Unit-8 1

Basics of Electronics

Prepared by:
MAHAMMADSOAIB SAIYAD
M & V Patel Department of Electrical Engineering
CHARUSAT
 Outline of the Course
Sr. Title of the Unit Minimum
No. Number of Hours
1. Basic Electrical Terms and Units 04
2. Electrical Circuit Analysis 07
3. Electrostatic 08
4. Electromagnetism 05
5. AC Fundamentals 05
6. Single Phase AC Series Circuits 05
7. Polyphase Circuits 04
8. Basics of Electronics 07
Total hours (Theory): 45 Hrs
Total hours (Lab): 30 Hrs
Total hours: 75 Hrs
8. Basics of Electronics
15%
Electronic Systems: Basic amplifier, voltage,
current and power gain, Basic
attenuators, CRO

Transmission and Signals: Analog and

digital signals, bandwidth, Forward and
reverse bias of PN junction diode, Zener
diode

Rectifiers: Half Wave, Full Wave - Centre

Tap, Bridge
Transistor: Bipolar junction transistor,
construction and biasing,
configuration.
 Semiconductor
It is not easy to define a semiconductor if we want to take into account all its physical
characteristics. However, generally, a semiconductor is defined on the basis of electrical
conductivity as under:

A semiconductor is a substance which has resistivity (𝟏𝟎−𝟒 to 0.5 Ωm) in between

conductors and insulators e.g. germanium, silicon, carbon etc.

Comparing the resistivities of above materials, it is apparent that the resistivity of germanium
(semiconductor) is quite high as compared to copper (conductor) but it is quite low when compared with
glass (insulator). This shows that resistivity of a semiconductor lies in between conductors and insulators.
 Properties of Semiconductor

(i) The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator but more than a
conductor.

(ii) Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance i.e. the

resistance of a semiconductor decreases with the increase in temperature and
vice-versa. For example, germanium is actually an insulator at low temperatures
but it becomes a good conductor at high temperatures.

(iii) When a suitable metallic impurity (e.g. arsenic, gallium etc.) is added to a
semiconductor, its current conducting properties change appreciably.
 Properties of semiconductor

(i) The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator

but more than a conductor.
(ii) Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance i.e. the resistance of a semiconductor
decreases with the increase in temperature and vice-versa.
For example, germa nium is actually an insulator at low
temperatures but it becomes a good conductor at high
tempera- tures.
(iii) When a suitable metallic impurity (e.g. arsenic, gallium
etc.) is added to a semiconductor, its current conducting
properties change appreciably. This property is most
important and is discussed later in detail.
 Types of Semiconductor

There are basically two types of semiconductors:

• Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Extrinsic Semiconductor
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an
intrinsic semiconductor.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
•The intrinsic semiconductor has little current conduction capability at room
temperature.

•To be useful in electronic devices, the pure semiconductor must be altered

so as to significantly increase its conducting properties.

•This is achieved by adding a small amount of suitable impurity to a

semiconductor. It is then called impurity or extrinsic semiconductor.

• The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping.

•The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free

electrons or holes in the semiconductor crystal.
 Types of Extrinsic Semiconductor

Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are

classified into:

(i) n-type semiconductor : When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is

added to a pure semiconductor, it is known as n-type semiconductor.

(ii) p-type semiconductor : When a small amount of trivalent impurity is

added to a pure semiconductor, it is called p-type semiconductor.
 PN Junction

When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type

semiconductor, the contact surface is called PN junction.
 Properties of PN Junction

At the instant of junction formation, the free

electrons near the junction in the n region begin to
diffuse across the junction into the p region where
they combine with holes near the junction.

The result is that n region loses free electrons as

they diffuse into the junction. This creates a layer
of positive charges near the junction.

As the electrons move across the junction, the p

region loses holes as the electrons and holes
combine. The result is that there is a layer of
negative charges near the junction.
 Properties of PN Junction

These two layers of positive and negative charges

form the depletion region (or depletion layer).

The term depletion is due to the fact that near the

junction, the region is depleted ( i.e. emptied) of
charge carries (free electrons and holes) due to
diffusion across the junction.

It may be noted that depletion layer is formed very

quickly and is very thin compared to the n region
and the p region. For clarity, the width of the
depletion layer is shown exaggerated.
 Properties of PN Junction
Once pn junction is formed and depletion layer created, the
diffusion of free electrons stops.

