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Modelling, Simulation and Control
of Non-Linear Dynamical Systems
The Numerical Insights series aims to show how numerical simulations provide valuable
insights into the mechanisms and processes involved in a wide range of disciplines. Such
simulations provide a way of assessing theories by comparing simulations with observa-
tions. These models are also powerful tools which serve to indicate where both theory and
experiment can be improved.
In most cases the books will be accompanied by software on disk demonstrating working
examples of the simulations described in the text.
The editors will welcome proposals using modelling, simulation and systems analysis
techniques in the following disciplines: physical sciences; engineering; environment; ecol-
ogy; biosciences; economics.
Volume 1
Numerical Insights into Dynamic Systems: Interactive Dynamic System Simulation with
Microsofto, Windows 95TMand NTTM
Granino A. Korn
Volume 2
Modelling, Simulation and Control of Non-Linear Dynamical Systems: An Intelligent
Approach using Soft Computing and Fractal Theory
Patricia Melin and Oscar Castillo
This book is part of a series. The publisher will accept continuation orders which may be cancelled
at any time and which provide for automatic billing and shipping of each title in the series upon
publication. Please write for details.
A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Croup, the academic division of T&F lnforrna plc.
ISBN 0-415-27236-X
PREFACE ix
References 215
This book presents a unified view of mathematical modelling, simulation and control for
complex non-linear dynamical systems using soft computing techniques and fractal theory.
Our particular point of view is that modelling, simulation and control are problems that can
not be considered apart because they are intrinsically related in real-world applications.
Control of non-linear dynamical systems can not be achieved if we don't have proper
mathematical models for the systems. Also, useful simulations of a model, that can give us
numerical insights into the behavior of a dynamical system, can not be obtained if we don't
have the appropriate mathematical model. On the other hand, we have to recognize that
complex non-linear dynamical systems can exhibit a wide range of dynamic behaviors
(ranging from simple periodic orbits to chaotic strange attractors), so the problem of behavior
identification is a very diffcult one. Also, we want to automate each of these tasks (mod-
elling, simulation and control) because in this way it is easier to solve a particular problem.
We then have three difficult tasks at hand: automated mathematical modelling of a dynami-
cal system, automated simulation of the model, and model-based control of the system. A
real world problem may require that we use modelling, simulation and control, to achieve
the desired level of performance needed for the particular application.
Soft computing consists of several computing paradigms, including fuzzy logic, neural
networks and genetic algorithms, which can be used to produce powerful hybrid intelligent
systems. We believe that solving the difficult problems of modelling, simulation and control
of non-linear dynamical systems require the use of several soft computing techniques to
achieve the level of intelligence needed to automate the processes of modelling and simula-
tion, and also to achieve adaptive control. On the other hand, fractal theory provides us with
powerful mathematical tools that can be used to understand the geometrical complexity of
natural or computational objects. We believe that, in many cases, it is necessary to use fractal
tools to understand the geometry of the problem at hand. For example, the fractal dimension
is a useful tool in measuring the geometrical complexity of a time series and for this reason
can be used to formulate the corresponding mathematical model for the particular problem.
This book is intended to be a major reference for scientists and engineers interested in
applying new computational and mathematical tools for solving the complicated problems
of mathematical modelling, simulation and control of non-linear dynamical systems. The
book can also be used at the graduate or advanced undergraduate level, as a textbook or
major reference, for courses like: mathematical modelling, numerical simulation, non-
linear control of dynamical systems, applied artificial intelligence and many others. We
consider that this book can also be used to get new ideas for new lines of research or to
continue the lines of future research proposed by the authors of the book. The software
accompanying this book provides a good basis for developing more advanced 'intelligent'
software tools for modelling, simulation and control of non-linear dynamical systems.
