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The Geographical Unconscious
To Lydia Georgia and her generation
The Geographical Unconscious

Argyro Loukaki
Hellenic Open University, Greece
© Argyro Loukaki 2014

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.

Argyro Loukaki has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988,
to be identified as the author of this work.

Published by
Ashgate Publishing Limited Ashgate Publishing Company
Wey Court East 110 Cherry Street
Union Road Suite 3-1
Farnham Burlington, VT 05401-3818
Surrey, GU9 7PT USA
England

www.ashgate.com

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

The Library of Congress has cataloged the printed edition as follows:

Loukaki, Argyro,
The geographical unconscious / by Argyro Loukaki.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4094-2627-1 (hardback) – ISBN 978-1-4094-2628-8 (ebook) – ISBN 978-
1-4724-0001-7 (epub) 1. Arts and geography. 2. Human beings–Effect of environment
on. 3. Spatial behavior. 4. Aesthetics. I. Title.
NX180.G46L68 2013
720.1’03–dc23
2013007750
ISBN: 9781409426271 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781409426288 (ebk – PDF)
ISBN: 9781472400017 (ebk – ePUB)

III
 contents

List of Figures and Maps ix

Acknowledgments xv

introduction 1

Part I Archetypal Spatialities

1 The Space of Heroes 23

The Fire of the eyes 23
The 8th century Bc: Myth, Geographies, art 29
Tragedy and participatory spatialities 31
homer’s poetic ‘i’ 34
awesome humanity and the Tragic polis 36
spatialities, cosmologies, optics 39
Mathematics and the law 44
nature, people, architecture: interactions 50
The shield of achilles 55

2 Sappho: Light and the Sacred Cosmologies of

the Human Body 71
The Dancing Maidens 71
sacred cosmologies 72
The ‘Modern’ archaic poetic Genius and the
Dialectics of immortality 75
The poetess and homer 79
sappho’s Thiasos 81
sappho: Persona Loquens or the Voice of Generality? 82
Drawing the Divine in the poetic sphere 83
nature, Gardens, sanctuaries 86
present interpretations 88
vi The Geographical Unconscious

Part II Byzantine Participatory Spatialities and Modern Art

3 Byzantine Art, Cubism, Surrealism   99

Archaism in the Heart of Modernism   99
Spatial Conventions   106
Byzantine Intuitive Spatio-visualities   109
Western Breakthroughs   116
Cubism and Intuitive-relational Spatialities   118
Surrealism: Looking for Archetypal Associations   121
Comparison between the Three Genres   127

4 Mediterranean Fermentations in Early

Modernity: El Greco’s Mare Meum   141
Modern Mediterranean Cosmogonies   141
Crete: The post-Byzantine Greece of Greece   147
Nature in the Renaissance   152
The Theatricality of the Renaissance City   155
Literary Aesthetics in Renaissance Crete   157
Venetian ‘Harmonies’   160
El Greco and Michael Damaskinos: Two
16th-century Cretan Masters   161

Part III Modernity as Urban Visual Experience

5 Paris-Patras: Modern Urban Geographies of

Visual Elation   183
Paris-Patras: What Modernity in the European Periphery?  
183
Urban Modernity: Phantasmagoria and Mise-en-scène   192
Paris: From the Middle Ages to Haussmann   197
New Urban Vision   200
Gustave Caillebotte and Haussmann’s Paris   204
The Urban Pasts of Patras   209
Patras: The 19th-century Urban Design   212
Literary Romanticism and Urban Space as Theatre   214
The Carnival   215
The New Ontology of Vision in Patras   217
 Contents vii

Part IV Cosmopolitan Modernisms and the East: F.L. Wright,

D. Pikionis and N. Hadjikyriakos-Ghikas

6 Japanese Space as Archetype and Unconscious   233

The Fleeting Beauty   233
The Japanese Culture and the Formation of Eastern
and Western Geographical Archetypes   237
Spatial Networks and Ukiyo-e   241
Japanese Gardens   246
Politics and European Architectural Influence in
Interwar Japan   248
The post-Hiroshima Death Drive in Japanese Space   251
The post-War Period in the Work of the Architect
Kenzo Tange: Form Follows Destruction   253
The Present Spatialities and the Problems of
Japanese Development   257
From Edo to Tokyo   259

7 Frank Lloyd Wright and Japan   273

Frank Lloyd Wright: Icon and Hero   273
The Paroxysm of the Exotic: On Space, Chinoiseries
and Japonisme   277
Japan in Wright’s Mind   280
The Art Dealer: Wright or Wrong?   284
Dialogues with Ancient Spatialities   284
The Imperial Hotel in Tokyo   286
Japan in Wright’s Architecture in America   288
An Ambiguous Modernist   290
Wright’s Fluid Spatialities: Mental Journeys or
Authentication of Self?   293

8 Dimitris Pikionis, Nikos Hadjikyriakos-Ghikas

and the East   301
Contesting Objectification   301
Creative Localisms and Myth   303
Seeing the Invisible, Shaping a Consciousness   305
Searching for Greece in the East   307
Ghikas and the East   308
Pikionis and the East   316
The Filothei Garden   321
The Aixoni Settlement   324
viii The Geographical Unconscious

Part V Past-Future Space

9 Baroque Cyberspatialities   337

On Meta-optical Space   337
The Baroque: Total Resurrection   339
Metaphysics of Representation, Old and New   345
Baroque Spaces and Visions   347
The New Aesthetic: Form Follows Flux   350
New Spatialities   352

In Place of Conclusions: Space and Vision: Retraining and Rebooting   359

Bibliography   363
Index395
 List of Figures and Maps

Figures

I.1 Free sketch of the author after the famous work of Piero
della Francesca (c. 1412–92) Flagellation of Christ   2
I.2 Roman cubiculum from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistror,
c. 50–40 BC, second style   4
I.3 Free sketch of the author after architectural detail: second
panel of the original east wall of the cubiculum   5

1.1 Greeks and Trojans fighting over the dead body of Patroclus   23
1.2 The Acropolis Propylaia: dialogue between the Temple of
Nike and the sun   24
1.3 The Dionysus theatre on the southern Acropolis slope
where Athenian tragedies and comedies were performed   33
1.4 Terracotta loutrophoros (ceremonial vase for water),
attributed to the Metope Painter, Apulia, Southern Italy, 3rd
quarter of the 4th century BC   42
1.5 Detail of Figure 1.4   42
1.6 Odysseus and the Sirens. White-ground by the Edinburgh
painter, late 6th century BC   43
1.7 The Alexander Mosaic, Roman floor mosaic originally
from the House of the Faun in Pompeii, copy of image by
Aristides or Philoxenos of Eretria depicting the Battle of
Issus between Alexander the Great and Darius   43
1.8 The Parthenon from the north-west   45
1.9 The Saronic Gulf, Philopappos Hill, Piraeus, and the
islands of Aegina and Salamis from the Acropolis   46
1.10 Greek temple of Segesta, Sicily: the temple and its topos as
seen on the ascent from the valley   47
1.11 The Acropolis against Hymettus and Lycabettus Hill, seen
from the Pnyx   54
1.12 The Minoan unconscious: a famous fresco from the Minoan
site of Knossos depicts a sport or ritual of ‘bull leaping’
(Greek: ‘ταυροκαθάψια’)   58
x The Geographical Unconscious