In other words, the depletion region acts as a barrier to the

further movement of free electrons across the junction.

The positive and negative charges set up an electric field. The

electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the region.
There exists a potential difference across the depletion layer
and is called barrier potential (V0).

The barrier potential of a pn junction depends upon several

factors including the type of semiconductor material, the
amount of doping and temperature. The typical barrier
potential is approximately :
For silicon, V0 = 0.7 V
For germanium, V0 = 0.3 V
 Applying D.C. Voltage Across pn Junction
or Biasing a pn Junction

In relation to a pn junction, there are following two bias conditions :

1. Forward biasing
2. Reverse biasing
 Forward Biasing
When external d.c. voltage applied to the
junction is in such a direction that it cancels
the potential barrier, thus permitting current
flow, it is called forward biasing.

To apply forward bias, connect positive

terminal of the battery to p-type and negative
terminal to n-type as shown in Figure.

The applied forward potential establishes an

electric field which acts against the field due to
potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field
is weakened and the barrier height is reduced
at the junction as shown in Fig.
 Reverse Biasing
When the external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is
in such a direction that potential barrier is increased, it is
called reverse biasing.

To apply reverse bias, connect negative terminal of the

battery to p-type and positive terminal to n-type as
shown in Figure.

It is clear that applied reverse voltage establishes an

electric field which acts in the same direction as the field
due to potential barrier.

Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is

strengthened and the barrier height is increased as
shown in Figure. The increased potential barrier prevents
the flow of charge carriers across the junction.
 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of pn Junction
Volt-ampere or V-I characteristic of a pn junction (also called a crystal or semiconductor diode) is
the curve between voltage across the junction and the circuit current. Usually, voltage is taken
along x- axis and current along v-axis.
 Important Terms
Two important terms often used with pn junction (i.e. crystal diode) are breakdown
voltage and knee voltage.

Breakdown voltage: It is the minimum reverse voltage at which pn junction breaks

down with sudden rise in reverse current.
 Important Terms
Knee voltage: It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction
starts to increase rapidly.
Application of Diodes
 Semiconductor diode
A pn junction is known as semiconductor diode or
crystal diode.

The outstanding property of a crystal diode to conduct current in one

ARROWHEAD direction only permits it to be used as a rectifier. A crystal diode is
usually represented by the schematic symbol shown in Fig. The arrow in the
symbol indicates the direction of easier conventional current flow.

(i)If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive w.r.t. bar of the symbol, the diode is
forward biased.
(ii)if the arrowhead of diode symbol is negative w.r.t. bar , the diode is reverse
biased.
 Equivalent Circuit of Crystal Diode

It is generally profitable to replace a device or system by its equivalent circuit.

An equivalent circuit of a device ( e.g. crystal diode, transistor etc.) is a

combination of electric elements, which when connected in a circuit, acts
exactly as does the device when connected in the same circuit.

Once the device is replaced by its equivalent circuit, the resulting network can
be solved by traditional circuit analysis techniques.
 Equivalent Circuit of Crystal Diode
(i) Approximate Equivalent circuit.

When the forward voltage Vf is applied across a diode, it will not conduct till the potential
barrier V0 at the junction is overcome. When the forward voltage exceeds the potential
barrier voltage, the diode starts conducting as shown in Fig. The forward current flowing
through the diode causes a voltage drop in its internal resistance rf . Therefore, the forward
voltage Vf applied across the actual diode has to overcome :
 Equivalent Circuit of Crystal Diode
(ii) Simplified Equivalent circuit.

For most applications, the internal resistance rf of the crystal diode can be ignored in
comparison to other elements in the equivalent circuit. The equivalent circuit then reduces
to the one shown in Fig (ii). This simplified equivalent circuit of the crystal diode is frequently
used in diode-circuit analysis.
 Equivalent Circuit of Crystal Diode

(iii) Ideal diode model.

An ideal diode is one which behaves as a perfect conductor when forward biased and
as a perfect insulator when reverse biased.
Obviously, in such a hypothetical situation, forward resistance rf= 0 and potential
barrier V0 is considered negligible.
It may be mentioned here that although ideal diode is never found in practice, yet
diode circuit analysis is made on this basis.