We describe in this book new methods for automated modelling and simulation of
non-linear dynamical systems using Soft Computing techniques and Fractal
Theory. We also describe a new method for adaptive model-based control of non-
linear dynamical systems using a hybrid neuro-hzzy-fractal approach. Soft
Computing (SC) consists of several computing paradigms, including fuzzy logic,
neural networks and genetic algorithms, which can be used to produce powerful
hybrid intelligent systems. Fractal Theory (FT) provides us with the mathematical
tools (like the fractal dimension) to understand the geometrical complexity of
natural objects and can be used for identification and modelling purposes.
Combining SC techniques with FT tools we can take advantage of the
"intelligence" provided by the computer methods (like neural networks) and also
take advantage of the descriptive power of fractal mathematical tools. Non-linear
dynamical systems can exhibit extremely complex dynamic behavior and for this
reason it is of great importance to develop intelligent computational tools that will
enable the identification of the best model for a particular dynamical system, then
obtaining the best simulations for the system and also achieving the goal of
controlling the dynamical system in a desired manner. We also describe in this
book the basic methodology to develop prototype intelligent systems that are able
to find the best model for a particular dynamical system, then perform the
numerical simulations necessary to identify all of the possible dynamical
behaviors of the system, and finally achieve the goal of adaptive control using the
mathematical models of the system and SC techniques.
As a prelude, we shall provide a brief overview of the existing
methodologies for modelling, simulation and control of non-linear dynamical
systems and also of our own approach in dealing with these problems.
that simulates the human experts in the domain of application. Finally, the "best"
model is selected by comparing the measures of goodness for each of the
admissible models considered in the previous step.
The simulation of mathematical models traditionally has been performed
by exploring the possible dynamic behaviors, for a specific system, for different
parameter values of the model (Rasband, 1990). More recently, it has been
proposed to use Artificial Intelligence (Russell & Norvig, 1995) techniques for the
simulation of mathematical models (for example, by using expert systems
(Badiru, 1992)). In this work, we used SC techniques to automate the simulation
of dynamical systems. In particular, we make use of genetic algorithms to generate
the "best" set of parameter values for a specific model with respect to the goal of
obtaining the most efficient simulation possible. Genetic Algorithms (GA)
essentially consist of methods for the optimization of a general function based on
the concept of "evolution" (Goldberg, 1989). In our particular case, the problem
consisted in specifying the appropriate function to be optimized, with the goal of
achieving the most efficient simulation possible, i.e., a simulation that enables the
identification of all the possible dynamic behaviors for a specific dynamical
system. For the identification of dynamic behaviors we make use of a fuzzy rule
base that will identifl a particular behavior according to the results of the
numerical simulations.
In general, the study of non-linear dynamical systems is very important
because most of the physical, electrical, mechanical and biochemical systems can
be mathematically represented by models (differential or difference equations) in
the time domain. Also, it is well known in Dynamical Systems Theory (Devaney,
1989) that the dynamic behavior of a particular system can range from very simple
periodic orbits to the very complicated "chaotic" orbits. Non-linear models may
exhibit the chaotic behavior for systems of at least three coupled differential
equations or at least one difference equation (Ruelle, 1990). In particular, for the
case of real-world dynamical systems the mathematical models needed are of very
high dimensionality and in general there is a high probability of chaotic behavior,
along with all sorts of different periodic and quasi-periodic behaviors (Castillo &
Melin, 1998b). For this reason, it becomes very important to be able to obtain the
appropriate mathematical models for the dynamical systems and then to be able to
perform numerical simulations of these models (Castillo & Melin, 1997b), since
this enables forecasting system's performance in future time. In this way,
automated mathematical modelling and simulation of dynamical systems can
contribute to real-time control of these systems, and this is critical in real-world
applications (Melin & Castillo, 1998b). Also, an intelligent system for modelling
and simulation can be useful in the design of real dynamical systems with certain
constraints, since the information obtained by the numerical simulations can be
used as a feedback in the process of design. The main contribution of the research
work presented in this book is to combine several Soft Computing techniques to
achieve automated mathematical modelling and simulation of non-linear
dynamical systems using the advantages that each specific technique offers. For
example, fuzzy logic (Von Altrock, 1995) was used to simulate the reasoning
process of human experts in the process of mathematical modelling and genetic
algorithms was used to select the best set of parameter values for the simulation of
the best model.