2.1 A seated woman, reading. The reader’s name is on her

right side: SAPPWS-Sappho. Red-figure hydria of the
Polygnotos Group, 440–430 BC   71
2.2 Sandro Bottichelli (1445–1510) The Birth of Venus,
tempera on canvas   84
2.3 André Lebrun (1737–1811), The Triumph of Venus   84

3.1 Thessaloniki, detail of the St Demetrius icon, late 16th or

early 17th century   100
3.2 Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), The Reservoir, Horta de Ebro, 1909   101
3.3 Free sketch of the author after Salvador Dali’s (1904–89)
Cadaqués Seen From the Tower at Cape Creus, 1923   101
3.4 Medieval wall painting from San Silvestro, Tivoli, near
Rome, late 12th–early 13th century   103
3.5 El Greco (Doménikos Theotokópoulos), 1541–1614. The
Vision of Saint John, or, The Opening of the Fifth Seal (1608–14)  
105
3.6 The Virgin with Emperor Constantine and Emperor
Justinian I, mosaic from Hagia Sophia, situated in the
tympanum of the southwestern entrance   110
3.7 Daphni Monastery, The Nativity mosaic, 11th century   112
3.8 The Behrens residence, music room   126

4.1 El Greco as a Byzantine master: The Dormition (1565–66)   142

4.2 El Greco in Spain: The Burial of the Count of Orgaz (1586–1588)  
143
4.3 The Ida range from the Tallaia range, Rethymnon
prefecture, Crete   148
4.4 The southern shores of Crete   148
4.5 Temple of Vesta in Tivoli, early 1st century BC   150
4.6 The Delphi Tholos, early 4th century BC   150
4.7 Engraving from the tragicomic play L’ Amorosa Fede by
the Cretan theatrical author Antonio Pandimo (1602–47)   151
4.8 Bramante’s Tempietto in Rome, built possibly in 1502   152
4.9 The Arkadion Monastery, close to the city of Rethymnon   159
4.10 Michael Damaskinos, The Adoration of the Magi, St
Catherine’s Monastery, Herakleion, Crete   163
4.11 Michael Damaskinos, The Last Supper, St Catherine’s
Monastery, Herakleion, Crete   164
4.12 El Greco, The Sinai Landscape, 1570, The Historical
Museum of Crete, Herakleion   168
4.13 El Greco, The Miracle of Christ Healing the Blind, possibly
c. 1570   169
4.14 El Greco, The Disrobing of Christ, 1577–79   171
 List of Figures and Maps xi

5.1 Patras: the western seafront   184

5.2 A cove along the Corinth-Patras road   184
5.3 The Eiffel Tower   187
5.4 The ‘Byzantine’ geological formation on the national road
of northern Peloponnese   189
5.5 The Nativity, 14th century, Peribleptos Monastery, Mistra,
Peloponnese   189
5.6 Fragments of fine classical sculptures (late 5th–early 4th
century BC) swept along by river Velvitsanos, Patras   191
5.7 The landscape between Patras and Missolonghi   195
5.8 The same landscape today, with the Rion-Antirion Bridge
connecting the two shores of the Corinthian Gulf   195
5.9 Camille Pissarro, 1830–1903. The Boulevard Montmartre
on a Winter Morning, 1897   200
5.10 Patras: The Roman Odeion, mid-2nd century AD, one of
the important monuments of Roman Patras   203
5.11 Sketch of the author after Gustave Caillebotte’s The Man
on the Balcony, 1880   205
5.12 Sketch of the author after Gustave Caillebotte’s Le Pont de
l’ Europe, 1876   206
5.13 Sketch of the author after Gustave Caillebotte’s Paris Road:
Rainy Weather, 1877   206
5.14 Late Byzantine (Paleologan) art: The Annunciation, icon
from Church of St Climent in Ohrid, tempera and gold on
panel, first quarter of the 14th century   208
5.15 Patras: Square of the Upper Threshing Floors, Patras   209
5.16 Patras: arcades with painted ceilings, carnival time   213
5.17 The Renaissance Palazzo Doria Pamphili courtyard with its
arcade, Via del Corso, Rome   213
5.18 The Patras palimpsest: Neoclassical arcade of the upper city
seen from the enclosure of the Roman Odeion   213
5.19 Patras in carnival time   216
5.20 The stairs of Hagiou Nikolaou (St Nicholas) street   217
5.21 Claude Monet (1840–1926), La Grenouillière, 1869   219

6.1 Sketch of the author after a painting by Japanese film

director Akira Kurosawa of the ‘Third Castle’ scene in the
film Ran   233
6.2 Mount Penglai, the legendary home of the Eight Immortals,
was recreated in many Chinese gardens in miniature form   239
6.3 Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) Village of Sekiya at
Sumida River. Sumida River crosses Tokyo   239
6.4 Ritsurin Garden, Takamatsu, early 17th century   246
xii The Geographical Unconscious

6.5 Katsura Imperial Villa, view of the pond from the Geppa-rō
pavilion   249
6.6 Kenzo Tange’s own house, 1951–53   256
6.7 Tokyo National Olympic Stadium (1961–64)   256
6.8 Todai-ji Hall, Nara   256
6.9 The Tokyo horizon with Fuji today   260
6.10 Kitagawa Utamaro, 1754–1806, The Four Elegant
Accomplishments, c. 1788   261

7.1 F.L. Wright’s Darwin D. Martin Prairie-style house (1903–05)   275

7.2 Taliesin West (1937–59)   282
7.3 Weltzheimer Johnson Usonian house (1948–50)   283
7.4 Frank Lloyd Wright, Imperial Hotel (1916–22), perspective
drawing   287
7.5 The Imperial Hotel, Tokyo   287
7.6 The Imperial Palace, Tokyo   287
7.7 Fallingwater, 1935, among the most famous of all F.L
Wright’s works   291

8.1 The Piraeus Long Walls in their present urban environment   306
8.2 The Old Plum, attributed to Kano Sansetsu, 1589–1651   312
8.3a Nikos Hadjikyriakos-Ghikas, Kifissia   312
8.3b Nikos Hadjikyriakos-Ghikas, Kifissia   313
8.4 Nikos Hadjikyriakos-Ghikas, The Earth, 1966   314
8.5 Nikos Hadjikyriakos-Ghikas, Walls on Hydra   315
8.6 Detail from the entrance propylon at the Pikionis Filothei
playground   319
8.7 Pikionis materialized his version of modern collage by
incorporating ancient fragments into the courtyard of
St. Demetrius as everywhere else in his Acropolis landscaping   320
8.8 Zhang Feng, Chinese, active c. 1636–62 (end of Ming dynasty)  320
8.9 Detail of the Filothei playground boundary wall   322
8.10 The Grave Circle, Mycenae   322
8.11 Stone pavings follow the Pythagorean golden section in the
entrance of the Filothei playground   322
8.12 Filothei: the Corinthian capital   323
8.13 Filothei: the hut, now dilapidated, recalls Monet’s Haystacks  323
8.14 The Japonesque kiosks at the Filothei playground   323
8.15 Sketch of the author after a Dimitri Pikionis sketch,
Outdoor Seat for the Park of Aixoni   326
8.16 Sketch of the author after a Dimitri Pikionis sketch,
An Aixoni Housing Cluster   326
 List of Figures and Maps xiii

9.1 St Peter’s, Rome, a Baroque church par excellence: one of

the lateral elliptical domes   342
9.2 Rome from St Peter’s dome: visual control and Baroque
urban design   343
9.3 Putti in Saint Peter’s, Rome   349

