WHEAT (Triticum aestivumL.

)
Introduction: Wheat compares well with other important cereals in its nutritive value. It
contains more protein than other cereals. Wheat has a relatively high content of niacin and
thiamine. Grain contains 60-68 per cent starch, 8-15 per cent protein, 1.5-2.0 per cent fat, 2.0-2.5
per cent cellulose and 1.5-2.0 per cent minerals.
Wheat proteins are of special significance. Besides, their significance in nutrition, they are
principally concerned in providing the characteristic substance ‘gluten’ which is very essential
for bakers. The properties of gluten in wheat are such that it produces structural framework for
the familiar spongy, cellular texture of bread and other baked products generally superior to
those from any of the other cereal grains.
Wheat is being used in varies forms like roti, chapatti, paratha, puri, dosa, noodles, upma, halwa,
kheer, payasam, laddoo, bread, bun, cake, biscuits, flakes, etc. It is also used for the manufacture
of dextrose, alcohol and certain breakfast foods.
The by-products derived from the milling of wheat include wheat bran, middling and shorts. All
these by-products are higher in protein content than wheat itself and serve as a valuable protein
supplement in many livestock rations. Wheat straw is used as excellent fodder for livestock. It is
also used for paper making, litter, mulching in the field, etc.
Origin: South-west asia
Distribution: Wheat is most widely cultivated all the cereals. It is commonly grown in North
American continent, Latin American including Europe, West Asia, North Africa, South Africa,
East Africa, South Asia and Australia. In India, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Bihar and Haryana are the main wheat producing states.
Classification: Wheat belongs to family Gramineae (Poaceae) and the genus Triticum. Although
as many as 18 species of wheat have been described and recognized, commonly cultivated
species are Triticum monococcum (Einkaran wheat), Triticum dicoccum (Emmer wheat),
Triticum duram (Durum wheat) Triticum vulgare/aestivum (Common wheat).
Climatic Requirement: Wheat is cultivated over a wide range of latitudes ranging between 600
N to 600 S, altitudes ranging from the sea level to an elevation up to 3,500 m in the tropics and
sub tropics. Normally, the most ideal conditions for wheat growth are cool and moist weather
during vegetative growth period and warm and dry weather during grain formation. Because of
this reason the great wheat regions of the world are found in the temperate zones between 30-60
o
N and 25-40 oS.
The optimum temperature for the germination of wheat is between 20-22 oC, vegetative growth
16-22 oC and grain development maximum temperature of about 25 oC. The annual rainfall
ranges between 250 and 1800 mm. Low as well as high rainfall is detrimental to wheat yield.
Short days increase the vegetative growth of wheat, whereas, longer days hasten the formation of
inflorescence.
Soil Requirement: Deep well drained sandy loam, loam or sandy clay loam with nearly neutral
pH are most suitable for wheat cultivation. In heavy soils crop may suffer due to poor drainage.
Varieties: The varieties recommended for rainfed condition are C-306, Mukta, Meghdoot, Sujata
and for irrigated condition HD-2329, PBW-343, Girija, Sonalika, Jairaj, Janak, DWR-1006, etc.
Land Preparation: Traditional system of land preparation for wheat includes one deep
ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowings and planking. In rainfed areas, summer ploughing is
useful for soaking the rain water in to deeper layers.
Time of sowing: In irrigated areas sowing should be done during the month of November and in
rainfed areas during second fortnight of October to early November to realize the maximum
advantage from the residual soil moisture.
Spacing: Broadcasting of seeds require 150 kg/ha while seed drills 100-125 kg/ha and dibbling
25-30 kg/ha. Under late sown situation or when the soil moisture is less at the time of sowing
seed rate should be increased by 25 per cent.
Spacing: Irrigated wheat is spaced 22.5 cm between rows and 8-10 cm between plants. Rainfed
wheat is spaced 25-30 cm between rows and 5-6 cm between plants. When sowing is delayed a
closer spacing of 15-18 cm between rows is recommended.
Depth of transplanting: 4-5 cm for high yielding Mexican dwarf varieties (as the length of
coleoptile of high yielding Mexican dwarf varieties is 5 cm). for late sowing, seeds should be
sown at 4 cm depth as deeper sowing will delay emergence of seedlings
Method of sowing:
Sowing of wheat is generally done by following methods.
1. Broadcasting: It the most prevailing and simple method of wheat sowing in India. Seeds
are broadcasted on soil surface, then worked in by harrowing and covered by planking.