Therefore, while discussing diode circuits, the diode will he assumed ideal unless and
until stated otherwise.
 Contents
 Design of Rectifier Circuits.
 Half Wave Rectification
 Full Wave Rectifier
 Filter
 Ripple Voltage and Diode Current
 Clippers.
 Clampers.
 Voltage Doubler Circuit.
 Zener Diode Circuits
 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
 Photodiode Circuit
 LED Circuit
Clippers. Clampers.
 Clippers. Clampers.
Clipper Circuit Clamper Circuit
A clipper circuit clips or removes a portion of A clamper circuit shifts the DC level of the
an AC signal. waveform.
A clipper circuit is also known as a voltage A clamper is also known as a voltage
limiter, slicer, etc. multiplier or DC level shifter.

It is made of diode and resistor. It is made of a diode, resistor & capacitor.

Clipper does not require an energy-storing It requires an energy-storing component like
component. capacitor.
It does not change the shape of the
It changes the shape of the waveform.
waveform
It does not change the DC level of the signal. It changes the DC level of the signal.
It does not change the amplitude of the
It changes the amplitude of the signal.
signal.
It limits the voltage of the signal. It amplifies the voltage of the signal.

The output voltage of the clipper is always The output voltage of the clamper is always
less than its input voltage. greater than the input voltage.
P-N JUNCTION DIODE
P-N JUNCTION DIODE
P-N JUNCTION DIODE
 ZENER DIODE
It has already been discussed that when the reverse bias on a crystal diode is
increased, a critical voltage, called breakdown voltage is reached where the reverse
current increases sharply to a high value. The breakdown region is the knee of the
reverse characteristic as shown in Fig. 6.52. The satisfactory explanation of this
breakdown of the junction was first given by the American scientist C. Zener.
Therefore, the breakdown voltage is sometimes called zener voltage and the sudden
increase in current is known as zener current.
The breakdown or zener voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the
diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will be thin and consequently the breakdown
of the junction will occur at a lower reverse voltage. On the other hand, a lightly
doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage. When an ordinary crystal diode is
properly doped so that it has a sharp breakdown voltage, it is called a Zener
Voltage.

A properly doped crystal diode which has a sharp breakdown voltage

is known as a zener diode.

(i) A zener diode is like an ordinary diode ex-cept that it is properly doped
so as to have a sharp breakdown voltage.
(ii) A zener diode is always reverse connected i.e. it is always reverse
biased.
(iii) A zener diode has sharp breakdown volt-age, called zener voltage Vz

(iv) When forward biased, its characteristics are just those of ordinary diode.
(v) The zener diode is not immediately burnt just because it has entered the
*breakdown region.
As long as the external circuit connected to the diode limits the diode
current to less than burn out value, the diode will not burn out.
(i) "On" state.

When reverse voltage across a zener diode is equal to or more than break down voltage
V2 the current increases very sharply. In this region, the curve is almost vertical. It
means that voltage across zener diode is constant at V2 even though the current
through it changes. Therefore, in the breakdown region, an **ideal zener diode can be
represented by a battery of voltage V2 as shown in Fig. 6.54 (ii). Under such conditions,
the zener diode is said to be in the "ON" state.
(ii) "OFF" state.

When the reverse voltage across the zener diode is less than V2 but greater
than 0 V, the zener diode is in the "OFF" state. Under such conditions, the
zener diode can be represented by an open-circuit as shown in Fig. 6.55 (ii).
Applications of Zener Diode
The major use of Zener diode is in industrial and commercial
applications. Below are some of the important applications of the
Zener diode.

As Voltage Stabiliser – The Zener diode is used for voltage regulation.

It converts the fluctuating voltage of the source to a constant
voltage and supplies it to the load. The Zener diode is always
connected in parallel with the load, and it maintains a constant
voltage VZ, thus stabilising the voltage.

For Metre Protection – In multimeters, the Zener diode is used to

control the movement of the metre against any accidental
overloads. The multimeter is connected in parallel with the Zener
diode. When the overload occurs across the diode, the major amount
of current passes through the diode, and in this way, the diode
protects the metre from damage.

For Wave Shaping – A sine wave is converted into a square wave by

using the Zener diode. This is done by connecting two Zener Diodes
in series with the resistance of the circuit. It should be noted that
Difference Between P-N Junction Diode and Zener Diode

1.Definition of P-N Junction Diode and Zener Diode

Diode is an electronic component that allows the flow of electricity in one direction
without resistance (or with very little resistance) while in the opposite direction has
an infinite (or at least very high) resistance. Zener diodes, on the contrary, allow
reversed current flow when the Zener voltage is reached.