Maps

4.1 Map of the Mediterranean   144

5.1 The Achaia Prefecture with its capital, Patras, and the place
of the Peloponnese in Greece   185
5.2 Île de France map, the Paris hinterland   191
5.3 Haussmann’s streetwork of Paris between 1850 and 1870   199
5.4 The first city plan of Patras, 1829   210
This page has been left blank intentionally
 Acknowledgments

Writing this book has been a Spiegel im Spiegel-like, a slow and long ‘mirror
in mirror’ process alongside other teaching, writing, and administrative duties.
Quoting Arvo Pärt’s oeuvre is a manner to pay my dues to the exquisite classical
music played by the Third Program of the Greek Radio-Television, now silenced
and sadly missed. Its music was really appreciated during the furious culmination
of the writing-up process which involved countless sleepless nights, but also
throughout all these years. Crises like the present one, what to some is the greatest
test for social cohesion and welfare rights in Europe, and an accruing sense of
imbalance and injustice, can have strange effects on people; though the book
originated in a deep-seated passion for the transformative power of the past as
unconscious, for the visual process and for art, their restorative potential and their
links with spatial perception.
For their readiness to help, their support and for stimulating input I have
continued to rely on old friends and mentors. David Harvey was there for
inspiring, wonderful peripatetic discussions during his visits to Athens and for
bibliographical suggestions. Besides his encouragement throughout the writing up
process, he also read and commented on some chapters. Erik Swyngedouw found
time courteously and cheerfully to go through the final draft at a hectic time of
pressing obligations and offered his generous, heartening feedback and remarks.
I am very grateful to Ashgate Publisher Val Rose for all her acute insight,
for her amazing grace, continuing faith and support during all stages through
to final publication, including choice of the book cover. Both she and David
Shervington have been considerate, supportive and swift during a number of mini-
crises regarding practicalities. The book has profited a lot from Claire Bell who
proofread the final draft with incredible promptness and care. Matthew Irving,
who supervised the final production stages and set the pictorial materials, was
extremely enthusiastic, patient, creative and considerate during our common
struggle for aesthetic quality.
The cover is based on a picture I took during a revelatory moment in the
archaeological site of Eleusis, close to Athens. This vibrating place, the sanctuary
of Demeter and Persephone, is the locus of death and rebirth, darkness and light,
conscious and unconscious. Suddenly, the place transmitted the idea of ascent
from the unconscious as earth, rock and past towards a liberating sky-future made
possible through social solidarity which is represented by this rock-cut, quasi-
theatrical space.
Pericles Nearchou and Demetra Petrou, both old friends, contributed with their
bibliographical suggestions and enthusiasm.
xvi The Geographical Unconscious

I owe many thanks to many people and institutions for the free acquisition of
pictorial materials which have been crucial for a project such as this. Professor
Marina Lambraki-Plaka, Director of the National Gallery of Arts and Alexander
Soutzos Museum in Athens and photographer Stavros Psyrouchis offered their
affable and generous input towards visual materials of the book. I am grateful
beyond words.
Eurydice Kefalidou, Assistant Professor of the National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens and Dr. Maria Chidiroglou were both instrumental towards
acquisition of pictures from the National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Many
thanks are also owed to the Director, Dr. Stefania Saviano and to Dr. Teresa Elena
Cinquantaquattro of the Naples Archaeological Museum, to Dr. Christina Acidini,
Director of the Uffizi Museum in Florence, to Dr. Eva Grammatikaki, Director of
the Historical Museum of Crete, to the Herakleion Archaeological Museum, the
Antivouniotissa Museum in Corfu, and to the Patras Archaeological Museum.
I feel very indebted to The Metropolitan Museum of Arts, New York, for
having established ARTstor which has made available a significant number of
images here.
Previous versions of some chapters were presented in various conferences and
seminars, partially published, as well as informed the teaching process. I have
certainly profited from the feedback.
Last, but not least, George and Lydia Georgia are surrounding me with their
precious, invigorating love and support. It is these that are sustaining me every
step of the way.

Piraeus, March 2014

 Introduction

We are experiencing today grave shortcomings of the promise and project of the
Enlightenment. Extreme individualism and environmental deterioration go hand
in hand with extensive commoditization, authoritarian control, brutal force and
heightened injustice; those who do not belong with ‘central spaces’ of this globe
may even be deprived of their human identity.1 An irrational worldwide economic
system is producing enormous inequalities, huge profits for the few, increasing
poverty for the many. At this time of mounting neoliberal antagonism and of the
concomitant emergence of ‘cultural autonomy’, social cohesion is made to appear
superfluous. Individuals are pushed hard to deal with multi-layered uncertainty
through socially disruptive recourse to strategic self-sufficiency and introversion.2
Even Europe, which was a beacon of social integration after the two World Wars,
is now looking more like an accounting office than the great democratic union its
founders dreamt of; the European Union trampolines on the verge of disintegration
while its political powers appear deprived of visions for the future. Meanwhile, a
new kind of self-justified internal colonialism is emergent right now, bolstered
by the combination of a perpetually reproducible indebtedness with the moral
denigration of its weaker member-states and their populations.
Globalization and hegemony are sustained by tremendous time-space
compression which depends on technological leaps in communication and
representation, as well as on the ideological legitimacy of new imperial powers.3
Technology is the prerequisite engine and flipside of globalization, not merely
as globalized capitalism, but also as unprecedented circuits of global links.
State-of-the-art technologies portrayed as objective, invincible and unlimited are
meta-perspectival and bind together virtuality with materiality, familiar visual
frames with cyber-fascination. Indeed, crisis and disillusionment at the present
juncture of capitalist development are matched with, even at times secured with,
marginal tolerance through a new frisson, techno-aesthetics. Right now, especially
among technologically literate middle-class people, insecurity and even despair
are perhaps more easily digestible because of deep cyber-enchantment.
The space created by new technologies, a space of control, prognosis, calculation,
unfettered imagination and intervention, potentially fatal, can lead vision beyond
the perspectival anthropocentricity of the Renaissance and its ‘normal’ limits,
clearly visible in Pierro della Francesca’s The Flagellation of Christ, the absolute
example of correct perspective4 (Figure I.1).
The visual familiarity of physical, anthropocentric spaces fuses with
cyberspatialities into new amalgamations which sustain the cosmogonic molding of
a new visual, aesthetic and spatial universe, a meta-perspectival infinity. What this
2 The Geographical Unconscious

Figure I.1 Free sketch of the author after the famous work of Piero della Francesca
(c. 1412–92) Flagellation of Christ.

means is that, while subjects have increasingly become viewers, technologically

created or initiated spaces, equivalent in every point, have grown independently of
viewers’ location. This technologically sustained infinity is characterized by new
global scales, new associations and a new set of impacts in economic, political and
cultural terms, and promoted by way of an unproblematic ideological legitimization,
often on appearance. It is portrayed as iconologically and ideologically neutral,5
beneficial to all humanity, though new spatialities have emerged from military
research and action.6 If spatial imaginary is essential to societies, the Western world
advances a particular idea of space right now, overpowering and aggressive.
The Renaissance perspective introduced a polar relation between a controlling
subject and its object which is observed, measured, calculated; distinction between
reason and body on the one hand as well as between spirit and nature on the
other was conscious in modernity7 at least since Descartes. At a time of colonial
expansion, Europe needed to erase the ‘Fata Morgana effect’, that is, mirage-like
ambiguities of any sort, particularly related with sea horizons and navigation, so
crucial to quite this expansion, from the visual experience. Based on the aesthetic
subjectivism of the Enlightenment,8 perspective was portrayed as a promise of
greater detachment which establishes a useful distance between observer and
observed, subject and object. Quite this polar perception reverberated among art
historians who, like Erwin Panofsky, find non-perspectival cultures backward or
even primitive.9 It still does among some art and architectural historians.
 Introduction 3