2. Behind the Plough: In this method, the seeds are dropped by hand into the furrows that
have been opened with local plough. The seeds are dropped at a desired depth by hand
(kera method) or special attachment with local plough (called pora method).
3. Drilling: Drilling of seeds with the help of seed drill or seed-cum-fertilizer drill is the best
method of sowing. 4. Dibbling: Sowing of seeds is done with the help of a small
implement known as dibbler. Dibblers are pressed into the soil to make the holes and one
or two seeds are dropped by hand in each hole and seeds are covered. Though this
method greatly economies the seed, it is time consuming and labour intensive.
Nutrient Management: Application of nitrogen up to 40-60 kg/ha for rainfed condition and
120-150 kg/ha for irrigated condition is recommended. Use of farm yard manure, green manure,
nitrogen fixing micro-organisms like Azotobacter, Azospirillum, etc. reduces nitrogen
requirement by one-third. Nitrogenous fertilizers should be applied in two splits; 50 per cent
each as basal dose at the time of sowing and top dressing at 30 days after sowing. Requirement
phosphorus for the wheat crop is up to 60 kg/ha and potassium is 40-50 kg/ha and both are
applied at the sowing as basal dose.
Zinc deficiency soils require application of 25 kg/ha of zinc sulphate or foliar spray of ZnSO 4 @
0.5 per cent. For this 5 kg of ZnSo4 and 2.5 kg of slaked lime is dissolved in 1,000 litres of water
to spray an area of one hectare. For manganese deficient soils, foliar spray of 0.5 per cent MnSo4
is recommended
Water Management: The response of wheat to irrigation depends upon the soil and climatic
conditions. About 4-6 irrigations are required for wheat. Flooding method of irrigation is
commonly practiced by the farmers in India.
The critical stages for moisture stress are Crown Root Initiation stage (20-25 days after sowing),
flowering stage (85-90 days after sowing), Late tillering stage, Milking stage, and Dough stage.
 When only 4 irrigations are available, then apply irrigation at Crown Root Initiation
(CRI) stage,), Late tillering stage, Late Jointing stage, and Flowering stage.
 When only 3 irrigations are available, then apply irrigation at Crown Root Initiation
(CRI) stage,), Booting stage, and Milking stage.
 When only 2 irrigations are available, then apply irrigation at Crown Root Initiation
(CRI) stage,), and Booting stage.
 When only 1 irrigations are available, then apply irrigation at Crown Root Initiation
(CRI) stage,),
Weed Management: Weeds emerge with the crop and if not controlled in the early stages of
crop growth they may cause reduction in yield. First 30 to 40 days are regarded highly critical for
crop-weed competition.
The major dicot weeds like Chenapodium album, Melilotus alba, Circium arvense and monocot
weeds like Phalaris minor, Avena fatua, Cyperus rotundus, Cynadon dactylon are most
commonly found in wheat fields.
Generally weeds are controlled by hand weeding with hoe or khurpi, etc. First hand weeding is
done with the appearance of thick flush of weeds. Second hand weeding may be repeated after
two weeks.
Pre-emergence application of Pendimethalin @1.0 kg/ha and post-emergence application of 2,4-
D (ethyl ester) @ 0.3-0.4 kg/ha, Isoproturon, Metoxuron @1.0-1.5 kg/ha in 700-800 litres of
water within 30-35 days after sowing effectively control broad spectrum of weeds in wheat.
During initial growth stages, the morphological features of Phalaris minor (little canary grass)
and Avena fatua (wild oats) are closely resemble the traits of wheat seedlings. Therefore, it is
difficult to recognize them during hand weeding. They can be controlled by post emergence
application of Isoproturon, Metoxuron @1.0-1.5 kg/ha.
Plant Protection
Insect Pests
 Termites: Infestation of termites is more under un-irrigated conditions and in the field
where un-decomposed compost is applied. Termites can be controlled by the use of 4 per
cent Endosulfan dust @ 20-25 kg/ha.
 Gujhia Weevil: Control measure is same as of termites.
 Army Worm: Army worms feed on plants during night time and during day time pick
them and kill. They may be controlled by dusting 4 per cent Endosulfan @ 20-25 kg/ha
or by spraying Carbaryl @ 2.5 kg/ha.
