博士英语期末复习笔记

1946 年 8 月 6 日，毛泽东主席在延安会见美国记者 Anna Louise Strong。交谈中，主席开怀地得出结论：“美国反动派是纸老虎！”

因为英语里没有相对应之词，翻译只好将它译作“scarecrow”。毛主席立即让翻译停下来，表示这样译不好，不是他的本意。他说，
纸老虎并不是吓唬乌鸦的死东西，它看起来像一只凶猛的野兽，但实际上是纸糊的，一受潮就会发软，一阵大雨就会把它冲掉。于是，
由“纸”和“老虎”这两个词组合、临时造出的一个英语中没有的复合词“paper tiger”就出现了。主席高兴地笑了起来，用带着浓重
湘腔的英语说：“拍拍太根儿！”后来“paper tiger”一词便在全世界广为流传。

期末考试注意事项及题型设置

☆ 考试注意事项（记得带证件，不准夹带，注意控制时间）
① 考试形式：闭卷笔试（教务处监考）

② 考试用时和分值：120 分钟，满分 100 分（5 道题，每题 20 分）

③ 考试范围：三本书（主教材 4 道题，另外两本教参 1 道题）

☆ 考试题型（每道题花 20 ~ 25 分钟、写 250 ~ 300 词为宜）

① 客观叙述题：主要考察对整本主教材及其某单元、某小节、某个知识点的主要信息的把握和梳理

② 主观论述题：主要考察对三本书之间或主教材的各单元、各小节、各个知识点之间的对比和评价

1. Some basic ideas (epistemology) and learning approaches (methodology)

(1) Mottoes to share:
① [Class motto] We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence is not an act, but a habit. (by Aristotle)
② Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. (by Francis Bacon)
③ Things should be made as simple as possible, but not any simpler. (by Albert Einstein)
④ The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing. (by Socrates)
(2) Note-taking approach: systematic, clear, reliable notes (to record/recall or to further explain)
Paraphrasing/Paraphrasis: to restate the meaning of a text in one's own expression (a useful way to avoid plagiarism)
(3) Question-and-Answer (Q&A) approach: a (reasonable) one-sentence question and a valid (objective) answer
(4) Model approach: from 'sample' (a suggested model from the author) to 'target' (a tested/modified model by the learner)
Target/Model articles: latest, classic, representative, authoritative, by native speakers of English (cf. pp. ix)
Your target journal's Call for Papers or Guide/Instructions for Authors should be consulted for specific details
(5) Communicative English Learning (CEL): authentic reading, critical thinking, effective writing and communicating
Reading-writing integrated style: reading for the purpose of writing; writing as a result of reading
The way we read: surface reading (i.e. on a superficial level) vs. deep reading (e.g. hidden meanings, structure, ...)
(6) Two-eye Reading (TR) and Two-eye Studying (TS, more in English language):
① TR: The 1st/left eye: reading contents to find anything new, replicable, challenged, invalid, ...
The 2nd/right eye: reading logical structures of writing to set up a model (of writing for research papers)
② TS: The 1st/left eye: 'Grammar and Writing Skills' (from the text-and-sentence perspective)
The 2nd/right eye: 'Vocabulary' (from the sentence-and-word perspective)

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2. AIMRAD structure (cf. Structure):
AIMRAD: Abstract, Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion (explained by the 'hourglass' model)
(1) Abstract (Unit 5):
① Differences in the aims/functions between the past and the present:
Past: to encourage readers to continue reading the article; to facilitate their reading by providing a brief preview
Present: to persuade readers to obtain (download or purchase) a copy of the article; to compete for attention
Always: to emphasize new and important achievements; to show how the implications contribute to knowledge
② Independent validity: a standalone, self-contained, and consistent description (representative) of the article
When to write it: after finishing writing the entire paper (why: its content is derived from the rest of the article)
③ Two types/models of the Abstract (which to choose: normally determined by the journal):
Type 1: dealing with all the main subsections of the article, very structured (using the summary format)
Type 2: focusing primarily on 1 or 2 aspect of the study, very flexible (more common, for a narrower research focus)
④ Good titles: accurate, including easily-retrievable keywords, capitalization, concise, formal, neutral (reliable), ...
(2) Introduction (Unit 1) vs. Discussion/Conclusion (Unit 4):
① Relations between Introduction, Discussion/Conclusion and the central report section: (symmetrical, in reverse order)
Introduction: move from a general, broad focus to the narrower central report section (to 'get in')
begin by establishing the significance of the research (a general, broad focus)
end by describing the present paper (to interface with the central section)
Discussion/Conclusion: move away from the narrow section to a wider, more general focus (to 'get out')
begin by revisiting previous sections (to interface with the central section)
end by opening up directions for future research (a wider, more general focus)
② (Results and) Discussion vs. Conclusion (focusing on specific/significant aspects of the Discussion)
③ To mention problems (limitations / imperfections of the work) in the Discussion / Conclusion section:
Why: to point out a direction for future work
How: mentioning positive outcomes close to the limitation (in order to lessen its negative impact)
(3) Methodology (Unit 2):
① Repeatable/Reproducible/Replicable: to contain a (sufficiently) detailed description of what you did/used
Recognizable/Innovative: to communicate information about (a) new procedure(s)/method(s)/approach(es)
Reader-friendly: to start with some introductory material (i.e. general overview, background information, aim, ...)
②To mention problems (limitations / imperfections of the work) in the Methodology section:
Why: to look more professional (to your readers); to avoid repeating the work (just to improve your technique)
How: using vocabulary that minimizes problems/responsibility, maximizes good aspects and suggests a solution
(4) Results (Unit 3):
① 5 reasons for writing a Results section: in the first place, ... ; also, ...; thirdly, ...; in addition, ...; however, ... (p92)
Graphic writing (using figures/tables) vs. verbal writing (using words; description + interpretation/comments)
Reader-friendly: to start with some introductory material (i.e. overview, referring back to previous sections, ...)
②To mention problems (limitations / imperfections of the work) in the Results section: similar to Methodology
Hidden rules in the research community (shared assumptions, 'code'): cf. the table in pp. 145-147
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3. Model building & testing (cf. Writing Task: Build a Model)
x sentences in/of y components: streamlining the model from sentence descriptions (collected) to basic components
(1) Abstract (2 models, 6/2 sentences in/of 5 components, pp. 212-213)
① Background, aim, problem, what the paper does ② Methodology/Materials
③ Results, achievements/contribution, implications ④ Applications
⑤ Limitations, future work
(2) Introduction (10 sentences in/of 4 components, pp. 24)
① Establishing the importance of your field, providing background facts/information (possibly from research),
defining the terminology in the title/keywords, presenting the problem area/current research focus
② Previous and/or current research and contributions
③ Locating a gap in the research, describing the problem you will address, presenting a prediction to be tested
④ Describing the present paper
(3) Methodology (9 sentences in/of 4 components, pp. 66-67)
① Providing a general introduction and overview of the materials/methods, restating the purpose of the work,
giving the source of materials/equipment used, supplying essential background information
② Providing specific and precise details about materials and methods, justifying choices made,
indicating that appropriate care was taken
③ Relating materials/methods to other studies
④ Indicating where problems occurred
(4) Results (13 sentences in/of 4 components, pp. 122-123)
① Revisiting the research aim/existing research, revisiting/expanding methodology, general overview of results
② Invitation to view results, specific/key results in detail (with or without explanations),
comparisons with results in other research, comparison(s) with model predictions
③ Problems with results
④ Possible implications of results
(5) Discussion/Conclusion (12 sentences in/of 4 components, pp. 179-180)
① Revisiting previous sections, summarizing/revisiting general or key results
② Mapping (relationship to existing research)
③ Achievement/Contribution, refining the implications
④ Limitations, current and future work, applications

4. Language areas (cf. Grammar and Writing Skills)

(1) [Title] Compound nouns (pp. 225-226)
① Tip 1: The right-hand (real) noun should be modified by all (adjective) nouns to the left of it
② Tip 2: The relationship between the nouns may include (easily overlooked) options
(2) [Title] Use of prepositions (pp. 226-227)
① Tip 1: Pay close attention to the meaning(s) of each preposition
② Tip 2: Avoid using (tricky) preposition-heavy structures
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(3) [Abstract] Use of verb tense (pp. 201-204)
① The gap/problem: Present Simple tense
② What the paper itself does/includes: Present Simple tense
③ Methodology (what you did/used during the research period): Past Simple tense
Methodology (calculations or equations which can be found in the paper itself): Present Simple tense
④ Results (what you found/saw during the research period): Past Simple tense
Results (results or implications which are strong enough to be considered as a fact or truth): Present Simple tense
⑤ Achievements: Present Perfect tense/Present Simple tense
⑥ Applications: Present Simple tense
(4) [Abstract] Length (pp. 204)
① Tip 1: Final submission: Do not exceed the word limit (150-250 words for Model 1 or 80-150 words for Model 2)
② Tip 2: Early draft: Start by including all important things, and then gradually remove unessential expressions
(5) [Abstract] Language (pp. 204-205)
① Tip 1: Include key words/phrases in the Abstract, to be accessed by a wider audience
② Tip 2: Write (slightly) less technically than the article itself, to attract a wider audience
(6) [Introduction] Tense pairs (pp. 4-7)
① Compare: Present Simple tense (accepted facts and truths) vs. Present Continuous tense
② Compare: Past Simple tense vs. Present Perfect tense (more relevant to the situation now)
(7) [Introduction] Signalling language to connect sentences/ideas (pp. 7-11)
① Tip 1: To overlap (i.e. to repeat sth. from the previous sentence)
② Tip 2: To use a pronoun or pro-form (e.g. this method, these systems, ...)
③ Tip 3: To use a semicolon or a relative clause (i.e. a 'which' clause)
④ Tip 4: To use a sentence connector (5 groups: cause, result, contrast/difference, unexpectedness, and addition)
(8) [Introduction] Use of passive/active voice (pp. 11-12)
① Tip 1: To use 'we': referring to your research group
② Tip 2: To use a construction with 'it': referring to people or humanity in general
③ Tip 3: To use a dummy subject: This article presents ...
④ Tip 4: To use an agentless passive: ... is presented (in this article)
(9) [Introduction] Paragraphing (pp. 12-15)
① Compare: poor paragraphing (clustered or lengthy) vs. good paragraphing (logical and coherent)
② Tip 1: Start each paragraph with a topic sentence (which also facilitates skimming)
③ Tip 2: Try to list your ideas or concepts in a logical order before creating paragraphs
(10) [Methodology] Passives and tense pairs (pp. 47-50)
① What is normally done: Present Simple passive (possibly give a research reference using 'as in ...')
② Your own contribution: Past Simple active (use 'we', or a dummy subject), or Past Simple passive (use 'in this work')
③ The work of other researchers: Past Simple passive (give a research reference, or use 'in their work')
④ Describing in a figure/table what was collected: Past Simple active (e.g. We collected ..., which you can see in Fig.1.)
⑤ Your own contribution, but required to be described in the Present Simple tense: similar to Tip 2 (past → present)
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(11) [Methodology] Use of 'a/an', 'the' and ∅ (pp. 50-55)
① Tip 1: To use a determiner ('a/an' or 'the') before a singular countable noun
② Tip 2: To use 'the' if/when you and your reader both know which thing/person you mean
③ Tip 3: To use 'the' if there is only one possible referent
④ Tip 4: To use 'a/an' if it doesn't matter or you(r readers) don't know which thing/person you are referring to
⑤ Tip 5: To use 'a/an', 'the' and ∅ (the plural of 'a/an') generically when expressing a general truth
(12) [Methodology] Adverbs and adverb location (pp. 56-57)
① Tip 1: Avoid ambiguous preposition use (e.g. Look at the dog with one eye.)
② Tip 2: Avoid adverb clusters (e.g. He gave a lecture about liver cancer at the hospital last January.)
(13) [Results] Sequence (pp. 94-99)
① Compare: order sequence (e.g. then/next) vs. time sequence (dual senses: duration and frequency in time)
② List: 8 groups of words and phrases that communicate (order and time) sequence
(14) [Results] Frequency (pp. 99-102)
① Tip 1: Using frequency modifiers: for your reader to reproduce your method and evaluate your results
② Tip 2: Frequency language is often used in a subjective way (by adding quantity language)
③ List: 11 groups of words and phrases that communicate frequency (neutral frequency: as often as not)
(15) [Results] Quantity (pp. 102-108)
① Tip: Results do not speak for themselves! (2 ways: using frequency language or quantity language)
② List: 5 groups of words and phrases that communicate quantity
(16) [Results] Causality (pp. 108-111)
① Tip: To reduce your risk and responsibility: weaken the causal verb, or add a frequency/quantity qualifier
② List: 4 groups of words and phrases that communicate causal connection (i.e. strong, partial, initial, weak)
(17) [Discussion/Conclusion] Modal verbs (pp. 158-167)
① Tip 1: Using modal verbs: to modify the truth value of a sentence ('truth value modifier')
Results and Discussion (clear and tentative) vs. Conclusion (clear and affirmative)
② Tip 2: Why complex: some have more than one meaning; most do not follow standard grammar rules
③ List: 6 groups of modal verbs (i.e. ability, options, expectation, virtual certainty, advice, and obligation)

5. Ten (types of) most-asked questions (for the final examination)

(1) Questions about the (whole) textbook (Hilary Glasman-Deal, 2010)
Q1: Please write a(n) summary/abstract of our textbook.
Q2: How many sections/units does our textbook introduce about writing a scientific article?
(2) Questions about the other two books (Heather Silyn-Roberts, 2000; Joshua Schimel, 2012)
Q3: Which three books have we learned this semester? What is the main function/feature of each of the three books?
Q4: Can our textbook qualify as systematic? Which part(s) of the other two books can be a complement to it?
(3) Questions about structure and components (of each section)
Q5: Please write a(n) summary/abstract of Unit ×.
Q6: How does the basic structure of a typical research paper follow the shape of an hourglass?
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 Q7: How to create/ write a(n) good/effective ××× section for a scientific paper?
Q8: What (type of) information should be contained in ××× section, and in what order?
(4) Questions about language areas (of each section)
Q9: What language areas are discussed in ××× section? Which do you think is most impressive/helpful? Why?
Q10: In which part(s) of a research article is ... commonly used, and why? What is its most impressive feature to you?

6. Model Tests
(1) Model Test 1
Q1: Which three books have we learned this semester? What are the distinctive characteristics of each of them?
Q2: Please write a summary of our main textbook.
Q3: How does the basic structure of a typical research paper follow the shape of an hourglass?
Q4: What should be contained in the Methodology section? How to write a good Methodology section?
Q5: Why is it necessary to describe the results in words? Which point in Section 3.2 do you think is most important?
(2) Model Test 2
Q1: How many sections does our textbook introduce in each unit? Which do you think is most important, and why?
Q2: Can our textbook qualify as systematic? Which part(s) of the other two books can be a complement to it?
Q3: Please write a summary of Unit 1 (only based on Structure and Grammar and Writing Skills).
Q4: What type of information should be contained in Results and Discussion, and in what order?
Q5: What language areas are discussed in the Methodology section? Which do you think is most impressive? Why?
(3) Model Test 3
Q1: What are the relationships between the three books? What are the strengths and weaknesses of each of them?
Q2: How many units does our textbook contain? Why does the unit on Abstract come at the end of the book?
Q3: Why should we mention imperfections or limitations in Methodology as well as in Conclusion, and how?
Q4: What should be contained in the Abstract section for the two distinct models, and what is their main difference?
Q5: What language areas are discussed in Unit 1? Which is most helpful to you? Please give examples to illustrate.
(4) Model Test 4
Q1: Of the three books we have learned this semester, which do you think is most helpful? In what way is it helpful?
Q2: What learning strategy does our textbook try to teach us? What characteristics should our target articles have?
Q3: What is the function of an Abstract? How to create a good abstract and an effective title for a scientific paper?
Q4: What type of information should be contained in the Introduction section, and in what order?
Q5: In which part of a research paper are modal verbs often used? Why? What's their most impressive feature to you?
(5) Model Test 5
Q1: Are the three materials studied and introduced in this course complementary to each other? If so, how?
Q2: What is the aim and the general idea of our main textbook? Which unit do you think is most impressive? Why?
Q3: Please write a summary of Unit 3 (only based on Structure and Grammar and Writing Skills).
Q4: Why should we build our Conclusion around the elements of our Introduction in reverse order, and how?
Q5: How to choose the correct verb tense for each section of a scientific manuscript?
(To be continued ...)
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