The importance of the results presented in this book can be measured from
the scientific point of view and also from the practical (or applications) point of
view. First, from the scientific point of view, we consider that this research work
is very important because the computer methods for automated mathematical
modelling and simulation of dynamic systems that were developed contribute, in
general, to the advancement of Computer Science, and, in particular, to the
advancement of Soft Computing and Artificial Intelligence because the new
algorithms that were developed can be considered "intelligent" in the sense that
they simulate human experts in modelling and simulation. From the practical
point of view, we consider the results of this research work very important for the
areas of Control and Design of dynamical systems. Controlling dynamical systems
can be made more easy if we are able to analyze and predict the dynamic
evolution of these systems and this goal can be achieved with an intelligent
system for automated mathematical modelling and simulation. The design of
dynamical systems can be made more easy if we can use mathematical models and
their simulations for planning the performance of these systems under different set
of design constraints. This last two points are of great importance for the
industrial applications, since the control of dynamical systems in real-world plants
has to be very precise and also the design of this type of systems for specific tasks
can be very useful for industry.
system identification (Pham & Xing, 1995). Also, because of their adaptive
capabilities neural networks have been used to control real-world dynamical
systems (Ng, 1997).
Fuzzy Logic is an area of SC that enables a computer system to reason
with uncertainty. Fuzzy inference systems consist of a set of "if-then" rules
defined over fuzzy sets. Fuzzy sets are relations that can be used to model the
linguistic variables that human experts use in their domain of expertise (Kosko,
1992). The main difference between fuzzy sets and traditional (crisp) sets is that
the membership function for elements of a hzzy set can take any value between 0
and 1, and not only 0 or 1. This corresponds, in the real world, to many situations
where it is difficult to decide in an unambiguous manner if something belongs or
not to a specific class. Fuzzy expert systems, for example, have been applied with
some success to problems of control, diagnosis and classification just because
they can manage the difficult expert reasoning involved in these areas of
application (Korn, 1995). The main disadvantage with fuzzy systems is that they
can't adapt to changing situations. For this reason, it is a good idea to combine
both methodologies to have the advantages of neural networks (learning and
adaptive capabilities) along with the advantages of fuzzy logic (contain expert
knowledge) in solving complex real world problems where this flexibility is
needed (Yen, Langar & Zadeh, 1995).
In this work, we have proposed a new architecture for developing
intelligent control systems based on the use of neural networks, fuzzy logic and
mathematical models, to achieve the goal of adaptive control of non-linear
dynamical systems. The mathematical model of a non-linear dynamical system
consist of a set of simultaneous non-linear differential (or difference) equations
describing the dynamics of the system. The knowledge contained in the model is
very important in the process of controlling the system, because it relates the
different physical variables and their dependencies (Sueda & Iwamasa, 1995). For
this reason, our approach is to combine mathematical models with neural
networks and fuzzy logic, to achieve adaptive control of non-linear dynamical
systems.
The study of non-linear dynamical systems is very interesting because of
the complexity of the dynamics involved in the underlying processes (for
This chapter introduces the basic concepts, notation, and basic operations for
fuzzy sets that will be needed in the following chapters. Since research on Fuzzy
Set Theory has been underway for over 30 years now, it is practically impossible
to cover all aspects of current developments in this area. Therefore, the main goal
of this chapter is to provide an introduction to and a summary of the basic
concepts and operations that are relevant to the study of fuzzy sets. We also
introduce in this chapter the definition of linguistic variables and linguistic values
and explain how to use them in fuzzy rules, which are an efficient tool for
quantitative modelling of words or sentences in a natural or artificial language. By
interpreting fuzzy rules as fuzzy relations, we describe different schemes of fuzzy
reasoning, where inference procedures based on the concept of the compositional
rule of inference are used to derive conclusions from a set of fuzzy rules and
known facts. Fuzzy rules and fuzzy reasoning are the basic components of fuzzy
inference systems, which are the most important modelling tool based on fuzzy set
theory.