2.Construction of P-N Junction Diode and Zener Diode

P-n junction diode consists of two semiconductor layers (p type – anode and n type
– cathode). In case of Zener diodes, the concentrations of the impurities in the
semiconductors must be precisely determined (typically significantly higher than in
p-n diodes) in order to obtain the desired breakdown voltage.

3.Application of P-N Junction Diode and Zener Diode

The first ones are used as rectifiers, wave shapers, switchers, voltage multipliers.
Zener diodes are most often used as voltage stabilizers.
Rectifiers
Block diagram of Power Supply
 Rectifier
• A circuit that converts ac voltage of main supply
into pulsating dc voltage using one or more pn
junction diodes.

• Half Wave Rectifier

• Full Wave Rectifier
• Center Tap Rectifier
• Bridge Rectifier
 Half Wave Rectifier
Circuit Diagram
Operation of Half Wave Rectifier
Waveform of Half Wave Rectifier
Average DC load Current (IDC )
Average DC voltage (Edc)
RMS Load Current (Irms)

RMS Load Voltage (Erms)

DC Power Delivered to the load
 Rectifier Efficiency (η)
Tells us the percentage of total input ac power
that is converted into useful dc output power.
AC input power from transformer
secondary
 Rectifier Efficiency (η)
Tells us the percentage of total input ac power
that is converted into useful dc output power.

η = 40.6 %

Under best conditions (no diode loss) only 40.6% of the

ac input power is converted into dc power.
 Ripple Factor
Measure of purity of the dc output of a rectifier
Defined as the ratio of ac component of the output
wave to the dc component in the wave
Ripple factor for half wave rectifier
,
Irms = Im/ 2
Idc = Im/ π
 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

PIV = Em

Diode must be selected based on the PIV rating and

the circuit specification.
 Disadvantage of HWR

•The ripple factor of half wave rectifier is 1.21, which is

quite high.
•The output contains lot of ripples
•The maximum theoretical efficiency is 40%.
•The practical value will be quite less than this.
•This indicates that HWR is quite inefficient.
 Full WaveRectifier
Center Tap Rectifier
 Working of Center Tap Rectifier
Current Flow during the positive half of the input cycle

Current Flow during the negative half of the input cycle

 Full WaveRectifier
Center Tap Rectifier
Waveforms
Average (DC) current
RMS Load Current (Irms)
DC Output Power

AC input power (Pac)

Rectifier Efficiency (η)
 Ripple Factor

This indicates that the ripple contents in the output are 48% of the dc
component which is much less than that for the half wave rectifier.
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier
• Efficiency is higher.
• The large dc power output
• The ripple factor is less

Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• PIV rating of diode is higher.
• Higher PIV diodes are larger in size and costlier.
• The cost of center tap transformer is high.
 Transistor
A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by *sandwiching either p-type or n-
type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly; there are two types
of transistors, namely;
(i) n-p-n transistor (ii) p-n-p transistor

An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin

section of p- type as shown in Fig. (i). However, a p-n-p transistor is formed by two p-
sections separated by a thin section of n-type as shown in Fig. (ii).

In each type of transistor, the following points may be noted:

(i) These are two pn junctions. Therefore, a transistor may be regarded as a
combination of two diodes connected back to back.
(ii) There are three terminals, one taken from each type of semiconductor.
(iii) The middle section is a very thin layer. This is the most important factor in
the function of a transistor.
 A transistor (pnp or npn) has three sections of doped semiconductors.
The section on one side is the emitter and the section on the opposite
side is the collector. The middle section is called the base and forms two
junctions between the emitter and collector.
• Emitter. The section on one side that supplies charge
carriers (electrons or holes) is called the emitter. The
emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base so that it can
supply a large number of *majority carriers. In Fig (i), the
emitter (p-type) of pnp transistor is forward biased and supplies
hole charges to its junction with the base. Similarly, in Fig. 8.2
(ii), the emitter (n-type) of npn transistor has a forward bias and
supplies free electrons to its junction with the base.
 (ii) Collector. The section on the other side that collects the charges is called
the collector. The collector is always reverse biased. Its function is to remove
charges from its junction with the base. In Fig. 8.2 (i), the collector (p-type) of
pnp transistor has a reverse bias and receives hole charges that flow in the output
circuit. Similarly, in Fig. 8.2 (ii), the collector (n-type) of npn transistor has reverse
bias and receives electrons.

