LJMU HD in AME

Module Name with Code -Automotive materials and

manufacturing processes -5501ICBTAE
Semester - Semester 3
Batch Number -
Lecturer Name -
Center Name -

LJMU Higher Diploma 1

Content
• Metal Joining Processes
• welding
• brazing
• soldering
• Mechanical fasteners
• Gluing

LJMU Higher Diploma 2

 JOINING PROCESSES
•Joining includes welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding of
materials.
• They produce permanent joint between the parts to be assembled.
• They cannot be separated easily by application of forces.
• They are mainly used to assemble many parts to make a system.
•Welding is a metal joining process in which two or more parts are joined
or coalesced at their contacting surfaces by suitable application of heat
or/and pressure.
•Some times, welding is done just by applying heat alone, with no pressure
applied
•In some cases, both heat and pressure are applied; and in other cases only
pressure is applied, without any external heat.
• In some welding processes a filler material is added to facilitate
coa06l/e0s9/c20e1n6ce(Joining)
 Joining Processes: Welding, Brazing,
Soldering
1. Brazing and Soldering: Melting of filler rod only
• Brazing: higher temperature, ~brass filler, strong
• Soldering: lower temp, ~tin-lead filler, weak

2. Welding: Melting of filler rod and base metals

Advantages of welding:
•Welding provides a permanent joint.
•Welded joint can be stronger than the parent materials if a proper filler metal is
used that has strength properties better than that of parent base material and if
defect less welding is done.
• It is the economical way to join components in terms of material
usage and fabrication costs. Other methods of assembly require, for example,
drilling of holes and usage of rivets or bolts which will produce a heavier
structure.
Disadvantages of welding:
•Labour costs are more since manual welding is done mostly.
•Dangerous to use because of presence of high heat and pressure.
•Disassembly is not possible as welding produces strong joints.
•Some of the welding defects cannot be identified which will reduce the
strength.
 Classification of Welding
processes
• Arc Welding
1)Gas tungsten arc welding(TIG) or (GTAW)
2)Gas metal arc welding(MIG) or (GMAW)
3)Shielded metal arc welding(SMAW)
4)Submerged arc welding
5) Plasma arc welding
6) Flux cored arc welding(FCAW)

• Resistance welding
1)Spot welding
2)seam welding
3)Projection welding
4)Resistance butt welding
• Gas welding
1) Oxy-acetylene welding
2)Oxy-hydrogen welding
3)Air -acetylene welding
4)Pressure Gas welding

• Thermo chemical welding Process

1) Thermit welding
2) Atomic hydrogen welding

• Radient energy welding Process

1) Electron beam welding
2) Laser beam welding.
Types of welding:
Welding processes can be broadly classified into
(i) fusion(non-pressure) welding, and (ii) solid state
welding(pressure welding)

Fusion welding:
In fusion-welding processes, heat is applied to melt the base
metals. In many fusion welding processes, a filler metal is added to
the molten pool during welding to facilitate the process and
provide strength to the welded joint.
When no filler metal is used, that fusion welding operation is
referred to as Autogenous weld.
Types: Arc welding, Resistance welding, Gas welding, electron
beam welding, laser welding
Solid State Welding:

•In this method, joining is done by application of pressure only or a

combination of heat and pressure.
•Even if heat is used, the temperature in the process is less than the melting
point of the metals being welded (unlike in fusion welding).
• No filler metal is utilized.

Diffusion welding: Two part surfaces are held together under pressure at
elevated temperature and the parts join by solid state diffusion.

Friction welding/Stir welding: Joining occurs by the heat of friction and

plastic deformation between two surfaces.

Ultrasonic welding: Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts and
an oscillating motion at ultrasonic frequencies is used in a direction parallel
to the contacting surfaces
 Arc welding Process
It is a fusion welding process in which the melting and joining of metals is done
by the heat energy generated by the arc between the work and electrode.
An electric arc is generated when the electrode contacts the work and then
quickly separated to maintain the gap. A temperature of 5500°C is generated by
this arc.
This temperature is sufficient to melt most of the metals. The molten metal,
consisting of base metal and filler, solidifies in the weld region. In order to have
seam weld, the power source moves along the weld line.
 Electrodes
• Two types of electrodes are used: consumable and non-consumable
• Consumable electrodes:
Present in rod or wire form with 200 to 450 mm length and less than 10 mm
diameter. This is the source of filler rod in arc welding.
The electrode is consumed by the arc during the welding process and added to the
weld joint as filler metal.
The consumable electrodes will be changed periodically as it is consumed for each
welding trials. This becomes a disadvantage for welder and reduces the production
rate.
• Non-Consumable electrodes:
The electrodes are not consumed during arc welding. Though this is the case, some
depletion occurs because of vaporization.
Filler metal must be supplied by means of a separate wire that is fed into the weld
pool.
Welding - Accessory
equipment
 Arc shielding
Shielding gas:
This covers the arc, electrode tip and weld pool from external atmosphere. The
metals being joined are chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in
the atmosphere.
So the shielding is done with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which inhibit
exposure of the weld metal to air.
Common shielding gas: Argon, Helium
Flux:
Used mainly to protect the weld region from formation of oxides and other
unwanted contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate removal.
During welding, the flux melts and covers the weld region giving protection and it
should be removed by brushing as it is hardened.
Additional function, other than giving protection: stabilize the arc, and reduce
spattering
 Power source in arc welding:
Both AC and DC can be used; DC is advantageous as better arc control is possible.
Polarity:
Straight polarity in which work piece is positive and electrode is negative is suitable
for shallow penetration (like in sheets) and joints with wide gaps.
Reverse polarity in which work piece is negative and electrode is positive is suitable
for deeper welds.
 Arc welding processes with consumable electrodes
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW):
-In this process, a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod which
is coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding, is used.
- Generally the filler metal has chemical composition very close to base metal.

-Filler rod coating: Coating consists of powdered cellulose (cotton and wood
powders) mixed with oxides, carbonates, combined using a silicate binder.
- This coating provides protective layer to the weld pool and stabilizes the arc.

- current: < 300 A; Voltage: 15 – 45 V.

- Applications: ship building, construction, machine structures etc.

-Materials: grades of steel, stainless steel etc. are welded. Al, Cu, Ti alloys are
not welding using SMAW.

- Disadvantages: repeated change of electrodes, current maintained in typical

range
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
 Submerged arc welding (SAW):

- In submerged arc welding also known as hidden arc welding,

submerged melt welding or sub-arc welding the arc is struck between
a metal electrode and the work piece under a blanket of granular flux.
-The welding action takes place under the flux layer without any visible
arc, spatter, smoke or flash
-In this process, a continuous bare electrode wire is used.
-The shielding is provided by external granular flux through hopper.
- Granular flux is provided just before the weld arc.
 - granular flux completely provides protection from sparks,
spatter, and radiation and hence safety glasses, gloves can be
avoided.

• -some part of flux gets melted and forms a glassy layer.

• Application:
• longitudinal and circumferential welds for large diameter pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels; welded components for heavy machinery. Steel plates of 25
mm thick are welded
 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) OR (MIG)
-In this process, electrode is a consumable wire (0.8 to 6.5 mm diameter).
-shielding gas is provided separately over arc by a pipe
-Shielding gas: Helium, Argon, mixture of gases; used mainly forAl alloys.
- active gases like CO2 is used for welding steel grade material.
- As compared to SMAW, GMAW can be used for multiple weld passes as there is
no deposition of slag and hence no brushing involved. (advantage)
-advantage: automation of welding possible as continuous weld wires are used,
and not sticks as in SMAW.
- Also called MIG (metal inert gas) welding, CO2 welding (when CO2 is used).
• Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred as metal inert gas
MIG welding, is a welding process in which an electric arc is formed
between a consumable wire electrode and the work piece metal(s), which
heats the work piece metal(s), causing them to melt, and join.
• Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas is fed through the welding
gun, which shields the process from contaminants in the air.
• A constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used
with GMAW.
• shielding gases are necessary for gas metal arc welding to protect the
welding area from atmospheric gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, which
can cause fusion defects, porosity.
 Arc welding processes with non consumable electrodes
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW):
-It uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and shielding gas (inert gas) for
shielding.
- Also called tungsten inert gas welding (TIG)

-usage of filler wire is optional and is heated by arc and not transferred across
the arc.

- Tungsten is a good electrode material due to its high melting point of 3400°C.

-Advantages: high quality welds, no weld spatter because no filler metal is

transferred across the arc.
- High skill level required to achieve good weld
- Difficult to automate
 Flux Cored Arc Welding
•
(FCAW)
FCAW is an arc welding process in which the heat for melting is
obtained from an arc between a hollow consumable tubular electrode
and the work piece.
• The hollow electrode is filled with flux. That is why the process is
called flux cored arc welding process.
• This process is economical compared to SMAW and GAW.
• Metals over a wide range of thickness can be welded.
• Because of its higher productivity FCAW is finding wide applications
for shop fabrication, field erection work and maintenance.
• It can be used for welding of cast iron, low carbon steel, low and high
alloy steels and stainless steels.
• Well known applications include machine frames, bulldozer blades,
bridge grinders, furnace tubes and diesel engine bodies.
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
 Plasma arc welding
-It is a variety of gas tungsten arc welding in which a constricted (narrow) plasma
arc is used for welding.
-In PAW, a tungsten electrode is kept in a nozzle that focuses a high velocity stream
of inert gas into the region of the arc to form a high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc
stream.
-Temperatures in plasma arc welding reach 17,000°C. This is mainly due to the
constriction of the arc. The input power is highly concentrated to
produce a plasma jet of small diameter and very high power density.
- The process can be used to weld almost any material, including tungsten.
Arc welding Electrode
 The Electrode and Coating
Coating is a combination of chemicals
• Cellulosic electrodes contain cellulose
• Rutile electrodes titanium oxide (rutile)
• Basic electrodes contain calcium
carbonate (limestone) and calcium
fluoride (fluorspar)
 Resistance Welding

• Resistance welding is the process in

which two or more parts are welded by
the coordinated and regulated use of
heat and pressure.
• The heat in the resistance welding
process is generated by the resistance
offered by the work pieces to the flow of
low voltage high density electric current.
• A typical resistance welding cycle
consists of (1) squeeze (2) weld and (3) hold period
• The resistance welding processes include spot welding, seam welding, roll
spot welding, projection welding, upset welding, flash welding and
percussion welding.
-Practically all metals can be resistance welded and the operation is quite fast.
- Weld nugget is generated by this process
-RW uses no shielding gases, flux, or filler metal.
-electrodes that conduct electrical power to the process are non-consumable
Current : 5000 to 20,000 A
Voltage : < 10V
Duration of current : 0.1 to 0.4 s (in spot-welding operation)

- Resistance in the welding circuit is the sum of (1) resistance of the electrodes,
(2) resistances of the sheet parts, (3) contact resistances between electrodes and
sheets.

-Resistance at the welding surfaces depends on surface finish, cleanliness,

contact area, force. No paint, oil, dirt, and other contaminants should be present
to separate the contacting surfaces.

-Advantages: no filler rod required, high production rates, automation and

mechanization are possible.
- disadvantages: restricted to lap joint, costly equipment
 Resistance spot welding
Importance: a typical car body has got app. 15, 000 spot welds.
In this process, the fusion of electrodes is done by electrodes having opposing charges at
one location. The sheet thickness has to be less than 3 mm for a good spot weld.
The shape of electrode tip is important like round, hexagonal, square etc. The nugget
shape will be app. 5-10 mm in this case.
Electrodes in RSW: (i) Copper based, (ii) Refractory metal (Cu, Tungsten
combinations)

Steps in spot
welding
• This is the simplest form of resistance welding and does not possesses any
problem for welding sheets ranging up to 12.5 mm in thickness.
• For best results the surfaces to be welded must be free from scales and foreign
matter.
• Spot welding machines are available in three different types : stationary single-
spot, portable single spot and multiple spot welding machines.
• Stationary single spot machines can be further classified into rocker arm type
and direct pressure type.
 Seam Welding :
• In principle, seam
welding is similar
to spot welding
except that it uses disc
shaped electrodes as
shown in fig.
• Unlike spot welding the
disc shaped electrodes are not separated after each weld but maintain a
continuous pressure over the work pieces.
• Two common types of seam weld are Lap seam welding and Butt seam
welding.
• The electrode current is timed to flow in pulses so that a row of welds is
produced along the interface.
 Gas welding / Oxyfuel gas welding
-In this process, various fuels are mixed with oxygen and burnt to perform
welding. Eg: Oxyacetylene welding
➢ Oxyacetylene welding (OAW):
In this case, welding is performed by a flame formed by the combustion of oxygen
and acetylene. The flame comes from a torch.
A filler rod coated with flux is used sometimes which prevents oxidation, creating
a better joint.
Acetylene is a famous fuel because it is capable of generating a temperature of
3500°C.
The chemical reaction between oxygen and acetylene happens at two stages as given below.
C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2+ HEAT (First stage; inner core)
The products of first reaction are combustible and second reaction occurs as,
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 = 2CO2 + H2O + Heat (second stage; outer envelope)

When both oxygen and acetylene are mixed in ratio of 1:1, then neutral flame is seen as
shown in figure. The outer envelope delivers a temperature of 1260°C and inner core has app.
3500°C.
The first stage reaction is seen as the inner cone of the flame (bright white colour), while the
second stage reaction is seen in the outer envelope (colorless but with tinges ranging from
blue to orange). The temperature is very high at the inner core which is app. 3500°C.
Total heat liberated during the two stages of combustion is 55×106 J/m3 of acetylene. But the
heat transfer factor in OAW is 0.1 to 0.3 as the flame spreads over large region.

Neutral flame in
oxyacetylene welding
 Problems and advantages of OAW:
•The combination of acetylene and oxygen is highly flammable and hence hazardous
to environment.
•It is unstable at pressures much above 1 atm
•It is mandatory for the welder to wear gloves, goggles etc. as preventive measures.
•The equipment is relatively cheap and portable. So it is used as an economical,
versatile process that is well suited for low quantity production and repair jobs.
• It is rarely used to weld plates thicker than 6.5 mm.
Gas Welding
Oxy-acetylene
flames
The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame

Carburising Neutral Oxidising

 Types of flames use in gas welding

• There are three distinct types of oxy-acetylene

flames, usually termed:
– Neutral
– Carburizing (or “excess acetylene”)
– Oxidizing (or “excess oxygen” )
• The type of flame produced depends upon the ratio of
oxygen to acetylene in the gas mixture which leaves
the torch tip.
 Types of flames
1) Neutral flame
It is produced when the ratio of oxygen to acetylene, in the
mixture leaving the torch, is almost exactly one-to-one. It’s
termed ”neutral” because it will usually have no chemical effect
on the metal being welded. It will not oxidize the weld metal; it
will not cause an increase in the carbon content of the weld
metal.
2) excess acetylene flame/ Carburising flame
as its name implies, is created when the proportion of acetylene
in the mixture is higher than that required to produce the neutral
flame. Used on steel, it will cause an increase in the carbon
content of the weld metal.
3) Oxidizing flame
results from burning a mixture which contains more oxygen than
required for a neutral flame. It will oxidize or ”burn” some of the
metal being welded.
Typical torch styles:-
Pure Acetylene and Carburizing Flame
profiles
Neutral and Oxidizing Flame Profiles
 Thermit welding
Thermite (thermit): a mixture of aluminum powder and iron oxide that produces an
exothermic reaction when ignited.
In thermit welding, the heat for coalescence/joining is produced by superheated
molten metal formed from the chemical reaction of thermit.
The following chemical reaction is seen when a thermit mixture is ignited at
1300°C. The temperature of the reaction is 2500°C.

8Al + 3Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + heat

• At this temperature, superheated molten iron plus aluminum oxide is
made that floats on the top as a slag and protects the iron from the
atmosphere.

• Applications of TW:
• Joining of railway lines, repair of cracks in large steel castings and
forgings like ingot molds, large diameter shafts, frames for
machinery etc.
• This process can be used to weld heavy parts on site.
• It is useful for welding heavy sections.
 Friction welding
-Friction heat caused by the motion of one
surface against another enables plastic
deformation and atomic diffusion at the interface

-Used by the automotive industry for decades in

the manufacture of a range of components

-The weld is formed across the entire cross-

sectional area of the interface in a single shot
process
 Friction welding
Workpieces

Motor Non-rotating vise

Spindle
Hydraulic cylinder

Chuck

Brake
 Advantages of friction welding
• Narrow HAZ
• Dissimilar metals can be joined
• No fusion zone
• Can be used under water
• very high reproducibility - an essential requirement for a mass
production industry
• Excellent weld quality, with none of the porosity that can arise in
fusion welding
• environmentally friendly, because no fumes or spatter are generated,
and there is no arc glare or reflected laser beams with which to
contend
Friction surface / Friction stir welding
 Steps in friction stir welding

• A non-consumable rotating tool is pushed into

the materials to be welded and then the central
pin, or probe, followed by the shoulder, is
brought into contact with the two parts to be
joined.
• The rotation of the tool heats up and plasticises
the materials it is in contact with and, as the tool
moves along the joint line, material from the
front of the tool is swept around this plasticised
annulus to the rear, so eliminating the interface.
 Types of Weld joint

Butt joint Corner joint Lap joint Tee joint Edge joint
 Types of Welds
• The type of weld depends on the joint.
• As shown in fig. weld may be a bead weld, fillet weld, plug weld,
groove weld, spot weld or seam weld
square groove weld one side single bevel groove weld single V-groove weld

Plug weld Slot weld

Spot weld
Seam weld
Various positions that a weld
 Welding Position
# Welding Description AWS Axis
Position Designation Direction
The bottom of material is on the Weld axis is
1 Flat ground and groove is on upper side. 1G parallel to the
ground.
One of the longer edges of any one is Axis is parallel to
2 Horizontal 2G
on ground. the ground.
One of the shorter edges of both the Weld axis is
3 Vertical piece is on the ground and work piece 3G perpendicular to
is kept vertical the ground.
The weld piece is above the head in Weld axis is
4 Overhead 4G
which the groove side is on bottom. parallel to ground.
 Welding Positions

INCREASING DIFFICULTY

FLAT

HORIZONTAL
OVERHEAD

VERTICAL
 Welding defects:-
Defects in Weldments (unit formed by welding together an assembly of pieces)
• Defects occur in weldments due to improper welding procedures or due to
random causes. With proper care these defects can be prevented.
• The defects commonly occurring can be classified into 3 main categories:
1. Dimensional defects.
2. Structural discontinuities.
3. Inadequate properties.
1. Dimensional defects: Warpage, incorrect joint preparation, incorrect weld
size and incorrect profile of the weld.
2. Structural discontinuities: Porosities, inclusion, incomplete fusion, under
welding, inadequate penetration, cracks and other surface defects.
3. Inadequate properties: Low tensile strength, low yield strength, low
ductility, inadequate hardness, impact failure, incorrect composition, and
improper corrosion resistance.
• These effects may be further classified into external and internal defects.
• Defects such as incorrect profile, crater, melted edge, surface porosity are
visible on the surface and are called surface or external defects.
• Internal defects or cracks are not visible on the surface.
• These include blow holes, deep cracks, inclusions and incomplete
penetration.
• The following defects are commonly found in weldments:
1. Undercut. 2.Incomplete fusion.
3. Porosity. 4. Slag inclusion.
5. Weld cracking. 6. Voids and Craters
7. Distortion. 8. Corrosion.
•Undercut: Undercut is a small notch at the weld interface. It is caused by
too high welding current and improper welding technique. It is more likely in
horizontal and vertical welding.
•Incomplete Fusion: This is caused by insufficient penetration of the joint,
incorrect welding technique, wrong design of the joint, or poor selection of
welding parameters and improper cleaning of the joint.
• Porosity: Porosity is caused by entrapment of gases during the solidification
process. The gases mostly consists of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen of which
hydrogen is most prominent for causing porosity. Gases like argon, helium or
carbon dioxide do not cause porosity because they are insoluble.

• Slag Inclusion: Slag is formed by the reaction of fluxes and is expected to

float out at the top of molten metal and be removed after solidification. Slag
may also be present in multi-pass welds.

• Weld cracking: Weld cracking may be hot cracking or cold cracking. Hot
cracking occurs during the root pass if the mass of the base metal is very large
compared to the weld metal deposited. It can be controlled by preheating the
base metal, by changing the contour, composition of weld bead.

• Voids and Craters: It has been shown that voids upto 7% of the cross section
have not much effect on the tensile or impact strength or the ductility of the
weld. If the size of voids are larger presence of foreign matters cause a large
reduction in the strength of the weld leading to opening of cracks.
• Distortion: Distortion is one of the major problems found in weldments. It is
caused mainly by shrinkage. 3 types of distortion are possible in weldments:
1. Longitudinal Shrinkage: This occurs parallel to the weld line and is so small
that it can be ignored.
2. Transverse shrinkage: This occurs perpendicular to the weld line. It is result of
contraction of base metal which had expanded during welding.
3. Angular change or orientation about the weld line: The weld distortions occur
because of the shrinkage that takes place in weldments. It cannot be
completely eliminated but can be reduced by restraining the pieces being
joined so that the distortions cannot take place.

• Corrosion: Welding makes metals more susceptible to corrosion in a number

of ways. The intense heat of welding removes protective coatings from metal
surfaces and also changes some metals to make them more susceptible to
corrosion. For ex: welding can make stainless steel lose its corrosion
resistance.
Improper weld profile:

Weld cracks:
 Brazing
• It is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary
action between the faying (contact) surfaces of the metal parts being joined.
• In brazing, the filler metal has a melting temperature above 450°C, but below the
melting point of base metals to be joined.
• Join produced by this welding is stronger than soldering.
• This process offers better corrosion resistance.
• Filler used in brazing include Cu and Cu alloys, silver alloys and Al alloys.
• In this process heating is done by torch, furnace, induction, resistance, bath
dipping infrared techniques.
 Advantages of brazing
• Brazing can be used to join a large variety of dissimilar metals.
• Pieces of different thickness can be easily joined by brazing
• Thin-walled tubes & light gauge sheet metal assemblies not joinable
by welding can be joined by brazing.
• Complex & multi-component assemblies can be economically
fabricated with the help of brazing.
• Inaccessible joint areas which could not be welded by gas metal or gas
tungsten arc spot or seam welding can be formed by brazing.

• Applications:
1) Automobile – Joining Tubes
2) Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
3) Electrical equipment - joining wires
4) Jewelry Making
 SOLDERING
• Soldering is similar to brazing and can be defined as a joining process in which
a filler metal with melting point not exceeding 450°C is melted and distributed
by capillary action between the faying surfaces of the metal parts being joined.
• As in brazing, no melting of the base metals occurs, but the filler metal wets and
combines with the base metal to form a metallurgical bond.
• Filler metal, called Solder, is added to the joint, which distributes itself between
the closely fitting parts.
• Strength of the joint is weak
• Corrosion resistance is less

SOLDER: Alloys of Tin and Lead. Tin is chemically active at soldering

temperatures and promotes the wetting action required for successful joining.
Applications:
1) Printed Circuit Board (PCB) manufacture
2) Pipe joining (copper pipe)
Easy to solder: copper, silver, gold
Difficult to solder: aluminum, stainless steels
Comparison between Welding,soldering and brazing
Gluing

Adhesive type Notes Applications

Acrylic two component thermoplastic; quick fiberglass, steel, plastics, motor
setting; impact resistant, strong impact magnets, tennis racquets
and peel strength
Anaerobic thermoset; slow, no-air curing – cures in sealing of nut-and-bolts, close-
presence of metal ions fitting holes and shafts, casting
micro-porosities etc.
Epoxy strongest adhesive; thermoset; high tensile metal parts (especially Nickel),
strength; low peel strength ceramic parts, rigid plastics
Cyanoacrylate thermoplastic; high strength; rapid aerobic [common brand: Crazy glue™]
curing in presence of humidity plastics, rubber, ceramics, metals
Hot melt thermoplastic polymers; rigid or flexible; footwear, cartons and other
applied in molten state, cure on cooling packaging boxes, book-binding
Polyacrylate esters Pressure sensitive adhesives all types of tapes, labels, stickers,
(PSA) decals, envelops, etc.
Phenolic thermoset, oven curing, strong but brittle acoustic padding, brake lining,
clutch pads, abrasive grain bonding
Silicone thermoset, slow curing, flexible gaskets and sealants
Formaldehyde thermoset joining wood, making plywood
Urethane thermoset, strong at large thickness fiberglass body parts, concrete gap
filling, mold repairs
Water-based cheap, non-toxic, safe wood, paper, fabric, leather
 Mechanical fasteners

(a) Screws (b) Bolts, nuts and washers (c) Rivets

(a) pneumatic carton stapler (b) Clips (c) A circlip in the gear drive of a kitchen mixer

Plastic wire clips

Plastic snap-fasteners

Wire → conductor: crimping

 Recommended readings

LJMU Higher Diploma 72