MCB 519 2020/2021 EXAMS

(1a) Calculation
(1b) Outline the types of sampling methods used in epidemiological studies
ANSWER:

In epidemiological studies, sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals

from a larger population for the purpose of studying and analyzing certain characteristics or
outcomes of interest. There are several different types of sampling methods that can be used in
these studies, including:

1. Simple random sampling: This is a basic sampling method in which each individual in the
population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
2. Stratified sampling: In this method, the population is divided into subgroups (strata) based
on certain characteristics, and a sample is selected from each stratum. This can be useful
when the characteristics of interest vary significantly within the population.
3. Cluster sampling: This method involves dividing the population into groups (clusters) and
selecting a sample of clusters, rather than individual individuals. All individuals within the
selected clusters are then included in the sample.
4. Systematic sampling: In this method, the population is first ordered in some way (e.g. by
age or date of birth), and then every nth individual is selected for the sample.
5. Convenience sampling: This is a non-probability sampling method in which the sample is
selected based on convenience, rather than being randomly selected from the population.
This method is often used when time or resources are limited, but it can introduce bias into
the results.
6. Snowball sampling: This method involves starting with a small group of individuals and
then asking them to refer other individuals who meet the inclusion criteria for the study. This
method can be useful for studying hard-to-reach populations.

Q2. (a) Define the following terms

(i) Prevalence (ii) Incidence (iii) Epidemic (iv) Endemic (v) Morbidity (vi) Disease outbreak
(vii) Incubation period (viii) Sporadic cases
ANSWER:
(i) Prevalence: The prevalence of a disease in a population is defined es the proportion (or
percentage) of diseased individuals in a population at any one time.
(ii) Incidence: The incidence of a disease is the number of diseased individuals in a
population at risk.
(iii) Epidemic: A disease is said to be epidemic when it occurs in an unusually high number of
individuals in a community at the same time.
(iv) Endemic: An endemic disease is one which is constantly present, usually at low incidence,
in a population.
(v) Morbidity: refers to the incidence of disease in populations and includes both fatal and
nonfatal diseases.
(vi) Disease outbreak: occurs when a number of cases are observed, usually in a relatively
short period of time, in an area previously experiencing only sporadic cases of the disease.
(vii) Incubation period: the time between infection and the appearance of disease symptoms.
Some diseases have short incubation periods; others, longer ones. The incubation period
for a given disease is deter- mined by a variety of factors including inoculum size,
virulence of pathogen, resistance of host, and distance of site of entrance from focus of
infection.
(viii) Sporadic cases: of a disease occur when individual cases are recorded in geographically
remote areas, implying that the incidents are not related.
(b) Write short notes on the following
(i) Disease Reservoirs (ii) Zoonoses
ANSWER:
(i) Disease Reservoirs: Reservoirs are sites in which viable infectious agents man remain alive
and from which infection of individuals may occur. Reservoirs may be either animate or
inanimate.
(ii) Zoonoses: Zoonoses are diseases and infections that are transmitted between animals and
humans. These can be caused by a variety of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, parasites,
and fungi. Some examples of zoonotic diseases include rabies, Lyme disease, West Nile virus,
and avian influenza.
Q3. (a) Describe the various modes of transmission of diseases in Nigeria
ANSWER:

In Nigeria, as well as in many other countries, diseases can be transmitted through various
modes. Some of the most common modes of transmission in Nigeria include:

1. Person-to-person: This is the most common mode of transmission of many infectious

diseases, such as the flu, tuberculosis, and some sexually transmitted infections. Person-to-
person transmission can occur through close contact with an infected person, such as through
respiratory droplets or bodily fluids.
2. Vector-borne: Many diseases in Nigeria are transmitted through the bite of an infected
vector, such as mosquitoes, ticks, or sandflies. Examples of vector-borne diseases in Nigeria
include malaria, dengue fever, and yellow fever.
3. Foodborne: Foodborne illnesses can occur when people consume food or drink that is
contaminated with harmful bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Foodborne illnesses can result in
cases of diarrhea, vomiting, and other symptoms.
4. Waterborne: Some diseases can be transmitted through contaminated water, such as cholera,
typhoid fever and amoebiasis.
5. Animal-to-human: As in Zoonoses which i mentioned earlier, certain diseases can be
transmitted from animals to humans, such as rabies and avian influenza.
6. Airborne: Some diseases can be spread through the air, such as tuberculosis, measles, and
COVID-19, by inhalation of droplets from infected person.

(b) Give two (2) named examples of these types of diseases and their causative agents
(i) Gastrointestinal infection (ii) Respiratory tract infection (iii) Sexually Transmitted
disease
ANSWER:

(i) Gastrointestinal infection:

 Salmonellosis, caused by the bacterium Salmonella. This infection can cause symptoms
such as diarrhea, vomiting, and fever, and can be transmitted through the consumption of
contaminated food or water.

(ii) Respiratory tract infection:

 Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is an airborne infection that

primarily affects the lungs and can cause symptoms such as coughing, chest pain, and
shortness of breath.

(iii) Sexually Transmitted disease:

 Gonorrhea, caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrheae, which affects both men and
women. Gonorrhea can cause symptoms such as painful urination and discharge from the
genitals, and if left untreated, can lead to serious complications.

Q4. Briefly explain the following

(a) Herd immunity (b) Carriers (c) Disease cycles (d) Vaccination (e) Quarantine
ANSWER:
 (a) Herd immunity: Herd immunity refers to the concept that when a high enough proportion of
a population is immune to an infectious disease, the disease will have a hard time spreading and
therefore, will not be able to reach the susceptible individuals. This is because people who are
immune to a disease, whether through vaccination or natural infection, can create barriers for the
disease to spread, which makes it less likely for the disease to reach individuals who are not
immune.

(b) Carriers: A carrier is an individual who is infected with a pathogen but shows no symptoms
of disease. However, they can still spread the disease to other people. Carrier state can happen by
different ways, for example in bacterial infections, the individual may have bacterial colonization
in the body and in viral infections, the individual might have viral shedding.

(c) Disease cycles: A disease cycle refers to the pattern of transmission and occurrence of a
specific disease within a population over time. This can include factors such as the seasonality of
a disease, the age distribution of cases, and the overall incidence of the disease. Understanding
disease cycles can be important for predicting and controlling outbreaks.

(d) Vaccination: Vaccination is a method of preventing diseases by administering a weakened or

inactivated form of the disease-causing agent, or a piece of it (such as a protein), to stimulate the
immune system to develop protection against the disease. Vaccines can be very effective in
protecting individuals from infection and also in controlling the spread of diseases within
populations through herd immunity.

(e) Quarantine: Quarantine is a public health measure that is used to separate and restrict the
movement of people who have been exposed to a contagious disease, or those who may be
infected with a disease, in order to prevent the further spread of the disease. Quarantine can be
voluntary or mandatory, and can be used to isolate people at home or in other designated
facilities.
Q5. (a) What do you understand by Nosocomial infection?
Nosocomial infections, also known as healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), are infections that
a person acquires while receiving treatment in a healthcare facility, such as a hospital, nursing
home, or outpatient clinic. These types of infections can occur in various settings, including
surgical sites, urinary tract, bloodstream, and respiratory tract, among others. They can be caused
by a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, and can be
spread through direct contact with an infected person or by contact with contaminated surfaces or
medical equipment.
(b) Mention three (3) examples of hospital pathogens
ANSWER:
1. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): MRSA is a type of staph bacteria
that is resistant to many antibiotics, making it difficult to treat. It can cause a wide range of
infections, including skin and soft tissue infections, surgical site infections, and pneumonia.
2. Pseudomonas aeruginosa: is a type of gram-negative bacteria that can cause a range of
infections, such as urinary tract infections, wound infections and respiratory tract infections,
and it can be particularly dangerous to individuals who are in intensive care units.
3. Clostridium difficile: C. difficile is a type of bacteria that can cause severe diarrhea and
colitis, particularly in individuals who have recently taken antibiotics. C. difficile infections
can occur in hospitals and other healthcare settings and can be contracted by patients who
have had prolonged exposure to healthcare facilities.

(c) Outline Ten (10) reasons why hospital is considered as hazardous environment
ANSWER:
(1) Many patients have weakened resistance to infectious disease because of their illness
(compromised hosts).
(2) Hospitals must of necessity treat patients suffering from infectious disease, and these patients
may be reservoirs of highly virulent pathogens.
(3) The crowding of patients in rooms and wards increases the chance of cross-infection.
(4) There is much movement of hospital personnel from patient to patient, increasing the
probability of transfer of pathogens.
(5) Many hospital procedures, such as catheterization, hypodermic injection, spinal puncture, and
removal of samples of tissues or fluids for diagnosis (biopsy), carry with them the risk of
introducing pathogens to the patient.
(6) In maternity wards of hospitals, newborn infants are unusually susceptible to certain kinds of
infection because they lack well-developed immune systems.
(7) Surgical procedures are a major hazard, since not only are highly susceptible parts of the
body exposed to sources of contamination but the stress of surgery often diminishes the
resistance of the patient to infection.
(8) Many drugs used for immunosuppression (for instance, in organ transplant procedures)
increase susceptibility to infection.
(9) Use of antibiotics to control infection carries with it the risk of selecting antibiotic-resistant
organisms, which then cannot be controlled if they cause further infection.
Q6. Briefly write on the epidemiology of the following diseases
(a)HIV/AIDS (b) Cholera (c) Measles (d) Typhoid fever (e) Malaria
ANSWER:
(a) HIV/AIDS is a chronic, progressive disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV). It attacks the immune system, leading to a decreased ability to fight off infections and
certain cancers. The virus is primarily spread through sexual contact, but can also be transmitted
through blood transfusions, sharing of needles, and from mother to child during pregnancy,
childbirth, or breastfeeding. As of 2021, an estimated 38 million people worldwide were living
with HIV/AIDS, with the majority of cases occurring in sub-Saharan Africa.

(b) Cholera is an acute diarrheal illness caused by infection with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.
The infection is typically spread through consumption of contaminated water or food, but can
also be spread through direct contact with fecal matter. Cholera can cause severe dehydration
and death if left untreated, but is easily preventable and treatable with proper sanitation and
access to clean water, and oral cholera vaccine. Globally, 1.3 billion people are at risk of cholera
and an estimated 1.9 million cholera cases and 32,000 deaths occur each year.

(c) Measles is a highly contagious viral illness characterized by fever, rash, and a range of other
symptoms. It is spread through the air by breathing, coughing, or sneezing. Prior to the
development of a vaccine, measles was a common childhood illness, but vaccination has led to a
significant decrease in the number of cases. In 2019, there were approximately 7 million cases of
measles and 140,000 deaths worldwide.

(d) Typhoid fever is caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi and is spread through
contaminated food or water. The symptoms include fever, weakness, stomach pains, headache,
and loss of appetite. It is more common in areas with poor sanitation and lack of access to clean
water. Globally, an estimated 22 million cases of typhoid fever occur each year.

(e) Malaria is caused by a parasite called Plasmodium, which is transmitted to humans through
the bite of infected mosquitoes. The symptoms include fever, chills, and flu-like illness, and if
left untreated, can lead to severe illness or death. Malaria is most common in sub-Saharan Africa,
but also occurs in other parts of the world, including South Asia and Central and South America.
In 2019, there were an estimated 229 million cases of malaria and 409,000 deaths worldwide.