then the set f1 , f2 , . . . , fn is called a
fundamental set of solutions of (6) and the function f defined
by
f (x) = c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) + . . . cn fn (x), a ď x ď b,
where c1 , c2 , . . . , cn are arbitrary constants, is called a general
solution of (6) on a ď x ď b.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

General Solution

EXAMPLE: Consider the differential equation

d2 y
+y = 0
dx2
and its general solution

y(x) = c1 sin x + c2 cos x.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

We now return briefly to the nonhomogeneous equation

dn y dn´1 y dy
a0 (x) + a 1 (x) + . . . + an´1 (x) + an (x)y = F(x).(7)
dxn dxn´1 dx
The basic theorem dealing with this equation is the following .

P.S. Recall the homogeneous equation

dn y dn´1 y dy
a0 (x) n
+ a1 (x) n´1
+ . . . + an´1 (x) + an (x)y = 0(8).
dx dx dx

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

THEOREM
HYPOTHESIS: Let yp be a given solution of the n-th order
nonhomogeneous linear equation (7) involving no arbitrary
constants. Let
yc = c1 y1 + c2 y2 + . . . + cn yn
be the general solution of the corresponding homogeneous
equation (8).
CONCLUSION: Then every solution φ of the n-th order
nonhomogeneous equation (7) can be expressed in the form
yc + yp ,
that is,
c1 y1 + c2 y2 + . . . + cn yn + yp
for suitable choice of the n arbitrary constants c1 , c2 , . . . , cn .
Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University
Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

DEFINITION: Consider the n-th order (nonhomogeneous)

linear differential equation

dn y dn´1 y dy
a0 (x) n
+ a1 (x) n´1
+ . . . + an´1 (x) + an (x)y = F(x)(7)
dx dx dx
and the corresponding homogeneous equation

dn y dn´1 y dy
a0 (x) n
+ a 1 (x) n´1
+ . . . + an´1 (x) + an (x)y = 0(8)
dx dx dx

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

1. The general solution of (8) is called the complementary

function of Equation (7). We shall denote this by yc .
2. Any particular solution of (7) involving no arbitrary
constants is called a particular integral of (7). We shall denote
this by yp .
3. The solution yc + yp of (7), where yc is the complementary
function and yp is a particular integral of (7), is called the
general solution of (7).

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

EXAMPLE: Consider the differential equation

d2 y
+y = x
dx2
The complementary function is the general solution

yc = c1 sin x + c2 cos x

of the corresponding homogeneous equation

d2 y
+ y = 0.
dx2

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

A particular integral is given by

yp = x.

Thus the general solution of the given equation may be written

y = yc + yp = c1 sin x + c2 cos x + x.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Homogeneous Linear Equation with Constant

Coefficients

In this section we consider the special case of the n-th order

homogeneous linear differential equation in which all of the
coefficients are real and constants. That is, we shall be
concerned with the equation

dn y dn´1 y dy
a0 n
+ a1 n´1
+ . . . + an´1 + an y = 0(9)
dx dx dx
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an´1 , an are real constants.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Solution of the Homogeneous Equation

Substituting y = ekx in Equation (9), we obtain

a0 kn ekx + a1 kn´1 ekx + . . . + an´1 kekx + an ekx = 0

or
ekx (a0 kn + a1 kn´1 + . . . + an´1 k + an ) = 0.
Since ekx ‰ 0, we obtain the polynomial (auxiliary) equation in
the unknown k:

a0 kn + a1 kn´1 + . . . + an´1 k + an = 0.(10)

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Case 1. Distinct Real Roots

THEOREM: Consider the n-th order homogeneous linear

differential equation (9) with constant coefficients. If the
auxiliary equation (10) has the n distinct real roots k1 , k2 , . . . , kn ,
then the general solution of (9) is

y = c1 ek1 x + c2 ek2 x + . . . + cn ekn x ,

where c1 , c2 , . . . , cn are arbitrary constants.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Case 1. Distintc Real Roots

EXAMPLE: Consider the differential equation
d2 y dy
2
´ 3 + 2y = 0.
dx dx
The auxiliary equation is
k2 ´ 3k + 2 = 0.
Hence
(k ´ 1)(k ´ 2) = 0, k1 = 1, k2 = 2.
The roots are real and distinct. Thus ex and e2x are solutions and
the general solution may be written
y = c1 ex + c2 e2x .

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Case 2. Repeated Real Roots

We shall begin our study of this case by considering a simple
example
EXAMPLE: Consider the differential equation
d2 y dy
2
´ 6 + 9y = 0
dx dx
The auxiliary equation is
k2 ´ 6k + 9 = 0
or
(k ´ 3)2 = 0.
The roots of this equation are
k1 = 3, k2 = 3.
Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University
Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Case 2. Repeated Real Roots

The solution is NOT GENERAL SOLUTION, because linear

combination is dependent

y = c1 e3x + c2 e3x .