(iii) Base. The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the emitter
and collector is called the base. The base-emitter junction is forward biased,
allowing low resistance for the emit- ter circuit. The base-collector junction is
reverse biased and provides high resistance in the collector circuit.

•Base: To activate the transistor

•Collector: Positive lead of transistor
•Emitter: Negative lead of transistor
 Applications of Transistor

• Transistors are used in oscillators and modulators as

amplifiers.
• They are used in digital circuits as switches.
• Transistors are used in Radio-frequency circuits for wireless
systems.
• Transistor switches are used in Burglar alarms, industrial
control circuits, memories and microprocessors.
 PNP Transistor: How Does it Work?

A PNP transistor is a bipolar junction transistor constructed by sandwiching an

N-type semiconductor between two P-type semiconductors. A PNP transistor has
three terminals – a Collector (C), Emitter (E) and Base (B). The PNP transistor
behaves like two PN junctions diodes connected back to back.

The positive terminal of a voltage source (VEB) is connected with Emitter (P-type)
and the negative terminal is connected with the Base terminal (N-type).
Therefore, the Emitter-Base junction is connected in forward bias.

And the positive terminal of a voltage source (VCB) is connected with the Base
terminal (N-type) and the negative terminal is connected with the Collector
terminal (P-type). Hence, the Collector-Base junction is connected in reverse bias.
 PNP Transistor: How Does it Work?

Due to this type of bias, the depletion region at Emitter-Base junction is narrow,
because it is connected in forward bias. While the Collector-Base junction is in
reverse bias and hence the depletion region at Collector-Base junction is wide.

The Emitter-base junction is in forward bias. Therefore, a very large number of

holes from emitter cross the depletion region and enter the Base. Simultaneously,
very few electrons enter in Emitter from the base and recombine with the holes.
 PNP Transistor: How Does it Work?

The loss of holes in the emitter is equal to the number of electrons present in the Base
layer. But The number of electrons in the Base is very small because it is a very
lightly doped and thin region. Therefore, almost all holes of Emitter will cross the
depletion region and enter into the Base layer.

Because of the movement of holes, the current will flow through the Emitter-Base
junction. This current is known as Emitter current (IE). The holes are majority charge
carriers to flow the Emitter current.

The remaining holes which do not recombine with electrons in Base, that holes will
further travel to the Collector. The Collector current (IC) flows through the Collector-
Base region due to holes.
 Working of Transistor

• Figure shows the npn transistor with forward bias to emitter base junction and
reverse bias to collector-base junction.
• The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards the
base. This constitutes the emitter current IE.
• As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with
holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few
electrons (lessthan5%) combine with holes to constitute base current IB.

83
 Working of Transistor

• The remainder (morethan95%) cross over into the collector region to

constitute collector current IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter current
flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that emitter current is the sum of
collector and base currents i.e. 𝐈𝐄=𝐈𝐁+𝐈𝐂

84
• Base-Emitter junction -- Forward Biased by • Base-Emitter junction -- Forward Biased
VEE Reduce depletion region by VEE -- Reducing depletion region
• Collector-base junction -- Reverse Biased by • Collector-base junction -- Reverse
Vcc -- Increase depletion region Biased by Vcc -- Increasing depletion
• Forward bias causes electrons to flow towards region
base, this constitutes emitter current lĘ. As the • Forward bias causes holes to flow
electrons flow into the base, which is p-type towards base, this constitutes emitter
they combine with very few holes as it is lightly current lĘ. As the holes flow into the
doped and constitute base current lb. base, which is n-type they combine with
• The remaining large amount of electrons cross very few electrons as it is lightly doped
the base region & through the collector region and constitute base current lb.
to the positive terminal of Vcc, constituting • The remaining large amount of holes
collector current Ic. lc >> IB cross the base region & through the
• Electrons are maiority charge carriers in non collector region to the negative terminal
transistor · of Vcc, constituting collector current Ic.
Ic >> IB Holes are majority charge
carriers in pnp transistor
Transistor
Symbols
 Transistor Connection
• There are three leads in a transistor viz., emitter, base, and collector
terminals.
• However, when a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, we require
four terminals; two for the input and two for the output.
• This difficulty is over come by making one terminal of the transistor
common to both input and output terminals. The input is fed between
this common terminal and one of the other two terminals. The output
is obtained between the common terminal and the remaining terminal.
• Accordingly; a transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following
three ways :
• (i) common base connection,
• (ii) common emitter connection, and
• (iii) common collector connection 91
 Common Base Connection