On the other hand, the visual transcendence of the subject and the elimination
of its visual centrality now happen in ways which partly evoke the ancient
participatory, non-perspectival outlook – with the difference that the eyes were
never entirely trusted back then, while technology is almost entirely trusted now.
Heraclitus said that the ‘eyes are the most reliable witnesses than all other senses’,
but also that ‘humans are deceived in the identification of the visible world’. This
outlook is deeply connected with ancient spatial perception and its survivals, for
survived it certainly has. Non-perspectival, post-cubist viewing tropes differ from
the Renaissance visual ‘window’ with its systematic representation of a calculable,
subject-centered space like Piero’s. This should come as no surprise since the
Enlightenment is never without intellectual antecedents10 and highlights the width
of mythical, spiritual and visual links with the past, among others.
Contemporary harking back to the past includes the resurrection of archaisms
in theoretical discourse: Roman law is making a reappearance as the basis for
a cosmopolitan international human rights law. And widely read critics of the
contemporary order, such as Agamben in Homo Sacer and Hardt and Negri in
Empire, found their arguments upon resurrected pre-modern concepts of justice
as well as archaic conceptions of the human condition. Actually, the question in
general, and in this book in particular, is not whether present and past are linked
(we know this at least since Baudelaire, see Chapter 5 here), but how and with
what impact. The relevance of the past, overt or covert, is attributable to the
importance of anchorage and continuity, as well as of mythological associations
to the human brain and imagination. Indeed, one need just scratch the surface to
unveil a richness of instances of convergence and influence between antiquity
and modernity, the ‘East’ and the ‘West’. The antique and the primitive, as well
as concomitant intuitive spatio-visualities remain steady atavistic leanings hidden
under opaque layers of naked utilitarianism and of hard-core profit-seeking, as
we know from Gaughin, Rodin and Picasso, as well as from Gombrich more
recently,11 in terms of art and art criticism respectively.
Paul Virilio highlights a noteworthy inconsistency in this tertiary nature,12
emerged in the formless-ness of new ‘real spaces’: on our way to scientific
conquests we quickly moved from the search for transcendental god to the search
for mechanical god, Deus ex Machina. All the while, this brave new world has been
building up its own prehistory on familiar grounds by raking up ancient myths.13
This metaphysics bespeaks the hidden, but never completely erased importance
of the past as a deep unconscious, particularly as it echoes ancient ways of
perceiving the world which were multi-perspectival and multi-faceted. Pictorial
backgrounds during the Hellenistic and the Roman times never violated the basic
anti-perspectival principle (Figure I.2). In underlying post-perspectival spatialities,
the new technological metaphysics follows on the footsteps of 20th-century
modernism: the prehistory of the connectedness with deep archaisms in space,
perception and vision is typical of the spiritual path of modernity in the course
of the 20th century. There is a modern contradiction here, because spirituality,
ingrained in art and space perception, has been challenged by the Enlightenment.
4 The Geographical Unconscious

Figure I.2 Roman cubiculum (bedroom, measurements 265.4×334×583.9 cm)

from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistror, c. 50–40 BC, second style. Image © The
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Permission granted for publication.

Cubism revolutionized vision, photography and the cinema. Video applied the
cubist aesthetic, propelling modernism beyond perspectivism and the limitations of
subjective vision14 on a grand scale. All four stand behind the present technological
revolutions, at least in regard to their aesthetic counterpart. This search continues
triumphantly not just to open up fields and worlds of interaction between humans and
machines, but also to unite the oneiric with the real. Walter Benjamin thought that
this interaction bears the promise of a more democratic world, where cultural and
social activity, as well as creative cooperation would be taking place in ever-more
complex and widely spread networks. True, the electronic revolution contains ever-
present dualities and ambiguities which risk subjecting us to external control, playing
as we do by rules unbeknownst as to their full consequences.15 But technology also
materializes the Leibnizian prophetic dream for a universal language which ciphers
and deciphers everything and which allows access to gigantic libraries.16 And we
shouldn’t forget that the internet has facilitated global solidarity.
 Introduction 5

Figure I.3 Free sketch of the author after architectural

detail: second panel of the original east wall of the cubiculum.

Cubism expressed the yearning to make the world transparent to the eye
by allowing it to enter deep into the hidden aspects and ‘mass’ of things and
by securing visual simultaneity from all points of view. Artistic genres which
are comparatively discussed in this book, including surrealism and cubism,
did manage to synthesize the aesthetic, the sensuous and the perceptual. As a
breakthrough moment to art, architecture, and later the media, cubism imitates
Jewish and Christian qualities of the divine. In fact, the new techno-space
contains its own absolute meanings and metaphysics which supersede human
measure.17 Spirituality never vanished completely from modernity; rather, it
eclipsed below a surface of rigid rationalism. That much is indicated by modern
art which masterly expressed a spiritual depth18 and potential that were no secret
to philosophers like Heidegger, Adorno and Horkheimer,19 though this is perhaps
not sufficiently acknowledged.20
Let us insist a little more on the ancient roots of virtual vision. If you look at
the Roman wall painting of Figure I.2 and Figure I.3 (to be noted in passing that
6 The Geographical Unconscious

Roman painting bears the strong influence of Hellenistic painting, 323 BC–31 BC),
you will notice that though depth and distance are indicated through a series of
overlapping orthogonal architectural volumes and their strong foreshortening,
there are no shared vanishing points, that is to say a systematic spatial rendering
is absent from an otherwise strongly geometric representation. What is indicated
is that the visual sum total is the experiential outcome of an indefinite number of
individual viewers on the move, that is, of flowing visual occurrences. And if we
imagine the level of this visual outlook lifted higher, it then turns into an aerial
‘perspective’ which suddenly nears the present networks of intersecting directions,
flows and energies.
Language is indicative, too: The closest Greek term to ‘landscape’,
ekphrasis topou or topographia, refers to smaller sections of a larger whole
described by a talented mediator in motion21 and involves no selective ‘scoping’.
In the West, however, the concept ‘landscape’ (in German Landschaft) started
off as a window that opens up exactly through selective ‘scoping’, isolation and
extraction of a place from its background, natural or human-made. The term was
relevant to the appropriation of nature and the formation of a private property,
ego-centric perspective in the observation of landscapes by the powerful.22
Accordingly, if the web and ancient visualities share a number of common
themes, certain qualifications need also be kept in mind because of all that which
intervened between the Renaissance and the present.
We may have moved to meta-perspectival realities, yet vision is linked to the
perception of real space. While this statement can be intuitively captured, it is
also the subject of analysis throughout this book. Art, particularly painting, is the
‘royal way’ for discerning space representations and visual preferences because
it incorporates turning points in the history of perception or conception early,
in a relatively costless way and explicitly. The space of the built environment
incorporates, carries and can be art, while art announces and expresses spatial
relations. It reiterates dominant and nascent notions of space and emerges visual
manners which correspond to, as well as anticipate, new technologies. Art is also
related to social becoming because it constitutes a cry for sympathy which is highly
relevant to this book. Stress on art and its geographical dimensions is far from
new anyway.23 The aesthetic parameter exists inherently, albeit relatively invisibly,
in the geographical tradition, as the intellectual heritage of the philosopher and
geographer Immanuel Kant illustrates. Geography familiarizes us and sharpens
our critical faculty with regard to major questions relevant to human action on
the face of the earth. Critics in cultural, art, sociological and geographical theory
brought to the limelight new spatialities, external and internal to the subject, such
as the various scales of development and division of labour, but also the habitat, as
well as the most personal space of all, the body.24
What this book tries to do is to draw upon the bedrock of shared and hidden
or sidestepped layers, be them aesthetic, visual, mnemonic or urban, in order to
propose a new, compassionate and participatory outlook upon society and space.
The book breaks new ground on various fronts: In view of the ‘unfinished project
 Introduction 7