The "fuzzy inference system" is a popular computing framework based on
the concepts of fuzzy set theory, fuzzy if-then rules, and fuzzy reasoning (Jang,
Sun & Mizutani, 1997). It has found successful applications in a wide variety of
I 0 , xla.
y = triangle(x;a,b,c) = alxlb. (2.9)
blxlc.
clx.
The parameters {a,b,c) (with a < b< c ) determine the x coordinates of the three
corners of the underlying triangular MF.
Figure 2.1 (a) illustrates a triangular MF defined by triangle(x; 10,20,40).
I
0 , xla.
(x-a)/(b-a) , a lx lb . (2.10)
trapezoid (x;a,b,c,d) = 1 , bsxlc.
(d-X)/ (d-C) , csxld.
0 , dlx.
The parameters {a, b, c, d) (with a < b l c <d) determine the x coordinates of the
four corners of the underlying trapezoidal MF.
Figure 2.1 (b) illustrates a trapezoidal MF defined by trapezoid(x; 10, 20
40, 75).
Due to their simple formulas and computational efficiency, both triangular
MFs and trapezoidal MFs have been used extensively, especially in real-time
implementations. However, since the MFs are composed of straight line segments,
they are not smooth at the comer points specified by the parameters. In the
following we introduce other types of MFs defined by smooth and nonlinear
functions.
bell(x; a, b, c) = 1
1 + 1 (x-c) / a 12b
where the parameter b is usually positive. We can note that this MF is a direct
generalization of the Cauchy distribution used in probability theory, so it is also
referred to as the "Cauchy MF".
Although the Gaussian MFs and bell MFs achieve smoothness, they are
unable to specify asymmetric MFs, which are important in certain applications.
Next we define the sigmoidal MF, which is either open left or right.
É
Était-ce une mesure d’hygiène? On sait ce que vaut l’hygiène!
Une affaire de convenance? A bas les convenances! Une marque de
soumission envers l’Église? Il s’en fichait également! bref, déclarait
cette règle absurde, pharisaïque et contraire à l’esprit de l’Évangile.
Le vendredi saint des autres années, ils mangeaient ce que
Germaine leur servait.
Mais Bouvard, cette fois, s’était commandé un bifteck. Il s’assit,
coupa la viande;—et Marcel le regardait scandalisé, tandis que
Pécuchet dépiautait gravement sa tranche de morue.
Bouvard restait la fourchette d’une main, le couteau de l’autre.
Enfin, se décidant, il monta une bouchée à ses lèvres. Tout à coup
ses mains tremblèrent, sa grosse mine pâlit, sa tête se renversait.
«Tu te trouves mal?
—Non! mais!...» et il fit un aveu. Par suite de son éducation
(c’était plus fort que lui), il ne pouvait manger du gras ce jour-là,
dans la crainte de mourir.
Pécuchet, sans abuser de sa victoire, en profita pour vivre à sa
guise.
Un soir, il rentra la figure empreinte d’une joie sérieuse, et,
lâchant le mot, dit qu’il venait de se confesser.
Alors ils discutèrent l’importance de la confession.
Bouvard admettait celle des premiers chrétiens qui se faisait en
public: la moderne est trop facile. Cependant il ne niait pas que cette
enquête sur nous-mêmes ne fût un élément de progrès, un levain de
moralité.
Pécuchet, désireux de la perfection, chercha ses vices; les
bouffées d’orgueil depuis longtemps étaient parties. Son goût du
travail l’exemptait de la paresse; quant à la gourmandise, personne
de plus sobre. Quelquefois des colères l’emportaient.
Il se jura de n’en plus avoir.
Ensuite, il faudrait acquérir des vertus, premièrement l’humilité,—
c’est-à-dire se croire incapable de tout mérite, indigne de la moindre
récompense, immoler son esprit, et se mettre tellement bas que l’on
vous foule aux pieds comme la boue des chemins. Il était loin encore
de ces dispositions.
Une autre vertu lui manquait: la chasteté.—Car, intérieurement, il
regrettait Mélie, et le pastel de la dame en robe Louis XV le gênait
avec son décolletage.
Il l’enferma dans une armoire, redoubla de pudeur jusques à
craindre de porter ses regards sur lui-même, et couchait avec un
caleçon.
Tant de soins autour de la luxure la développèrent. Le matin,
principalement, il avait à subir de grands combats, comme en eurent
saint Paul, saint Benoît et saint Jérôme, dans un âge fort avancé; de
suite, ils recouraient à des pénitences furieuses. La douleur est une
expiation, un remède et un moyen, un hommage à Jésus-Christ.
Tout amour veut des sacrifices,—et quel plus pénible que celui de
notre corps!
Afin de se mortifier, Pécuchet supprima le petit verre après les
repas, se réduisit à quatre prises dans la journée, par les froids
extrêmes ne mettait plus de casquette.
Un jour, Bouvard, qui rattachait la vigne, posa une échelle contre
le mur de la terrasse près de la maison,—et, sans le vouloir, se
trouva plonger dans la chambre de Pécuchet.
Son ami, nu jusqu’au ventre, avec le martinet aux habits, se
frappait les épaules doucement, puis, s’animant, retira sa culotte,
cingla ses fesses et tomba sur une chaise, hors d’haleine.
Bouvard fut troublé comme à la découverte d’un mystère, qu’on
ne doit pas surprendre.
Depuis quelque temps, il remarquait plus de netteté sur les
carreaux, moins de trous aux serviettes, une nourriture meilleure;—
changements qui étaient dus à l’intervention de Reine, la servante
de M. le curé.
Mêlant les choses de l’église à celles de sa cuisine, forte comme
un valet de charrue et dévouée, bien que irrespectueuse, elle
s’introduisait dans les ménages, donnait des conseils, y devenait
maîtresse. Pécuchet se fiait absolument à son expérience.
Une fois, elle lui amena un individu replet, ayant de petits yeux à
la chinoise, un nez en bec de vautour. C’était M. Gouttman,
négociant en articles de piété; il en déballa quelques-uns, enfermés
dans des boîtes, sous le hangar: croix, médailles et chapelets de
toutes les dimensions, candélabres pour oratoires, autels portatifs,
bouquets de clinquant, et des sacrés-cœurs en carton bleu, des saint
Joseph à barbe rouge, des calvaires de porcelaine. Pécuchet les
convoita. Le prix seul l’arrêtait.
Gouttman ne demandait pas d’argent. Il préférait les échanges,
et, monté dans le muséum, il offrit contre des vieux fers et tous les
plombs un stock de ses marchandises.
Elles parurent hideuses à Bouvard. Mais l’œil de Pécuchet, les
instances de Reine et le bagout du brocanteur finirent par le
convaincre. Quand il le vit si coulant, Gouttman voulut, en outre, la
hallebarde; Bouvard, las d’en avoir démontré la manœuvre,
l’abandonna. L’estimation totale étant faite, ces messieurs devaient
encore cent francs. On s’arrangea, moyennant quatre billets à trois
mois d’échéance,—et ils s’applaudirent du bon marché.
Leurs acquisitions furent distribuées dans tous les appartements.
Une crèche remplie de foin et une cathédrale de liège décorèrent le
muséum.
Il y eut sur la cheminée de Pécuchet un saint Jean-Baptiste en
cire; le long du corridor, les portraits des gloires épiscopales, et au
bas de l’escalier, sous une lampe à chaînettes, une sainte Vierge en