Diseases
 Rusts: Grow rust resistant varieties. Avoid late sowing because late sown crop is more
susceptible to rusts. High dose of nitrogen favours rust infection, whereas, high potash
dose reduces rust infection. Spray Zineb at 0.2 per cent or Dithane M-45 at 0.1 per cent
after appearance of pustules. Second and third spray may be repeated with an interval of
10-15 days.
 Loose Smut: Grow loose smut resistant varieties. Production of black powder in place of
wheat grains in the ears. Uproot the infected plants, burry them into soil or burn. Seed
treatment with Vitavex @ 2.5 g/kg of seed before sowing.
 Kernel Burnt: Black powder in the grains and foul smell. Select resistant varieties. Avoid
continuous cropping of wheat in the same field. Avoid excessive irrigation during
flowering stage. Select disease free seeds and treat the seeds with Cerason Agrosan @
2.5g/kg seed.
 Alternaria Leaf Blight: Apply adequate quantity of fertilizer and water. Treat the seeds
with Vitavax @ 2.5g/kg seed. Spray Dithane M-45 or Zineb @ 0.2 per cent.5. Powdery
Mildew: Select resistant varieties. Spray mixture of Dithane M-45 and Karathane in the
ratio of 4:1 @ 2 kg/ha. The spray should be repeated twice at an interval of 10-15 days.
Field Rats
Rats cause heavy loss to wheat crop in the field. For their control fumigate the burrows of rats
with Aluminium phosphate at one tablet of 0.5 g for small burrow and 3.0 g for large burrow.
Harvesting and Threshing
When straw turns to yellow and dry is the visual indicator for harvesting of wheat crop.
Delay harvesting leads to shredding, breaking of spikes and shattering of grains. Grain should be
hard and should have 20-25 per cent moisture content at the time of harvesting. Harvesting is
generally done manually with sickle or serrated sickle. Bullock driven reapers are also used.
After harvesting, the crop is dried for 3-4 days on the threshing floor and threshing is done by
threshers. Combined harvester cum thresher is used for harvesting, threshing and winnowing in
single operation. For storage purpose, the moisture content in the grains should be around 10-12
per cent.
Yield
The potential yield of semi-dwarf wheat varieties varies between 6.0-7.5 t/ha. Grain
yields of 4.0-5.0 t/ha is obtained in the farmer’s field.
Cropping System
In traditional wheat belt of northern India, farmers practice rice - wheat, rice - wheat -
green gram, maize - wheat, maize - wheat - green gram, maize - potato - wheat - green gram,
cotton - wheat, pigeon pea - wheat, pearl millet - wheat cropping system. In non-traditional
wheat belt, rice - rice - wheat, jute - rice - wheat, rice - wheat - maize are followed. Wheat can
also be intercropped with a number of crops like mustard, chick pea, lentil, safflower and
linseed.
 MAIZE (Zea mays L.)
Introduction
Maize is third important cereal crop next to rice and wheat. It is one of the most important cereal
crops in the world agricultural economy both as food for man and feed for animals. It is a
miracle crop. It has very high yield potential, there is no cereal on the earth which has so
immense potentiality and that is why it is called ‘queen of cereals’.
Importance
Maize grain contains about 71.5 per cent starch, 1.97 per cent sugar, 10.3 per cent
protein, 4.8 per cent fat and 1.44 per cent ash. The protein content varies between 6-15 per cent
in different strains. Maize is the richest of the cereals in fat, with the exception of oats, and
strains of maize may contain as much as 7.0 per cent fat. Maize is poor in Ca but rich in P and K
like other cereals. Mg, Na and Cl are very less and Fe is sufficient.
Maize is used locally as the major cereal in the traditional areas in the form of chapatti. In
addition, tender ears are consumed in roasted form. Pop corn is consumed upon heating. Use of
flakes, bread, buns, rusks and biscuits etc. is becoming popular. Baby corn is used as vegetable
as salads, manchuri, etc.
Maize is used as an important ingredient in animal feed. It is a basic ingredient of swine
and poultry rations. Maize stover is used as fodder for animals.
Maize starch is used in textile industry, paper industry, oil well drilling, batteries, leather
and foods materials. Maize starch is the raw material for sweeteners. The maize syrups and high
fructose corn syrups (HFCS) are sold as liquids.
Maize oil is a very fine cooking medium when fully refined with nearly 90 per cent
polyunsaturated fats e.g. corn oil. It is only the cereal from which oil can be extracted.
Maize oil cakes can be used as organic manure.