of modernity’,25 it pursues a synthesis between the ancient humans-cosmos

continuity on the one hand and the meta-perspectival spatialities of the present
on the other. This involves a reflection on ancient and medieval perceptions
and representations which reveals their close relation to the human body, based
as they are on the deep ancient wisdom which believed in the unity between
humans, nature, and space, but also a reflection on their revival in modern art.
This wisdom is central to the argument here. Such persistent archaisms are
identified on the basis of art as well as of still existing ancient palimpsests – in the
architect Aldo Rossi’s words ‘urban permanences’ – in the heart of postmodern
cities. Further, the book compares spatial perceptions in the East, particularly
of the Japanese space and art, and their interpretations by modern art and
architecture, Western and Greek, which hold similarities as well as differences.
This comparison reveals the extreme wealth and variety of symbolic and cultural
exchanges on a global level besides material exchanges, a process intensified
after the 19th century, and emerges dimensions and parameters of aesthetic
sameness and difference between the East and the West.
Analysis is attuned to a number of important issues: first, against the die-hardness
of the past, the present reshuffling of ideas on space explored here, is shown to be
centered on highlighting the potential of intuitive (ancient, participatory) instead
of reflective (modern, controlling) spatialities.26 Second, the book explores the
bonds between space, art27 and visuality. Third, it also searches the historical
geography of spatial and art fusions in the Mediterranean, but also between the
West and the East.
The book contests the familiar view that European modernity sprang solely
from major cultural centers like Paris and spread to remote places. The West,
seen under the guises of art, of urban space or of the idea of constant progress
that surpasses and erases sweepingly even its own previous traces, is supposedly
diffusing unilaterally outwards to peripheral Western space and beyond in
derivative fashion. But a new take on modernity is advanced here on the basis of
evidence that modernity in all the above forms was also constructed in peripheral,
‘backward’ zones, and that a constant, though partly unacknowledged process of
exchange has been at work for centuries. It is proposed, then, that geographical
histories of modernity need to be told anew. This is equally related to the distinction
between dynamic, progressive North and passive, retrogressive South which is
contested here.
The book also advances the notion that new technologies are unconsciously
linked with previous fascinating and contradictory feats of European art and
culture, such as the Baroque, subservient to absolute power but also dissenting of
it and a transmitter of classicism in its own right.
A further thesis proposed by the book is that the aesthetic, though a highly
contested territory, has the potential of an important social consolidator.
Beyond the ordinary, three-dimensional interpretation of the aesthetic as stimulant
of the imagination, as social affectivity and as discourse on the body, a fourth
interpretation is suggested here, namely the aesthetic as constant reemergence of
8 The Geographical Unconscious

archetypes which can be revelatory as well as emancipatory. Culture in general,

and the aesthetic in particular, have long caused uneasiness to radical thought
which has tended to relegate them to a peripheral status, with some disastrous
results. A reductive Marxist reading in early 20th century saw culture as an
epiphenomenon, a superstructural entity which reflected the hard currency of
economic relations in the social sphere and perceived with trepidation what it
conceived of as the aesthetic’s élitist, exclusive character. Art’s axiomatic claim
of being expression of the absolute may have obliged philosophy to acknowledge
its superiority vis à vis knowledge,28 but may also have stirred radical qualms.
Subsequently, between Benjamin’s ground-breaking essays and Terry Eagleton’s
emancipatory The Ideology of the Aesthetic this continued being the case, with
notable exceptions, of course. Meanwhile, art history bifurcated into a traditional
theoretical emphasis on an autonomous aesthetic experience on the one hand, and,
on the other, into a socially sensitive analysis expanded as well as challenged
by theories, methods and concepts hatched within other academic disciplines.
Besides, artistic creation and praxis such as the production (and circulation) of
art, architecture, urban design and restoration never ceased, whether accounted or
unaccounted for by theory.29
With the advent of postmodernism, the aesthetic was often seen by radical
thought as symptomatic of postmodern frilliness, most exclusively related to
commercialization and consumption. Yet the aesthetic has played a dominant
role in modernity because of its conceptual versatility and actual allure. With the
aesthetic as stepping stone, European thought has spoken of, as well as processed,
a lot more, like ideology, political hegemony, the psyche and visions for the future.
Even if some aspects of the radical critique are well-deserved, what may have
escaped due attention is that behind and underneath the aesthetic lurk crucial social
layers and practical realities, including, for instance, legal judgments relating to
ideals and practices of urban constitution.30
The deep spatial undercurrents mentioned earlier are part and parcel of
what I call ‘the geographical unconscious’, drawing, but also deviating from
psychoanalytic theory. The content and use of this term need some clarification
before I turn briefly to some foundational premises of the approach here.

The Unconscious and its Geographies

The unconscious emerges every now and then in epiphanies and survivals in
societies and individuals alike as involuntary memory or as automatic response.
See, for instance, the case of Sigmund Freud. The older he got, the fonder he
grew of his collection of antiquities, the secret longings they were rising up
in him ‘perhaps from the heritage of his ancestors from the Orient and the
Mediterranean’31 and the ‘archaeological’ unearthing of his own buried mental
fragments. At about the same time as Freud, Benjamin accessed poetically and
with acumen ‘the optical unconscious’, that is, the technologically expanded
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language most requisite to be known for every traveller in these extensive
regions.
The Mandinga is spoken from the banks of the Senegal, where that river
takes a northerly course from the Jibel Kumera to the kingdom of Bambarra;
the Wangareen tongue is a different one; and the Houssonians speak a
language differing again from that.

Specimen of the difference between the Arabic and Mandinga language; the
words of the latter extracted from the vocabularies of Seedi Mohammed ben
Amer Soudani.
ENGLISH. MANDINGA ARABIC.
One Kalen Wahud
Two Fula Thanine
Three Seba Thalata
Four Nani Arba
Five Lulu Kumsa
Six Uruh Setta
Seven Urn’klu Sebba
Eight Säae Timinia
Nine Kanuntée Taseud
Ten Dan Ashra
Eleven Dan kalen Ahud ash
Twelve Dan fula Atenashe
Thirteen Dan seba Teltashe
Nineteen Dan kanartée Tasatash
Twenty Mulu Ashreen
Thirty Mulu nintau Thalateen
Forty Mulu fula Arbä’in
Fifty Mulu fula neentan Kumseen
Sixty Mulu sebaa Setteen
Seventy Mulu sebaa nintan Sebä’in
Eighty Mulu nani T’ammana’een
Ninety Mulu nani neentaan Tasa’een
One hundred Kemi Mia
One thousand Uli Elf
 ENGLISH. MANDINGA ARABIC.

