366 Reservoir Engineering Handbook

behavior in the reservoir and the reservoir will behave as its infinite in size.
Section B in Figure 6-17 shows that the transient flow period occurs during the time
interval 0 < t < tt for the constant flow rate scenario and during the time period
0 < t < t4 during the constant pwf scenario as depicted by Section C in Figure 6-17.

Basic Transient Flow Equation

Under the steady-state flowing condition, the same quantity of fluid enters the
flow system as leaves it. In unsteady-state flow condition, the flow rate into an
element of volume of a porous media may not be the same as the flow rate out of
that element. Accordingly, the fluid content of the porous medium changes with
time. The variables in unsteady-state flow additional to those already used for
steady-state flow, therefore, become:

Time, t

Porosity, ϕ

Total compressibility, ct
The mathematical formulation of the transient-flow equation is based on com-
bining three independent equations and a specifying set of boundary and initial
conditions that constitute the unsteady-state equation. These equations and
boundary conditions are briefly described below:
a. Continuity Equation
The continuity equation is essentially a material balance equation that
accounts for every pound mass of fluid produced, injected, or remaining
in the reservoir.
b. Transport Equation
The continuity equation is combined with the equation for fluid motion
(transport equation) to describe the fluid flow rate “in” and “out” of the res-
ervoir. Basically, the transport equation is Darcy’s equation in its general-
ized differential form.
c. Compressibility Equation
The fluid compressibility equation (expressed in terms of density or vol-
ume) is used in formulating the unsteady-state equation with the objective of
describing the changes in the fluid volume as a function of pressure.
d. Initial and Boundary Conditions
There are two boundary conditions and one initial condition required to
complete the formulation and the solution of the transient flow equation.
The two boundary conditions are:

The formation produces at a constant rate into the wellbore.

There is no flow across the outer boundary and the reservoir behaves as if
it were infinite in size, i.e., re ¼ ∞.
The initial condition simply states the reservoir is at a uniform pressure when
production begins, i.e., time ¼ 0.
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Fluid Flow Chapter 6 367

pe
(qρ)r + dr
Center
of the well
(qρ)r
pwf

dr h

rw
r
r + dr
FIGURE 6-18 Illustration of radial flow.

Consider the flow element shown in Figure 6-18. The element has a width
of dr and is located at a distance of r from the center of the well. The porous
element has a differential volume of dV. According to the concept of
the material-balance equation, the rate of mass flow into an element minus
the rate of mass flow out of the element during a differential time Δt must
be equal to the mass rate of accumulation during that time interval, or:
2 3 2 3
mass entering mass leaving
6 7 6 7
6 volume element 7  6 volume element 7
4 5 4 5
during interval Δt during interval Δt
2 3 (6-56)
rate of mass
6 7
¼64 accumulation
7
5
during interval Δt
The individual terms of Equation 6-56 are described below:

Mass Entering the Volume Element During Time Interval Δt

ðMassÞin ¼ Δt½Aνρr + dr (6-57)

Where:
ν ¼ velocity of flowing fluid, ft/day
ρ ¼ fluid density at (r + dr), lb/ft3
A ¼ Area at (r + dr)
Δt ¼ time interval, days
The area of element at the entering side is:
368 Reservoir Engineering Handbook

Ar + dr ¼ 2πðr + drÞh (6-58)

Combining Equation 6-58 with 6-47 gives:
½Massin ¼ 2π Δtðr + drÞhðνρÞr + dr (6-59)

Mass Leaving the Volume Element

Adopting the same approach as that of the leaving mass gives:
½Massout ¼ 2π Δt rhðνρÞr (6-60)

Total Accumulation of Mass

The volume of some element with a radius of r is given by:
V ¼ πr2 h
Differentiating the above equation with respect to r gives:
dV
¼ 2πrh
dr
or:

dV ¼ ð2πrhÞdr (6-61)

Total mass accumulation during Δt ¼ dV ðϕρÞt + Δt  ðϕρÞt

Substituting for dV yields:

Total mass accumulation ¼ ð2πrhÞdr ðϕρÞt + Δt  ðϕρÞt (6-62)
Replacing terms of Equation 6-56 with those of the calculated relationships
gives:

2πh ðr + drÞΔtðϕρÞr + dr  2πhr Δt ðϕρÞr ¼ ð2πrhÞdr ðϕρÞt + Δt  ðϕρÞt

Dividing the above equation by (2πrh) dr and simplifying, gives:

1 1
ðr + drÞðνρÞr + dr  rðνρÞr ¼ ðϕρÞt + Δt  ðϕρÞt
ðrÞdr Δt
or
1∂ ∂
½rðνρÞ ¼ ðϕρÞ (6-63)
r ∂r ∂t
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Fluid Flow Chapter 6 369

Where:
ϕ ¼ porosity
ρ ¼ density, lb/ft3
ν ¼ fluid velocity, ft/day
Equation 6-63 is called the continuity equation, and it provides the principle of
conservation of mass in radial coordinates.
The transport equation must be introduced into the continuity equation to
relate the fluid velocity to the pressure gradient within the control volume
dV. Darcy’s Law is essentially the basic motion equation, which states that
the velocity is proportional to the pressure gradient (∂ p/∂ r). From
Equation 6-25:
k ∂p
ν ¼ ð5:615Þð0:001127Þ
μ ∂r
k ∂p
ν ¼ ð0:006328Þ (6-64)
μ ∂r
where
k ¼ permeability, md
ν ¼ velocity, ft/day
Combining Equation 6-64 with Equation 6-63 results in:
 
0:006328 ∂ k ∂p ∂
ðρrÞ ¼ ðϕρÞ (6-65)
r ∂r μ ∂r ∂t
Expanding the right-hand side by taking the indicated derivatives eliminates
the porosity from the partial derivative term on the right-hand side:
∂ ∂ρ ∂ϕ
ðϕρÞ ¼ ϕ + ρ (6-66)
∂t ∂t ∂t
As shown in Chapter 4, porosity is related to the formation compressibility
by the following:
1 ∂ϕ
cf ¼ (6-67)
ϕ ∂p
Applying the chain rule of differentiation to ∂ϕ/∂ t,
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂p
¼
∂t ∂p ∂t
Substituting Equation 6-67 into this equation,
∂ϕ ∂p
¼ ϕ cf
∂t ∂t
370 Reservoir Engineering Handbook

Finally, substituting the above relation into Equation 6-66 and the result into
Equation 6-65, gives:
 
0:006328 ∂ k ∂p ∂p ∂ρ
ðρ rÞ ¼ ρ ϕ cf +ϕ (6-68)
r ∂r μ ∂r ∂t ∂t

Equation 6-68 is the general partial differential equation used to describe

the flow of any fluid flowing in a radial direction in porous media. In addition
to the initial assumptions, Darcy’s equation has been added, which implies that
the flow is laminar. Otherwise, the equation is not restricted to any type of
fluid and is equally valid for gases or liquids. Compressible and slightly com-
pressible fluids, however, must be treated separately in order to develop prac-
tical equations that can be used to describe the flow behavior of these two
fluids. The treatments of the following systems are discussed below:

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids

Radial flow of compressible fluids

Radial Flow of Slightly Compressible Fluids

To simplify Equation 6-68, assume that the permeability and viscosity are con-
stant over pressure, time, and distance ranges. This leads to:
   
0:006328k ∂ ∂p ∂p ∂ρ
rρ ¼ ρϕ cf + ϕ (6-69)
μr ∂r ∂r ∂t ∂t

Expanding the above equation gives:

 " #    
k ρ ∂p ∂2 p ∂p ∂ρ ∂p ∂ρ
0:006328 +ρ 2 + ¼ ρϕ cf +ϕ
μ r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂t ∂t

Using the chain rule in the above relationship yields:

 "  2 #     
k p ∂p ∂2 p ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂p ∂ρ ∂p
0:006328 +p 2 + ¼ pϕ cf +ϕ
μ r ∂r ∂r ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂t ∂t ∂p

Dividing the above expression by the fluid density ρ gives

 "  2  #    
k 1 ∂p ∂2 p ∂p 1 ∂ρ ∂p ∂p 1 ∂ρ
0:006328 + + ¼ ϕ cf +ϕ
μ r ∂r ∂r2 ∂r ρ ∂ρ ∂t ∂t ρ ∂p

Recalling that the compressibility of any fluid is related to its density by:
1 ∂ρ
c¼
ρ ∂p
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Fluid Flow Chapter 6 371

Combining the above two equations gives:

 " 2  2 #    
k ∂ p 1 ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p
0:006328 + + c ¼ ϕ c f + ϕ c
μ ∂r2 r ∂r ∂r ∂t ∂t
 2
∂p
The term c is considered very small and may be ignored:
∂r
 " 2 #
k ∂ p 1 ∂p ∂p
0:006328 + ¼ ϕðcf + cÞ (6-70)
μ ∂r2 r ∂r ∂t

Define total compressibility, ct, as:

ct ¼ c + cf (6-71)
Combining Equations 6-69 with 6-70 and rearranging gives:
∂2 p 1 ∂p ϕμct ∂p
+ ¼ (6-72)
∂r 2 r ∂r 0:006328 k ∂t
where the time t is expressed in days.
Equation 6-72 is called the diffusivity equation. It is one of the most impor-
tant equations in petroleum engineering. The equation is particularly used in
analysis well testing data where the time t is commonly recorded in hours.
The equation can be rewritten as:
∂2 p 1 ∂p ϕμ ct ∂p
+ ¼ (6-73)
∂r 2 r ∂r 0:000264 k ∂t
Where:
k ¼ permeability, md
r ¼ radial position, ft
p ¼ pressure, psia
ct ¼ total compressibility, psi–1
t ¼ time, hrs
ϕ ¼ porosity, fraction
μ ¼ viscosity, cp
When the reservoir contains more than one fluid, total compressibility should be
computed as
ct ¼ co So + cw Sw + cg Sg + cf (6-74)
where co, cw and cg refer to the compressibility of oil, water, and gas, respec-
tively, while So, Sw, and Sg refer to the fractional saturation of these fluids. Note
that the introduction of ct into Equation 6-72 does not make Equation 6-72
applicable to multiphase flow; the use of ct, as defined by Equation 6-73, simply
accounts for the compressibility of any immobile fluids that may be in the res-
ervoir with the fluid that is flowing.
372 Reservoir Engineering Handbook

The term [0.000264 k/ϕμct] (Equation 6-73) is called the diffusivity con-
stant and is denoted by the symbol η, or:

0:000264 k
η¼ (6-75)
ϕμct

The diffusivity equation can then be written in a more convenient form as:

∂2 p 1 ∂p 1 ∂p
+ ¼ (6-76)
∂r2 r ∂r η ∂t

The diffusivity equation as represented by Equation 6-76 is essentially

designed to determine the pressure as a function of time t and position r.
Before discussing and presenting the different solutions to the diffusivity
equation, it is necessary to summarize the assumptions and limitations used
in developing Equation 6-76:
1. Homogeneous and isotropic porous medium
2. Uniform thickness
3. Single phase flow
4. Laminar flow
5. Rock and fluid properties independent of pressure
Notice that for a steady-state flow condition, the pressure at any point in the
reservoir is constant and does not change with time, i.e., ∂ p/∂t ¼ 0, and there-
fore Equation 6-76 reduces to:

∂2 p 1 ∂p
+ ¼0 (6-77)
∂r2 r ∂r
Equation 6-77 is called Laplace’s equation for steady-state flow.

Example 6-9
Show that the radial form of Darcy’s equation is the solution to Equation 6-77.

Solution
Step 1. Start with Darcy’s Law as expressed by Equation 6-29
   
Q o B o uo r
p ¼ pwf + ln
0:00708 kh rw

Step 2. For a steady-state incompressible flow, the term between the two
brackets is constant and labeled as C, or:
 
r
p ¼ pwf + ½C ln
rw