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Case 2. Repeated Real Roots

THEOREM:
1. Consider the n-the order homogeneous linear differential
equation (9) with constant coefficients. If the auxiliary equation
(10) has the real root k occuring m times, then the part of the
general solution of (9) corresponding to this m-fold repeated
root is
(c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 + . . . + cm xm´1 )ekx .
2. If, further, the remaining roots of the auxiliary equation (10)
are the distinct real number km+1 , . . . , kn , then the general
solution of (9) is

y = (c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 + . . . + cm xm´1 )ekx + cm+1 ekm+1 + . . . + cn ekn x .

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Case 2. Repeated Real Roots

3. If, however, any of the remaining roots are also repeated,

then the parts of the general solution (9) corresponding to each
of these other repeated roots are expressions similar to that
corresponding to k in part 1.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Case 2. Repeated Real Roots

Let’s reconsider previous example

EXAMPLE: Consider the differential equation

d2 y dy
´ 6 + 9y = 0
dx2 dx
By the theorem, we obtain the general solution

y = c1 e3x + c2 xe3x

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Case 3. Conjugate Complex Roots

THEOREM:
1. Consider the n-th order homogeneous linear differential
equation (9) with constant coefficients. If the auxiliary equation
(10) has the conjugate complex roots a + bi and a ´ bi, neither
repeated, then the corresponding part of the general solution of
(9) may be written

y = eax (c1 sin bx + c2 cos bx).

2. If, however, a + bi and a ´ bi are each m-fold roots of the

auxiliary equation (10), then the corresponding part of the
general solution of (9) may be written
y = eax [(c1 + c2 x + . . . + cm xm´1 ) sin bx + (cm+1 + cm+2 x + . . . +
+c2m xm´1 ) cos bx].
Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University
Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Homogeneous Equation

Case 3. Conjugate Complex Roots

EXAMPLE: Find the general solution
d2 y
+ y = 0.
dx2
The auxiliary equation
k2 + 1 = 0
The roots are
k1 = +i, k2 = ´i
The general solution
y = e0x (c1 sin 1 ¨ x + c2 cos 1 ¨ x)
which is simply
y = c1 sin x + c2 cos x.
Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University
Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

We now consider the nonhomogeneous differential equation

dn y dn´1 y dy
a0 n
+ a1 n´1
+ . . . + an´1 + an y = F(x), (11)
dx dx dx
where the coefficients a0 , a1 , . . . , an are constants but where the
nonhomogeneous term F is (in general) a nonconstant function
of x. Recall that the general solution of (11) may be written

y = yc + yp

where yc is complementary solution of the corresponding

homogeneous equation, and yp is particular integral.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

DEFINITION: We shall call a function a UC function if it is

either (1) a function defined by one of the following:

(i) xn , where n is a positive integer or zero,

(ii) eax , where a is a constant a ‰ 0,
(iii) sin (bx + c), where b and c are constants, b ‰ 0,
(iv), cos (bx + c), where b and c are constants, b ‰ 0

or (2) a function defined as a finite product of two or more

functions of these four types.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

DEFINITION: Consider a UC function f . The set of functions

consisting of f itself and all linearly independent UC functions
of which the successive derivatives of f are either constant
multiplier or linear combinations will be called the UC set of f .

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

EXAMPLE: Consider the differential equation
d2 y dy
2
´ 2 ´ 3y = 2ex ´ 10 sin x.
dx dx
The complementary function is
yc = c1 e3x + c2 e´x .
The nonhomogeneous term is the linear combination
2ex ´ 10 sin x of two UC functions given by ex and sin x. Then we
must form the UC set for each of these two functions
S1 = ex
S2 = sin x, cos x.
Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University
Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

Don’t forget to check functions of UC sets, they have to be
linearly independent to functions of the complementary
function.
The particular integral is

yp = Aex + B sin x + C cos x.

Then, we must find unknown coefficients (A, B, C) by

differentiation and substitution the particular integral in the DE
dy
= Aex + B cos x ´ C sin x,
dx
d2 y
= Aex ´ B sin x ´ C cos x
dx2
Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University
Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

(Aex ´ B sin x ´ C cos x) ´ 2(Aex + B cos x ´ C sin x)

´ 3(Aex + B sin x + C cos x) = 2ex ´ 10 sin x
or

´4Aex + (´4B + 2C) sin x + (´4C ´ 2B) cos x = 2ex ´ 10 sin x

Equating coefficients of these like terms, we obtain the

equations

´4A = 2, ´4B + 2C = ´10, ´4C ´ 2B = 0.

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.
Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Methods of Solving Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

The Nonhomogeneous Equation

The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

From these equations, we find that

1
A = ´ , B = 2, C = ´1,
2
and hence we obtain the particular integral

1
yp = ´ + 2 sin x ´ cos x.
2
Thus the general solution of the differential equation is

1
y = yc + yp = c1 e3x + c2 e´x ´ + 2 sin x ´ cos x.
2

Temirlan Ashimov Astana IT University

Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher-Order. Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients.