1.

Communication and Telecommunications

• Definition: Communication is the sharing of information, which can

be local (close range) or remote (over distances).
• Telecommunications: Includes telephony (phone calls), telegraph
(text transmission), and television (video/audio broadcasting).
• Data Communication: The exchange of data between devices
through transmission media like cables or wireless signals.

Example: Sending a text message from your phone to a friend’s phone.

2. Data Communication Model

• A basic communication model includes:

o Sender: Device sending the data.

o Receiver: Device receiving the data.

o Medium: The transmission channel (e.g., fiber optic cable, air

for wireless).
o Message: The data being sent.

o Protocol: Rules for communication.

Effectiveness Criteria:

• Delivery: Data must reach the correct destination.

• Accuracy: Data should be error-free.
• Timeliness: Data must be delivered without undue delay.
• Jitter: Variability in data delivery times should be minimized.
3. Forms of Information

• Text, Numbers, Images, Audio, Video: Various types of information

exchanged between systems.
• Data Representation: How data types are encoded for
communication.

Example: An email can include text (message), images (attachments),

and even audio (voice notes).

4. Data Flow

• Simplex: One-way communication.

Example: Keyboard to computer.
• Half-Duplex: Two-way communication, but only one direction at a
time.
Example: Walkie-talkie.
• Full-Duplex: Simultaneous two-way communication.
Example: Telephone call.

5. Network Criteria

• Performance: Measured by throughput (amount of data

transferred) and delay (time taken).
• Reliability: Consistency of the network in delivering messages.
• Security: Protection of data from unauthorized access.
6. Physical Topologies

• Mesh: Every device connects to every other device.

o Advantage: Reliable and fault-tolerant.

o Disadvantage: High cost.

• Star: Central hub connects all devices.

o Advantage: Easy to troubleshoot.

o Disadvantage: Hub failure affects the whole network.

• Bus: Single central cable with connected devices.

o Advantage: Simple and cost-effective.

o Disadvantage: Cable failure affects the network.

• Ring: Devices connected in a circular manner.

o Advantage: Equal access for all devices.

o Disadvantage: One failure disrupts the loop.

7. Types of Networks

• LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small area like an office or

campus. Example: Office computers sharing a printer.
• WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large geographic areas, often
using routers and switches. Example: The internet.

8. Switching Techniques

• Circuit-Switched Network: Dedicated path established for the

communication.
o Example: Traditional telephone calls.
 o Formula:
Connection Time=Setup Time+Transmission Time+Tear-
Down Time
• Packet-Switched Network: Data divided into packets and sent over
shared paths.
o Example: Email, streaming video.

9. Internet and Standards

• Internet (uppercase I): A global network of interconnected

systems.
• History: Began with ARPANET (packet switching), evolved with
TCP/IP protocols.
• Standards: Maintained by organizations like the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF).

Internet Protocols:

• HTTP/HTTPS: For web browsing.

• SMTP: For sending emails.
• FTP: For file transfers.

Formula for Internet Delay:

Total Delay=Propagation Delay+Transmission Delay+Queuing Delay+Proc
essing Delay

1. Protocol Layering

Concept: Protocol layering is a way to divide communication processes into

different layers, each responsible for specific tasks.
 • Simple Communication: A single protocol handles the entire process.
• Complex Communication: Multiple protocols, each assigned to a layer, work
together to handle tasks.

Example:
Imagine a courier service:

• The sender writes a letter (application).

• The courier picks it up (transport).
• The sorting center organizes routes (network).
• The delivery person delivers it (physical).

Advantages:

• Modularity: Each layer focuses on a specific task.

• Easier troubleshooting: Issues can be resolved within a single layer.
• Cost-effectiveness: Simplifies updates and maintenance.

Principle:

• Bidirectional Communication: Every layer handles tasks in both sending and

receiving directions.
• Logical Connections: Each layer communicates with its corresponding layer
on the receiver’s side.

2. TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Concept: A set of protocols that power the Internet. It’s hierarchical and comprises
several layers.

Layers and Their Functions:

1. Application Layer: Handles user interaction (e.g., HTTP, FTP).

o Example: Accessing a website via a browser.
 2. Transport Layer: Ensures data delivery (e.g., TCP, UDP).
o Example: TCP ensures your email is sent without errors.
3. Network Layer: Directs data packets across networks (e.g., IP).
o Example: IP assigns unique addresses to devices.
4. Data Link Layer: Handles error detection and data framing.
o Example: Ethernet protocols in LANs.
5. Physical Layer: Manages the transmission of raw bits.
o Example: Cables, signals, and network hardware.

Logical Connections:

• Layers interact with corresponding layers to ensure smooth data exchange.

Encapsulation and Decapsulation:

• Encapsulation: Wrapping data with headers as it moves down layers.

• Decapsulation: Removing headers at the receiving side.

3. Addressing in TCP/IP

• Source and Destination Address: Each communication needs unique

identifiers for sender and receiver.
• Addressing by Layer:
o Physical: MAC address.
o Network: IP address.
o Transport: Port numbers.

Example: Sending an email requires the sender’s and receiver’s IP addresses and
the port for email transfer.

4. OSI Model vs. TCP/IP

OSI Model:

• Seven-layer architecture for standardizing network communication.

• Layers: Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link,
Physical.

Differences:

• TCP/IP merges some OSI layers (e.g., Presentation + Session = Application).

• TCP/IP focuses on implementation and efficiency, whereas OSI emphasizes
theoretical standardization.

Reason for OSI’s Limited Success:

• Developed after TCP/IP was widely adopted.

• OSI had poorly defined layers and performance issues.

6. Transmission Media

• Wired: Copper cables, fiber optics.

o Example: Ethernet cable for a desktop.
 • Wireless: Radio waves, microwaves.
o Example: Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

7. Error Detection and Correction

Ensures accurate data transmission despite noise and interference.

Common Techniques:

• Parity Check: Adds a parity bit for error detection.

• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): Detects burst errors.
• Hamming Code: Corrects single-bit errors.

8. Media Access Control (MAC)

Regulates access to shared communication channels.

Example:
In Wi-Fi, MAC protocols manage when devices can send or receive data to avoid
collisions.
1. Digital Transmission

Digital transmission refers to transferring data (text, audio, video) as digital signals
between devices.

Key Elements:

• Data Elements: The smallest unit of information, typically a bit.

• Signal Elements: The smallest part of a digital signal used to represent data
elements.

Rates:

• Data Rate (Bit Rate): Number of data elements sent per second (bps).
• Signal Rate (Baud Rate): Number of signal elements sent per second.

Example:
If a signal has a rate of 100 bauds and each signal element carries 1 data element,
the data rate is 100 bps100
2. Digital-to-Digital Conversion

Converts digital data into digital signals using techniques like line coding, block
coding, and scrambling.

Line Coding:

Translates a sequence of bits into a digital signal.

Types of Line Coding:

1. Unipolar: Uses a single voltage level.

o Example: Non-return-to-zero (NRZ).
2. Polar: Uses two voltage levels (positive and negative).
o Example: NRZ, return-to-zero (RZ), Manchester coding.
3. Bipolar: Alternates between positive, zero, and negative voltage levels.
o Example: Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI).
4. Multilevel: Combines multiple signal elements to represent more bits.
o Example: 2B1Q2B1Q (2 bits per 1 quaternary level).
5. Scrambling: Used to reduce long sequences of 0s or 1s, maintaining
synchronization.

Example:
Manchester encoding combines clock and data signals, making it self-
synchronizing.
4. Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Converts analog signals (e.g., voice) into digital data. Key techniques include:

1. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): Samples the analog signal at uniform

intervals, quantizes the amplitude, and encodes it as binary.
2. Delta Modulation (DM): Encodes the difference between successive
samples.

Example:
For voice signals with a 4 kHz bandwidth, PCM requires sampling at 2×4000=80002
\times 4000 = 8000 samples per second (Nyquist rate).

5. Line Coding Schemes (Summary)

Scheme Characteristics Examples

Unipolar One voltage level (e.g., NRZ). NRZ.
Polar Two voltage levels (positive/negative). Manchester, Polar RZ.
Bipolar Positive, zero, and negative voltages. AMI, Pseudoternary.
Multilevel Multiple levels per symbol. 2B1Q2B1Q.
Scrambling Reduces long runs of identical bits. B8ZS, HDB3.
2. Scrambling

• Used to eliminate long sequences of 0s or 1s that cause synchronization

issues.

Techniques:

1. B8ZS (Bipolar with 8-Zero Substitution): Replaces a string of 8 zeros with a

sequence containing one or more non-zero voltages.
2. HDB3 (High-Density Bipolar 3-Zero): Similar to B8ZS but also considers
previous signal polarity.

Example:
A long sequence of zeros in HDB3 is replaced depending on the polarity and
synchronization requirements.
4. Data Transmission Modes

Defines how data bits are transmitted between devices.

Types:

1. Parallel Transmission:
o Sends multiple bits simultaneously over multiple wires.
o Faster but more expensive due to extra wiring.
o Example: Computer buses.
2. Serial Transmission:
o Sends bits sequentially over a single wire.
o Efficient and cost-effective.
o Types:
▪ Asynchronous: Bits are sent with start/stop bits for
synchronization (e.g., UART communication).
▪ Synchronous: Sends continuous streams synchronized by a
clock signal.
▪ Isochronous: Guarantees fixed rate transmission, suitable for
real-time audio and video.