This Neen Hadda

That Waleem Hadduk
Great Bawa Kabeer
Little Nadeen Sereer
Handsome Nimawa Zin
Ugly Nuta Uksheen (k guttural)
White Kie Bead
Black Feen Abeed, or khal
Red Williamma Hummer
How do you do? Nimbana mountania Kif-enta
Well Kantée Ala khere
Not well Moon kanti Murrede
What do you want Ala feeta matume Ash-bright
Sit down Siduma Jils
Get up Ounilee Node
Sour Akkumula Hamd
Sweet Timiata Helluh
True Aituliala Hack
False Funiala Kadube
Good Abatee Miliah
Bad Minbatee Kubiah
A witch Bua Sahar
A lion Jatta Sebaâ
An elephant Samma El fele
A hyæna Salua Dubbah
A wild boar Siwa El kunjer
A water horse Mali Aoud d’Elma
A horse Suhuwa Aoud
A camel Kumaniun Jimmel
A dog Wallee Killeb
Hel el Killeb or the dog-
Hel Wallee Hel El Killeb
faced race
A gazel Tankeen Gazel (g guttural)
 ENGLISH. MANDINGA ARABIC.
A cat Niankune El mish
A goat Baâ El mâize
A sheep Kurenale Kibsh
A bull Nisakia Toôr
A serpent Saâ Hensh
A camelion Mineer Tatta
An ape Ku’nee Dzatute
A fowl or chicken Susee Djez
A duck Beruee El Weese
A fish Hihu El hout
Butter Tulu Zibda
Milk Nunn El hellib
Bread Mengu El khubs (k guttural)
Corn Nieu Zra
Wine Tangee Kummer (k guttural)
Honey Alee Asel
Sugar Tobabualee Sukar
Salt Kuee Mil’h
Ambergris Anber Anber
Brass Tass Tass
Silver Kudee Nukra
Gold-dust Teber Tiber
Pewter Tass ki Kusdeer
A bow Kula El kos
An arrow Binia Zerag
A knife Muru Jenui
A spoon Kulia Mogerfa
A bed El arun El ferrashe
A lamp El kundeel El kundeel
A house Su Ed dar
A room Bune El beet
A light-hole or window Jinnee Reehâha
A door Daa Beb
A town Kinda Midina
 ENGLISH. MANDINGA ARABIC.
Smoke Sezee Tkan (k guttural)
Heat Kandia Skanna (k guttural)
Cold Nini Berd
Sea Bedu baba Bahar
River Bedu Wed
A rock Berri Jerf
Sand Kinnikanni Rummel
The earth Binku Dunia
Mountain Kuanku Jibbel
Island Juchüi Dzeera
Rain Sanjukalaeen Shta
God Allah Allah
Father Fa Ba
Mother Ba Ma
Hell Jahennum Jehennume
A man Kia Rajil
A woman Musa Murrah
A sister Bum musa Kat (k guttural)
A brother Bum kia Ka
The devil Buhau Iblis
A white man Tebabu Rajil biad
A singer Jalikea Runai (r guttural)
A singing woman Jalimusa Runaiah (r guttural)
A slave June Abeed
A servant Bettela Mutalem
Having now given some account of the languages of Africa, we shall
proceed to animadvert on the similitude of language and customs between the
Shelluhs of Atlas and the original inhabitants of the Canary Islands. The words
between inverted commas are quotations from Glasse’s History of the
Discovery and Conquest of the Canary Islands.
“The inhabitants of Lancerotta and Fuertaventura are social and cheerful;”
like the Shelluhs of Atlas; “they are fond of singing and dancing; their music is
vocal, accompanied with a clapping of hands, and beating with their feet:” the
Shelluhs resemble them in all these respects; “Their houses are built of stone,
without cement; the entrance is narrow, so that but one person can enter at a
time.”
The houses of the Shelluhs are sometimes built without cement, but
always with stone; the doors and entrances are low and small, so that one
person only can enter.
“In their temples they offered to their God milk and butter.”
Among the Shelluhs milk and butter are given as presents to princes and
great men: the milk being an emblem of good will and candour.
“When they were sick (which seldom happened) they cured themselves
with the herbs which grew in the country; and when they had acute pains, they
scarified the part affected with sharp stones, and burned it with fire, and then
anointed it with goat’s butter. Earthen vessels of this goat’s butter were found
interred in the ground, having been put there by the women who were the
makers, and took that method of preparing it for medicine.”
The custom of the Shelluhs on similar occasions is exactly similar; the
butter which they use is old, and is buried under ground many years in (bukul)
earthen pots, and is called budra: it is a general medicine, and is said to
possess a remarkably penetrating quality.
“They grind their barley in a hand-mill, made of two stones, being similar to
those used in some remote parts of Europe.”
In Suse, among the Shelluhs, they grind their corn in the same way, and
barley is the principle food.
“Their breeches are short, leaving the knees bare;” so are those worn by
the Shelluhs.
“Their common food was barley meal roasted and mixed with goats milk
and butter, and this dish they called Asamotan.”
This is the common food of the Shelluhs of Atlas, and they call it by a
similar name, Azamitta.
The opinion of the author of the History and Conquest of the Canary
Islands, is, that the inhabitants came originally from Mauritania, and this he
founds on the resemblance of names of places in Africa and in the islands: for,
says he, “Telde,[177] which is the name of the oldest habitation in Canaria,
Orotaba, and Tegesta, are all names which we find given to places in
Mauritania and in Mount Atlas. It is to be supposed that Canaria,
Fuertaventura, and Lancerotta, were peopled by the Alarbes,[178] who are the
nation most esteemed in Barbary; for the natives of those islands named milk
Aho, and barley Temecin, which are the names that are given to those things
in the language of the Alarbes of Barbary.” He adds, that
“Among the books of a library that was in the cathedral of St. Anna in
Canaria, there was found one so disfigured, that it wanted both the beginning
and the end: it treated of the Romans, and gave an account, that when Africa
was a Roman province, the natives of Mauritania rebelled and killed their
presidents and governors, upon which the senate, resolving to punish and
make a severe example of the rebels, sent a powerful army into Mauritania,
which vanquished and reduced them again to obedience. Soon after the
ringleaders of the rebellion were put to death, and the tongues of the common
people, together with those of their wives and children, were cut out, and then
they were all put aboard vessels with some grain and cattle, and transported
to the Canary islands.”[179]
The following vocabulary will shew the similarity of language between the
natives of Canaria and the Shelluhs (inhabitants of the Atlas mountains south
of Marocco).
LANCEROTTA AND SHELLUH OR LYBIAN ENGLISH.
FUERTAVENTURA TONGUE.
DIALECT.
Temasin Tumzeen Barley
Tezzezes Tezezreat Sticks
Taginaste Taginast A palm-tree
A blanket, covering or
Tahuyan Tahuyat
petticoat
Ahemon Amen Water
Faycag Faquair Priest or lawyer
Acoran M’koorn God
Almogaren Talmogaren Temples
Tamoyanteen Tigameen Houses
Tawacen Tamouren Hogs
Archormase Akermuse Green figs
Azamotan Azamittan Barley meal fried in oil
Tigot Tigot Heaven
Tigotan Tigotan The Heavens
Thener Athraar A mountain
Adeyhaman Douwaman A hollow valley
 LANCEROTTA AND SHELLUH OR LYBIAN ENGLISH.
FUERTAVENTURA TONGUE.
DIALECT.
A hayk or coarse
Ahico Tahayk
garment
A head man or a
Kabehiera Kabeera
powerful
Ahoren — Barley meal roasted
Ara — A goat
Ana — A sheep
Tagarer — A place of justice
Benehoare, the name of the natives of Palma.
Beni Hoarie, a tribe of Arabs in Suse between Agadeer and Terodant.[180]
FOOTNOTES:
[167]This Kohtan is the Yoctan, son of Eber, brother to Phaleg,
mentioned in Genesis. Chapter 10, verse 25.
[168]The African Jews find it very difficult in speaking, to distinguish
between shim and sim, for they cannot pronounce the sh, (‫ )ش‬but sound it
like s (‫ ;)س‬the very few who have studied the art of reading the language,
have, however, conquered this difficulty.
[169]Mr. Hugh Cahill.
[170]When they write to any other but Mohammedans, they never
salute them with the words “Peace be with thee,” but substitute—“Peace
be to those who follow the path of the true God,” Salem ala min itaba el
Uda.
[171]“One of the objects I had in view in coming to Europe was to
instruct young Englishmen in the Persian language. I however met with so
little encouragement from persons in authority, that I entirely relinquished
the plan. I instructed however (as I could not refuse the recommendations
that were brought to me) an amiable young man, Mr. S——n, and thanks
be to God, my efforts were crowned with success! and that he, having
escaped the instructions of self-taught masters, has acquired such a
knowledge of the principles of that language, and so correct an idea of its
idiom and pronunciation, that I have no doubt after a few years residence
in India he will attain to such a degree of excellence, as has not yet been
acquired by any other Englishman.” Vide Travels of Mirza Abu Taleb Khan,
vol. i. p. 200.
[172]Killem Abimalick signifies the Language of Abimalick.
[173]In reading Mr. William Marsden’s observations on the language of
Siwah, at the end of Horneman’s Journal, in page 190, I perceive that the
short vocabulary inserted corresponds with a vocabulary of the Shelluh
language, which I presented to that gentleman some years past.
[174]Plural Iddrarn.
[175]Or, Is derk ayeese?
[176]This is applied to bread when baked in a pan, or over the embers
of charcoal, or other fire; but when baked in an oven it is called Agarom (g
guttural.)
[177]Telde or Tildie is a place in the Atlas mountains, three miles east of
Agadeer; the castle is in ruins.
[178]The Alarbes, this is the name that the inhabitants of Lower Suse
and Sahara have, El Arab or Arabs.
[179]One Thomas Nicols, who lived seven years in the Canary Islands,
and wrote a history of them, says that the best account he could get of the
origin of the natives, was that they were exiles from Africa, banished
thence by the Romans, who cut out their tongues for blaspheming their
gods.
[180]For further particulars see Glasse’s History of the Canary Islands,
4to. page 174.
 CHAPTER XI.
General Commerce of Marocco. — Annual Exports and Imports of the Port of Mogodor. —
Importance and Advantages of a Trade with the Empire of Marocco. — Cause of its
Decline. — Present State of our Relations with the Barbary Powers.