• In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base

and output is taken from collector and base.
• In Fig. (i), a common base npn transistor circuit is shown whereas
Fig. (ii) shows the common base pnp transistor circuit.
• Here, base of the transistor is common to both input and output
circuits and hence the name common base connection.
92
 Common Base Connection

• Current amplification factor (α):- It is the ratio of output current to

input current.
• In a common base connection, the input current is the emitter current
IE and output current is the collector current IC.
• The ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current
at constant collector base voltage VCB is know as current amplification
factor

93
2. Expression for collector current:- The whole of emitter current does
not reach the collector.
• It is because a small percentage of it, as a result of electron- hole
combinations occurring in base area, gives rise to base current.
• Moreover, as the collector-base junction is reverse biased, therefore,
some leakage current flows due to minority carriers.
• Therefore, total collector current consists of
i. That part of emitter current which reaches the collector terminal αIE.
ii. The leakage current Ileakage. This current is due to the movement of
minority carriers across base-collector junction on account of it being
reverse biased.

Total collector current, IC= αIE+ Ileakage

IC= αIE+ I cbo

94
• It is clear that if IE=0, a small leakage current still flows in the
collector circuit.
• This Ileakage is abbreviated as ICBO, meaning collector-base current with
emitter open.

95
 Characteristics of common base connection

• The complete electrical behavior of a transistor can be

described by stating the interrelation of the various
currents and voltages. These relationships can be
conveniently displayed graphically and the curves thus
obtained are known as the characteristics of transistor.
• The most important characteristics of common base
connection are
• (i) input characteristics
• (ii) output characteristics
96
 Characteristics of common base connection

• (i) Input characteristics

• It is the curve between emitter current IE and emitter-base voltage
VEB at constant collector-base voltage VCB . The emitter current is
generally taken along y-axis and emitter-base voltage along x-axis.
• Fig. shows the input characteristics of a typical transistor in CB
arrangement .

• The following points noted from these characteristics:

• (i) The emitter current IE increases rapidly with
small increase in emitter-base voltage VEB . It means
that input resistance is very small.
• (ii) The emitter current is almost independent of
collector-base voltage VCB. This leads to the conclusion
that emitter current (and hence collector current) is
almost independent of collector voltage. 97
 Characteristics of common base connection

• (i) Input characteristics

• Input resistance:
• It is the ratio of change in emitter-base
voltage (∆ VEB ) to the resulting change in
emitter current ( ∆ IE ) at constant collector-base
voltage (VCB ) i.e.

• In fact, input resistance is the opposition offered to the signal current.

• As a very small VEB is sufficient to produce a large flow of emitter
current IE, therefore, input resistance is quite small, of the order of a
few ohms. 98
 Characteristics of common base connection

• (ii) Output characteristics:

• It is the curve between collector current IC and collector-base voltage
VCB at constant emitter current IE. Generally, collector current is
taken along y-axis and collector-base voltage along x-axis.
• The following points noted from the characteristics :
• (i) The collector current IC varies with VCB only
at very low voltages ( < IV). The transistor is never
operated in this region.
• (ii) A very large change in collector-base voltage produces only a
tiny change in collector current. This means that output resistance is
very high.
99
 Characteristics of common base connection

• (iii) When the value of VCB is raised above 1-2 V, the collector
current becomes constant as indicated by straight horizontal curves. It
means that now IC is independent of VCB and depends upon IE only.
This is consistent with the theory that the emitter current flows almost
entirely to the collector terminal. The transistor is always operated in
this region.
• Output resistance:
• It is the ratio of change in
collector-base voltage (∆ VCB ) to
the resulting change in collector
current (∆IC ) at constant emitter
current (IE ) i.e.

• The output resistance of CB circuit is very high, of the order of several

tens of kilo-ohms. This is not surprising because the collector current
changes very slightly with the change in VCB. 100
 Common Emitter Connection

• In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter

and output is taken from the collector and emitter. Here, emitter of the
transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the
name common emitter connection. Fig. (i) shows common emitter npn
transistor circuit whereas Fig. (ii) shows common emitter pnp
transistor circuit.