Alcohol extracted from maize is used both as a substitute for petrol as being developed in
Brazil and as industrial ethyl alcohol. Bio-degradable plastics made by co-polymerizing organic
(starch) and synthetic polymers are already in use for agriculture and other purposes.
Origin: Maize has been cultivated for thousands of years. During archeological excavations in
New Mexico, grains of maize and parts of maize ears found in caves and rocks shelter, which are
thought to be about 4,500 years old.
Distribution: Although in the first instance maize was grown in the gardens rarely, its value was
very soon recognized as a food crop. So maize spread over large area of Spain, Portugal, France,
Italy, South Eastern Europe and North Africa in the years following its introduction. The
Portuguese brought it to West Coast of Africa in the beginning of 16th century and somewhat
later to India and China.

Classification
Maize is an annual plant belonging to family Graminae/Poaceae and the genus Zea. The genus
Zea has only one species Zea mays (L.). It is divided into seven groups. The classification is
based on largely on the character of the kernels.
1. Flint Corn (Zea mays indurata): The endosperm in this type of maize kernel is soft and
starchy in the centre and completely enclosed by a very hard outer layer. The kernels are
usually rounded but are sometimes short and flat. Colour may be white or yellow. This is
the type most commonly cultivated in India.
2. Dent Corn (Zea mays indentata): Kernels have both hard and soft starches. The hard
starch extends on the sides, and the soft starch is in the centre and extends to the top of
the kernels. Rapid drying and shrinkage of the soft starch results in characteristic denting.
This is the most common type of maize grown in U.S.A.
3. Pop Corn (Zea mays everta): It possesses exceptional popping qualities. The kernels are
usually small and contain an even higher percentage of hard starch than flint corn. When
they are heated the pressure buildup within the kernel suddenly results in an explosion
and the grain is turned inside out. The corn is used for human consumption as freshly
popped maize.
4. Sweet Corn (Zea mays saccharata): Sweet corn contains glassy, sweetish starch. It is
characterized by a translucent sweet horny appearance when immature and a wrinkled
condition when dry. The ears are picked green for table use and canning. It contains 5.0
per cent sugar as compared to 2.0 per cent in dent and 2.3 per cent in flint type.
5. Floor Corn or Soft Corn (Zea mays amylacea): Floor maize is somewhat similar to Flint
corn in plant and ear characteristics. Kernels are composed of entirely of soft starch. They
especially develop no dent or only a very small one.
6. Pod Corn (Zea mays tunicata): Pod corn is characterized by having each kernel enclosed
within a pod or husk. It belongs to one of the earliest domesticated types and hence it is
not grown commercially.
7. Waxy Corn (Zea mays ceretina kulesh): The endosperm of the kernel when cut or broken
gives a waxy appearance. The starch is gummy and has some of the characteristics of
tapioca. It is now being grown commercially on a small scale to produce starch similar to
tapioca starch.
Climatic Requirement
Maize crop is being cultivated in the latitude of 58 oN to 35-40 oS. Though the crop is cultivated
on a very wide range of agro-climatic conditions, yet moderate temperature with sufficient
supply of water is most favourable. Temperature below 12 oC and higher than 30oC does not
favour its cultivation.
Soil Requirement
Maize requires well drained soil and cannot with stand water logged situation. It can be grown
on the soils having pH ranging from 5.5-8.0.

Varieties
A number of maize hybrids and composites for kharif and rabi seasons have been recommended.
Hybrids like Ganga safed-2, Ganga-5, Ganga-9, Deccan, Deccan-103, composites like Kisan,
Tarun, Harsha, Arun, Renuka, Kiran and fodder varieties like African tall, Deccan, Deccan 103,
Ganga-5, CO-1 etc. are recommended for cultivation.
Land Preparation
The main objectives of land tilling are to prepare a good tilth in the soil for seed germination,
scrap the weeds and stubble of previous crop and conserve moisture for the crop. One deep
ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowings and planking are necessary for this crop. In rainfed areas,
summer ploughing is useful for soaking the rain water in to deeper layers.
Sowing
Time of Sowing is indirectly determined by the soil and atmospheric temperature as well as by
the supply of water. Thus, there is a general preference for sowing of the crop at the time of
onset of monsoon. Late planting in mid-monsoon period creates numerous problems.
Depth of sowing
For obtaining perfect germination and uniform stand, placement of seed at a desired depth is one
of the most important factors. A uniform depth of 5.0 cm is ideal for better germination.
Seed rate and plant geometry of maize for different purposes
Purpose Seed rate Plant geometry Plant population
(kg/ha) (row-to-row x plant-to-plant) (No./ha)
Grain 20 60 cm x 20 cm, 83,333
75 cm x 20 cm 66,666
Sweet corn 8 75 cm x 25 cm, 53,333
75 cm x 30 cm 44,444
Baby corn 25 60 cm x 15 cm, 1,11,111
60 cm x 20 cm 83,333
Pop corn 12 60 cm x 20 cm 83,333
Green cob 20 60 cm x 20 cm, 83,333
75 cm x 20 cm 66,666
Fodder 50 30 cm x 10 cm 3,33,333

Method of Sowing
1. Flat Sowing: On light soils crop is sown on the smooth seed bed. If necessary, crop can
be earthen up subsequently to avoid plant lodging.
 2. Raised bed /Ridge Sowing: Ridges are prepared and the sowing is done on top. This
system of planting is very useful during rainy and winter seasons, both under excess
moisture and limited irrigation availability conditions. Excess water flows through the
trenches and thus contact with seeds or plants is avoided during the rainy season.
3. Furrow Sowing: Under low moisture conditions, this is one of the most effective
methods of sowing. Moisture in furrows continues to be available for a longer period.
4. Transplanting: Can be successfully cultivated by transplanting in the winter season. The
nursery sown from 10-20 November can be transplanted from mid-December to mid-
January. Only one-month-old seedlings may be used for transplanting.
5. Zero-till sowing: Maize can be successfully grown without any preparatory tillage under
no-till situation after conventional or zero-till wheat. This helps in lowering cost of
cultivation, higher profitability and better resource use efficiency. Seed and fertilizers are
placed in bands using zero-till seed-cum-fertilizer drill under appropriate soil moisture
conditions.
Nutrient Management
The requirement of nutrients by hybrids is higher because of its greater potential for grain
production.
Manures: The application of 10-20 tonnes of well-decomposed farm yard manure per hectare
helps in improving the yield under irrigated conditions and 7.5 t/ha under rainfed conditions.
FYM should be applied at least 10-15 days prior to sowing.
Fertilizers
Nitrogen: Nitrogen level in the range of 100-120 kg/ha is applied. There is a gradual increase in
the requirement of nitrogen by the growing crop, with the highest nitrogen requirement being
exhibited at the flowering stage. Subsequently, the demand for nitrogen starts declining.
Therefore, adequate nitrogen supply should be ensured from germination to the flowering stage.
To achieve this, nitrogen is usually applied in three equal splits at the sowing, knee-high stage
and tasseling stages.
Phosphorus: It is the next most important plant nutrient after nitrogen which is found deficient
in most soils. It has a beneficial effect on root growth and plant health. Application of 40-60
kg/ha P2O5 is necessary for getting better yields. Its application in single doses as a placement
below seed is highly desirable.
Potassium: Potassium is essential for vigorous growth of the plant and for so many other
metabolic activities. Placement of 30-40 kg K 2O/ha potassium a little away from the seed is
generally found to be quite adequate.
Zinc: Zinc deficiency in maize is known as “white bud”. The deficiency symptoms appear
within two weeks of seedling emergence. Higher uptake of other nutrients increases the demand
for zinc. It is, therefore, advisable to apply zinc sulphate @ 20-25 kg/ha in those conditions
where its deficiency is more conspicuous.
Water Management
It is important to note that a few hours of waterlogging at the germination stage may cause a
complete wipe out of the crop. Flooding the crop for a duration of 24 to 72 hours may cause 30-
40 per cent damage in crop yield. It is, therefore, essential to prevent such a high loss by proper
water management. Wherever possible, maize sowing may be undertaken before the onset of
monsoon preferably 10 to 20 days in advance. By doing so the high rainfall period will coincide
with the grand growth period of the crop and may not have any adverse effect on the crop yield.
Under moisture-stressed conditions to achieve higher water use efficiency, the crop has to be
sown in furrows instead of ridges
Young seedlings, knee-high, flowering and grain filling are the most sensitive stages for
moisture stress; hence irrigation should be ensuring at these stages. Irrigation scheduling can be
done under moisture-scarce conditions as follows:
 5 irrigations: 6-leaf, late knee-high, tasseling, 50% silking, and dough stages
 4 irrigations: 6-leaf, late knee-high, 50% silking, and dough stages
 4 irrigations: early knee-high, tasseling, and 50% silking stages

Weed Management
Weeds have an inherent fast-growing and fast-multiplying capacity. They pose a serious threat in
fields of wider spaced crops like maize. The most common weeds in maize are Cyperus
rotundus, Cynadon dactylon, Digitaria sanguinalis among monocots and Tribulus terrestris,
Trainthema portulacastrum, Traintheme monogyna, Corchorus actangulus among dicots.
Weeding may be undertaken as soon as the crop germinate and attains 3-4 leaf stage (about 25
days after sowing) and may be continued till 75 days after sowing. Any delay in weed removal
may cause fall in grain yield. Unweeded crop is likely to give 50 per cent less yields as compared
to clean seed bed. Weeds are usually controlled by manual labourers in 2-3 operations. Atrazine
and simazine are the two most popular herbicides for maize that check the emergence and
growth of a wide spectrum of weeds. Pre-emergence application of atrazine/simazine @ 1-1.5
kg/ha in 600 litres water give effective weed control. In legume-cereal mixture, Pendimethalin at
2.5 l/ha has been found to be the most effective and protects both the legume and cereal crop in
pre-emergence application.

Plant Protection
Insect Pests: Stem Borer, White Grubs, Termites, Hairy Caterpillars and Climbing Cutworms
Diseases: Leaf Blight, Rust, Downey Mildew

Harvesting and Threshing

Harvest maize cop when husk has turned yellow and grains are hard enough having less than 30
per cent moisture. Do not wait for stalks and leaves to dry because they remain green in most of
the hybrids and composites.
Remove the husk from the cobs and then dry them in the sun for seven to eight days. Thereafter
grains are removed either by beating the cobs with sticks or with the help of maize threshers.
After threshing dry them under sunshine and bring the moisture to 10 to 12 per cent and store
them. The stover may be harvested and fed to animals.

Yield
By following improved cultivation practices, maize yields 5-6 t/ha of grain in case of hybrids and
4.5-5.0 tons in case of composites under irrigated conditions. In case of rainfed crop yield levels
are about 2.0-2.5 tons for hybrids and 1.5-2.0 tons for composites.
Cropping System
Maize-based crop rotations and intercrops followed are as follows.
Crop Rotations: Maize - wheat, maize - potato, maize - potato - cowpea, maize - mustard,
maize - barley, maize - ragi, maize - sunflower, maize - groundnut and maize - safflower.
Intercrops: Maize + red gram, maize + soybean, maize + onion, maize + cowpea, maize + black
gram, maize + green gram, maize + cluster bean, maize + sesame, maize + groundnut and maize
+ horse gram.
SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)
Introduction
Sorghum is also called as jowar. It is the forth in importance among the world’s leading cereals.
Millions of people in Africa and Asia depend on sorghum as the staple food. It is one of the most
widely grown dry land food grains in India. It has capacity to withstand drought. It makes
comparatively quick growth and gives not only good yields of grain but also very large quantities
of fodder.
Importance
Sorghum grain contains about 70 per cent carbohydrates, 10-12 per cent protein and three per
cent fat. It can satisfactorily replace other grains in the feeding programme for dairy cattle,
poultry and swine.
Sorghum is used for food, feed and forage. The grains are used in Chapati or eaten like rice after
boiling or as popped grains. The grains are also used as a feed for cattle, swine, poultry and
birds. Green fodder and stover is palatable to milch and draft animals. Industrial uses of sorghum
are in fortification of food, preparation of malt, beverage alcohol. Sweet sorghum varieties (17.8
% brix) are used in extraction of raw sugar.
Origin
The cultivated sorghum probably originated in East Central Africa, in or near Ethiopia or Sudan
because of the great diversity of types growing in that region. The crop was introduced in India
around 1,500 B.C.
Distribution
Important sorghum growing countries are U.S.A., India, China, Nigeria, Sudan and Argentina. In
India, important sorghum growing states are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
Classification
Sorghum bicolor (L. Moench) belongs to family graminae. On the basis of spikelet types and
grains Sorghum bicolor is divided into five basic races as bicolor, guinea, caudatum, kafir and
durra.
Climatic Requirement
Sorghum requires warm climate but can be grown under a wide range of conditions. It can
tolerate drought conditions very well because it remains dormant during moisture stress
conditions but resumes growth when favourable conditions reappear. Leaves possess waxy
coating and presence of motor cells in leaves rolls the leaves under moisture deficit conditions. It
has a high resistance to desiccation, low transpiration ratio and a large number of fibrous roots.
Sorghum can also tolerate water logging conditions better than any other cereal except rice.
Therefore, sorghum can be grown successfully in areas having an average annual rainfall
between 600 and 1,000 mm. High rainfall at heading reduces pollination and gives poor yield,
though crop is tolerant to water logging. Sorghum is grown both in kharif and in rabi. Minimum
temperature required for germination is 7-10 °C, germination does not take place if temperature
is less than 7 °C. Optimum temperature for growth is 25-30 °C. Sorghum plants can tolerate high
temperatures throughout their life cycle better than any other cereal crop. Crop is sensitive to low
temperature. Temperature below 15 °C affects crop growth adversely. It is a short-day plant.
Soil Requirement
Sorghum is raised predominantly in vertisols and to lesser extent in alfisols. Soils having good
water holding capacity, rich in humus are best suited. Black cotton soils are categorized as best
soils for its cultivation. It does not thrive in sandy soils but does better on heavier soils. Crop is
grown in pH range of 6.0-8.5. It tolerates considerable salinity and alkalinity.
Varieties
Large number of varieties/hybrids with higher yield potential than that of local has been released.
Varieties recommended for kharif season are CSV 10, CSV 11, SPV 462, SPV 475, etc. and rabi
season are CSV 11, M 35-1, A 1, CSV 8R, Swathi, etc. Hybrids recommended for kharif season
includes CSH 1, CSH 5, CSH 6, CSH 9, CSH 10, SPH 468, etc. and rabi season includes CSH
12R, CSH 13R, CSH 5, CSH 10, SPH 677, etc.

Land Preparation
Crop needs good tilth. Field is prepared by one deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowings or
ploughings with country plough immediately after onset of monsoon. Planking should be done
after each ploughing to break the clods and to level the field.
Sowing
Time of Sowing: Sorghum is sown thrice in a year. In north it is sown in kharif and summer and
in west and south besides kharif, rabi crop is also taken. Kharif sorghum is generally sown with
the onset of monsoon. Late sown crop is susceptible to shoot fly and midge. Dry sowing just
before onset of monsoon is the best. Rabi crop of sorghum should be sown around middle of
September. Summer sorghum is mainly raised for fodder and crop is generally sown in March-
April in north India. In Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka summer crop is sown in
January-February under irrigated conditions.
Seed Rate and Spacing: Sorghum crop is sown at 45 x 12 cm using 9-10 kg seeds/ha.
Method of Sowing: Crop is sown with country plough; however, seed cum fertilizer drill is
efficient. Sowing sorghum in ridge and furrow system is recommended in low rainfall areas.
Generally, the depth of sowing is 3-4 cm.
Nutrient Management
Application of FYM at 8-10 t/ha prior to sowing not only provide essential nutrients but also
improve germination by reducing crust and also increases water retention capacity of soils.
Sorghum is a heavy feeder of plant nutrients. General recommendation is 60 kg N, 30 kg P2O5
and 30 kg K2O for rainfed areas and 80 kg N and 40 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O for irrigated areas.
For hybrids 100 kg N/ha is beneficial under irrigated conditions. In intercropping system with
pulses, sorghum is to be supplied with 50 per cent of recommended levels of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium. Full quantity of phosphorus and potassium and half quantity of
nitrogen should be drilled at 10 cm below at the time of sowing. Remaining half quantity of
nitrogen should be given 30-35 days after sowing at knee high stage of crop. If moisture is
scarce, avoid top dressing. In zinc deficient area, apply 20-25 kg ZnSO4 or 0.2 per cent ZnSO4
with half quantity of lime to prevent burning of laves.
Water Management
Sorghum is drought tolerant crop. They have extensive and deep root system capable of
extracting soil moisture from deeper soil layers. High-yielding varieties respond well to
irrigation. Early seedling stage and flowering primordial stages are considered most critical for
moisture stress. Generally, 1-8 irrigations are needed, depending on soil and climatic conditions.
Weed Management
Most common weeds found in sorghum fields are Amaranthus viridis, Euphorbia
macrocephylla, Phyllanthus niruri, Commelina benghalensis among broad leaf weeds; Cyperus
rotondus, Cynodon dactylon, Sorghum halepense, Dactyloctenium aegyptium among grassy
weeds.
First 30-40 days after sowing is considered as critical period for weed competition. Inter row
weeds may be controlled mechanically by running blade harrow, but intra row weeds remain.
Hand weeding with khupi or hand hoe is most common practice. Two hand weedings at 15 and
30 days after sowing effectively control the weeds. Both in inter and intra row weeds can be
controlled by using herbicides efficiently. Pre-emergence application of atrazine or Simazne @
0.25-0.75 kg/ha and post-emergence application of 2,4-D @ 0.50-0.75 kg/ha 15-20 days after
sowing direct spraying in between rows control the weeds effectively.
Striga (Striga lutea) a parasitic weed causes 15-100 per cent loss depending on severity of
infestation. Following are the ways to check its infestation and control.
1. Grow Striga resistant varieties as Co-20, N-13 etc.
2. Crop rotation with trap crops as cotton, sunflower and groundnut, destroys the seeds and
minimize the losses.
 3. In standing crop, hand pulling when population is less or spraying 2.0 kg 2,4-D sodium
salt as directed spray check its infestation and damage.
Plant Protection
Insect Pests
Shoot Fly: Insect causes damage from 1-4 week after emergence, Maggot feeds on tips resulting
into wilting of central leaf. Leaf dries and gives a typical appearance of dead heart. At later
stages, infested plant produce side tillers. Infestation can be avoided by sowing crop within 7-10
days of onset of monsoon. In rabi sowing end of September to first week of October, avoid
shoot-fly damage. Seed treatment with Furadan at 100 g/kg seed or Furadan 3G or Phorate 10 G
at sowing @ 20 kg/ha also check incidence. In case of infestation in standing crop, spray 0.025
per cent Metasystox. Repeat spraying after 15 days.
Stem Borer: Infest crop from 15 days till maturity. Larvae initially feed on leaves. Later, the
larvae bore into the main stem causing stem tunneling leading to breakage of stem. Preventive
measures are to uproot and burn the stubbles of previous crop. Infestation may be checked by
applying Endosulfan 4G or Malathion 10D or Furadan 3G in whorl @ 8-12 kg/ha at 20-35 days
after emergence after any visual symptom of insect.

Harvesting and Threshing

Crop should be harvested when grains are hard and having 20-25 per cent moisture. Crop may be
harvested either by cutting ear head or whole plant and then ear heads are collected. Crop is
threshed manually by beating with sticks or by running bullocks over heap of ear heads or by
mechanical thresher after drying. Produce is cleaned and dried in sun till 10-15 per cent
moisture.
Yield
Irrigated crop grown with full improved cultivation practices yield 4.5-5.0 t/ha of grain and 10-
11 t/ha dry fodder. Rainfed crop provides 2.0-3.0 t/ha grain with 7.5-8.0 t/ha dry fodder.
Cropping System
Ninety-five per cent of sorghum in India is rainfed. Monoculture is a common practice due to
moisture stress. With the development of short duration, improved varieties double cropping is
possible. Common cropping systems with sorghum are sorghum -chickpea, sorghum - pea,
sorghum - mustard, sorghum - wheat, sorghum - sunflower, sorghum - safflower, sorghum -
chickpea - sorghum, sorghum - wheat - green gram, sorghum- wheat - groundnut.
Intercropping of sorghum with pulses or oil seeds, paired planting system (30/60 cm) is good.
Maximum returns of soybean, green gram, pigeon pea, groundnut and safflower may be obtained
in paired rows of 30/90 cm with two rows of intercrop in 90 cm space.
Sorghum Poisoning
Young plants (30-40 days stage) contain cynogenic glucoside ‘Dhurrin’. Dhurrin inthe stomach
of animals is converted into hydrocyanic acid. Thus, when young plants (about 5 kg) of sorghum
are fed to animals, it causes carcinogenic death of cow. This is known as ‘prussic acid poisoning’
or ‘sorghum poisoning’. HCN content is more in leaves. Concentration of HCN is more in
morning, and in summer. The toxic limit of HCN is 200 ppm and concentration decreases after
50 days. To overcome this problem, avoid feeding sorghum before 50 days stage. Hay and silage
are generally free of HCN.As first aid treatment affected animals may be given intravenous
injection of Sodium thiosulphate to restore capability of oxygen transport of blood. Two full
drenches of molasses may be given to provide extra energy to animals