T he city of Marocco, besides its trade with the various districts of the interior,
receives the most considerable supplies of European merchandize from the
port of Mogodor, which is distant from it four days journey, caravan travelling;
[181] some of the more valuable articles, however, are transported from Fas to
the Marocco market, such as muslins, cambricks, spices, teas, pearls, coral,
&c. and the elegant Fas manufactures of silk and gold. There is a
considerable market held at Marocco every Thursday, called by the Arabs
Soke-el-kumise,[182] which all articles of foreign as well as home manufacture
are bought and sold, also horses,[183] horned cattle, slaves, &c. Samples of all
kinds of merchandize are carried up and down the market and streets of the
city by the Delels, or itinerant auctioneers, who proclaim the price offered, and
when no one offers more, the best bidder is apprised of his purchase, the
money is paid, and the transaction terminated.
The shops of Marocco are filled with merchandize of various kinds, many
of which are supplied by the merchants of Mogodor, who receive, in return for
European goods, the various articles of the produce of Barbary for the
European markets. The credit which was given by the principal commercial
houses of Mogodor to the natives has of late considerably decreased owing to
the change of system in the government; for, in the reign of the present
Emperor’s father, the European merchants were much respected, and their
books considered as correct, so that a book debt was seldom disputed, and
every encouragement was given to commerce by that Emperor; but Muley
Soliman’s political principles differ so widely from those of his father, that the
most trifling transaction should now be confirmed by law, to enable the
European to be on equal terms with the Moor, and to entitle him to recover
any property, or credit given; these measures have thrown various
impediments in the way of commerce, insomuch that credit is either almost
annihilated, or transformed into barter, which has necessarily thrown the trade
into fewer hands, and consequently curtailed it in a great degree. For the
purpose of showing at once the traffic carried on in the port of Mogodor, I shall
here give an accurate account of its exports and imports during the years
1804, 1805, and the first six months of 1806, which are carefully extracted
from the imperial custom-house books.
 IMPORTS INTO MOGODOR IN 1804.

From London, 661 pieces, of from 40 to 50 yards each piece.

210 pieces, scarlet or media grana, from 40 to 50
yards each piece.
150 pieces, plunkets, about 40 yards each piece.
—
Superfine Cloths. London 50 pieces.
From
Leghorn 12
Other parts —
62 pieces.
—
Long Ells. London 640 pieces, coloured.
From
30 scarlet
60 embossed.
Leghorn 300 coloured.
—
Druggets. London 40 pieces,
From
—
Red Cloth. Amsterdam 17 pieces.
From