101
 Common Emitter Connection
• In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter and
output is taken from the collector and emitter. Here, emitter of the transistor is
common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common
emitter connection. Fig. (i) shows common emitter npn transistor circuit
whereas Fig. (ii) shows common emitter pnp transistor circuit.

102
 Common Emitter Connection

• 1. Base current amplification factor (𝜷) :

• In common emitter connection, input current is 𝑰𝑩 and output current is 𝑰𝑪 .
The ratio of change in collector current (∆𝑰𝑪) to the change in base
current (∆𝑰𝑩) is known as base current amplification factor i.e.

• Relation between 𝜷 and 𝜶 :

• A simple relation exists between 𝜷 and 𝜶 . This can be derived as follows :

Dividing numerator and denominator by ∆𝑰𝑬

103
 Common Emitter Connection
• 2. Expression for collector current (𝑰𝑪) :
• In common emitter circuit, 𝑰𝑩 is the input current and 𝑰𝑪 is the output
current.

• From equation, it is apparent that if 𝑰𝑩 = 0 (i.e. base circuit is open), the

collector current will be the current to the emitter. This is abbreviated as 𝑰𝑪𝑬𝑶
, meaning collector-emitter current with base open.
• Substituting the value of 𝑰𝑪𝑬𝑶 in above equation, we get

104
 Characteristics of common Emitter connection
• It is the curve between base current IB and base- emitter voltage VBE at
constant collector-emitter voltage VCE.
• The input characteristics of a CE connection can be determined by the circuit
shown in Fig. Keeping VCE constant (say at 10 V), note the base current IB
for various values of VBE.
• Then plot the readings obtained on the graph, taking IB along y- axis and
VBE along x-axis.
• The following points noted from the characteristics :
• (i) The characteristic resembles that of a
forward biased diode curve. This is expected
since the base- emitter section of transistor is a
diode and it is forward biased.
• (ii) As compared to CB arrangement, IB
increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore,
input resistance of a CE circuit is higher than
that of CB circuit.

105
 Characteristics of common Emitter connection
• (i) Input characteristics
• Input resistance:
• It is the ratio of change in base-emitter
voltage (∆ VBE ) to the change in base
current (∆IB) at constant VCE i.e.

• The value of input resistance for a CE circuit is of the order of a few hundred
ohms.

106
 Characteristics of common Emitter connection
• (ii) Output characteristics:
It is the curve between collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE at
constant base current IB.

• The following points noted from the

characteristics :
• (i) The collector current IC varies with
VCE for VCE between 0 and 1 V only.
After this, collector current becomes
almost constant and independent of VCE.
This value of VCE up to which collector
current IC changes with VCE is called the knee voltage (V knee ). The transistors
are always operated in the region above knee voltage.
• (ii) For any value of VCE above knee voltage, the collector current IC is
approximately equal to (𝜷 x IB ).

107
 Characteristics of common Emitter connection
• (iii) Above knee voltage, IC is almost constant. However, a small increase
in IC with increasing VCE is caused by the collector depletion layer getting
wider and capturing a few more majority carriers before electron-hole
combinations occur in the base area.
• Output resistance:
• It is the ratio of change in collector-emitter
voltage (∆ VCE ) to the change in collector
current (∆IC) at constant IB i.e.

108
 Common Collector Connection
• In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and collector while
output is taken between the emitter and collector. Here, collector of the
transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name
common collector connection. Fig. (i) shows common collector npn transistor
circuit whereas Fig. (ii) shows common collector pnp circuit.

109
 Common Collector Connection
• 1. Current amplification factor (𝜸) :
• In common collector circuit, input current is the base current 𝑰𝑩 and output
current is the emitter current 𝑰𝑬.
• Therefore, current amplification in this circuit arrangement can be defined as
under :
• The ratio of change in emitter current (∆𝑰𝑬 ) to the change in base
current (∆𝑰𝑩 ) is known as current amplification factor in common
collector ( CC) arrangement i.e.

110
 Common Collector Connection
• Relation between 𝜸 and 𝜶:
• A simple relation exists between 𝜸 and 𝜶 . This can be derived as follows,

Dividing numerator and denominator by ∆𝑰𝑬

111
 Common Collector Connection
• 2. Expression for output current (𝑰𝑬):
• In common collector circuit, 𝑰𝑩 is the input current and 𝑰𝑬 is the output
current.

112
Comparison of Transistor Connections

113
For the circuit shown in Figure, Find the maximum and
minimum values of Zener Diode current.