LINENS.
—
Creas. London 902 pieces.
From
Amsterdam 765
Leghorn 60
1115 pieces.
—
Plattilias. London 1047 pieces.
From
Amsterdam 4708
Leghorn 650
6405 pieces.
Brettagnias. — London 500 pair.
From
 Amsterdam 400
900 pair.
—
Cambricks. London 20 pair.
From
—
Muslins. London 21
From
Amsterdam 20
41 pieces.
—
Indian Blue Linens. London 749 pieces.
From
Amsterdam 30
779 pieces.
—
Striped India Silk. London 40 pieces.
From
—
Silk Velvets. London 131 cubits.[184]
From
Leghorn 250
381 cubits.
—
Damask. Leghorn 456 cubits.
From
Amsterdam 150
606 cubits.
—
Raw Silk. London 1150 lb.
From
Leghorn 1200
Lisbon 560
2910 lb.
—
Allum. London 95524 lb.
From
—
Copperas. London 91061 lb.
From
—
Sugar in loaves. London 36966
From
 Amsterdam 9653
Lisbon 9600
56219 lb.
—
Raw Sugar. London 7100
From
Lisbon 2100
9200 lb.
—
Iron. London 8871 bars.
From
Amsterdam 1415
Leghorn 375
10661 bars, 522700 lb.
—
Gum Benzoin. London 14239 lb.
From
Gum Lac. 51800 lb.
—
Hardware. London 19 cases.
From
Amsterdam 4 barrels
—
Gum Tragacant. London 1058
From
Amsterdam 370
1428 lb.
—
Pepper. London 9231 lb.
From
—
Cloves. London 6444
From
Amsterdam 1056
7504 lb.
—
Nutmegs. London 712 lb.
From
—
Rhubarb. London 246 lb.
From
Green Tea. — London 1310
From
Amsterdam 200
1510 lb.
—
Wrought Pewter. London 5
From
Amsterdam 7
12 casks
—
Tin Plates. London 60 cases, 13875 pieces.
From
—
White Lead. London 2530 lb.
From
—
Copper in sheets. Amsterdam 1035 lb.
From
—
Thread. Leghorn 800
From
Amsterdam 200
1000 lb.
Mirrors, called in Holland Velt Spiegels.
From Amsterdam 7250 dozen.
Leghorn 350
Mirrors of various —
Amsterdam 1750 pieces.
sizes. From
—
Earthen Ware. Amsterdam 70 cases.
From
London 16 crates.
—
Wool Cards. Amsterdam 210 dozen.
From
—
Dutch Knives. Amsterdam 13738 dozen.
From
—
Brass Pans. Amsterdam 550 lb.
From
Osnaburg Linen. — Amsterdam 180 pieces.
 From
—
Irish Linen. London 170 pieces.
From
Leghorn 150
320 pieces.
—
Lanthorns. London 100 dozen.
From
—
Glass. London 5 cases.
From
—
Red Lead. London 1853 lb.
From
—
Calamine. London 2100 lb.
From
—
Argol. London 3 cases.
From
—
Paper. Leghorn 27 bales.
From
—
Cotton. Leghorn 2400 lb.
From
—
Tin in bars. London 6000 lb.
From
—
Espique Romano. Leghorn 3850
From
Amsterdam 3000
6850 lb.
—
Coral Beads. Leghorn 50 lb.
From
—
Amber Beads. Leghorn 150
From
Amsterdam 100
250 lb.
—
Sal Ammoniac. London 1200 lb.
From
Chaplets. — Leghorn 7 barrels.
 From
—
Gold Lace. Amsterdam 10 lb.
From
Looking Glasses, —
Leghorn 4 barrels.
called bulls’ eyes. From
—
Silk Handkerchiefs. London 100
From
Amsterdam 10
Leghorn 100
210 dozen.
—
Glasses. Amsterdam 20
From
Leghorn 1
21 cases.
—
Corrosive Sublimate. Amsterdam 50
From
Leghorn 50
100 lb.
—
Venetian Steel. Leghorn 2500 lb.
From
Hebrew Books. — Leghorn 10 cases.
—
Romals. London 286 pieces.
From
—
Baftas. London 821 pieces.
From
Lisbon 350
—
Rouans. Amsterdam 505 pieces.
From
— dozen cups and
China. London 330
From saucers.
Amsterdam 30 dozen ditto.
—
Cochineal. London 375
From
 Cadiz 700
Lisbon 230
1305 lb.
—
Wire. Amsterdam 5000 mass.
From
—
Copper Tea Kettles. Amsterdam 119
From
—
Brazil Wood. Lisbon 600 lb.
From
—
Iron Nails. London 11573
From
Amsterdam 1000
Leghorn 1000
13573 lb.
—
Deals. Amsterdam 1886 pieces.
From
—
Empty Cases. Amsterdam 900 cases.
From
—
Sealing Wax. Amsterdam 20 lb.
From
—
Coffee Mills. Amsterdam 20
From
—
Buenos Ayres Hides. London 350
From
Cadiz 300
650 hides.
—
Mexico Dollars. London 18000
From
Cadiz 47000
Lisbon 16000
Teneriffe 10000
Amsterdam 8000
99000
Total value of Imports in 1804, £151450.

EXPORTS FROM MOGODOR IN 1804.

Sweet Almonds. — To London 6853

Amsterdam 231638
Leghorn 4505
Lisbon 15524
Cadiz 61041
Teneriffe 2356
321917 lb.
Bitter Almonds. — To London 233019 lb.
Amsterdam 126607
Leghorn 2980
362606 lb.
Gum Barbary. — To London 99417
Amsterdam 213540
Leghorn 10254
Lisbon 2583
Marseilles 9642
335436 lb.
Gum Soudan or Senegal, from Timbuctoo, by the caravans.
To London 36416 lb.
Amsterdam 59021 lb.
Marseilles 519
95956 lb
Gum Sandrac. — To London 16995
Amsterdam 9056
Leghorn 3314
Lisbon 2869
32234 lb.
Bees Wax. — To London 1957
Leghorn 52616
Lisbon 11595
Marseilles 30022
Cadiz 93791
Teneriffe 4878
194859 lb.
Goat Skins. — To London 12726 dozen.
Oil of Olives. — To London 5850 lb.
Amsterdam 30757
Lisbon 14729
Teneriffe 5900
57236 lb.
Cow and Calf Skins. — To London 64376
Leghorn 41611
Marseilles 14496
120483 lb.
Sheeps Wool. — To Amsterdam 62972
Marseilles 29624
Teneriffe 5300
97896 lb.
Ostrich Feathers. — To London 555 lb.
Elephants Teeth. — To Amsterdam 800 lb.
Pomegranate Peels. — To London 2184
Amsterdam 44097
46281 lb.
Dates, of the quality called Adamoh, from Tafilelt.
To London 1129
Lisbon 1305
243 lb.
Raisins. — To London 200 lb.
Worm Seed. — To London 465
Lisbon 2468
2933 lb.
Rose leaves. — To Amsterdam 138 lb.
Wild Thyme (Zater). — To Amsterdam 2860
Lisbon 1714
4574 lb.
Glue. — To Amsterdam 84 lb.
Anice-seeds. — To London 200
Amsterdam 4650
Lisbon 829
5679 lb.
Fennel. — To Amsterdam 856 lb.
Gingelin Seed. — To London 460
Amsterdam 2044
2504 lb.
Walnuts. — To Lisbon 240 lb.
Straw. — To Lisbon 24 bales.
Tallow. — To Teneriffe 1465 lb.
Tallow Candles. — To Teneriffe 350 lb.
String. — To Teneriffe 2852 lb.
Total value of Exports from Mogodor in 1804, in Europe, after paying freight,
European duties, &c. £127679. sterling.

IMPORTS INTO MOGODOR IN 1805.

WOOLLEN CLOTHS.
Yorkshire Cloths.
From London, Scarlet 300 demi-pieces from 20 to 25 yards each.
Alto of various colours 970 demi-pieces from ditto to
 ditto.
Tier blue, or plunkets 80 ditto.
Superfine cloths 62 ditto.
Long Ells 900 ditto.
Embossed Purpetts 85 ditto.
German Cloths. — From Leghorn and Amsterdam 22 pieces.
Nankeens. — From Lisbon 1000 pieces.

LINENS.
Plattilias. — From London 1300
Amsterdam 6050
Leghorn 1395
8745 pieces.
Creas. — From London 600
Amsterdam 788
Leghorn 550
1938 pieces.
Rouans. — From Amsterdam 618
Brettagnias. — From London 625
Amsterdam 1000
1625 pieces.
Baftas. — From London 1600 pieces.
Romals. — From London 1010
Leghorn 300
1310 pieces.
Muslins. — From London 70 pieces.
Blue Linens. — From Amsterdam 117 pieces.
Gum Benjamin or
— From London 19237 lb.
Benzoin.
Stick-lack. — From London 18546
Amsterdam 7959