Reproduction

Asexual reproduction:
Asexual Reproduction: a process resulting in the production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent.
An example of asexual reproduction is Fungi and Potato Tubers.
The advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction are summarized in the table.

Advantages Disadvantages

Needs one parent cell only Competition is present

Asexual Reproduction

Faster than sexual reproduction Little to no variation in offspring

Less ability to adapt and less

Spreads rapidly
evolution

No need for gametes May all be killed by same disease

Less energy needed Converse of mp5 for asexual

Inherits adaptation from parent cells

Sexual reproduction:
Sexual Reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex
cells) to form a zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from
each other.
Fertilization: the fusion of gamete nuclei.
The nuclei of gametes are haploid and the nucleus of a zygote is diploid.
Haploid: containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes.
Diploid: containing two sets of chromosomes.
In a diploid cell, there is a pair of each type of chromosome and in a human diploid cell
there are 23 pairs.
The advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction are summarized in the table
below.
 Sexual Reproduction Advantages Disadvantages

Needs two plants or a pollinating

Variation
agent

Evolution or formation of new species Slow

Seed dispersal A lot of pollen or seeds wasted

Colonization or ability to adapt to change Fertilization may not happen

Loss of lots of energy

Sexual reproduction in plants:

A labeled flower is drawn in the figure below.

petal

anther stigma

petal
stigma anther
stamen
filament
ovary
ovule

ovary

nectary
outer
sepal nectary petals,
section
stamens,
(stamen removed) filament sepals
(inner sepal removed) removed
sepal stamen carpel

The table below summarizes the functions of each part.

Feature Function

Sepals Protect the flower when it is in the bud

Petals The color and scent of the petals attract insects to the flower

Anthers Pollen grains are produced in anthers by cell division

Stigmas Trap pollens and provide entrance to ovary

Ovaries Where fertilization takes place

Fertilization
Pollination is complete when
stigma
pollen from an anther has landed pollen
style
on a stigma. If the flower is to ovule grain

produce seeds, pollination has to male nucleus

be followed by a process called

pollen tube
fertilization. nuclei fuse
female nucleus
In flowering plants, the male
gamete is in the pollen grain; the
female gamete, called the egg cell, ovary wall
is in the ovule.
pollen tube
For fertilization to occur, the enters micropyle
nucleus of the male cell from the
pollen grain has to reach the
female nucleus of the egg cell in
the ovule, and fuse with it.
The pollen grain absorbs liquid from the stigma and a microscopic pollen tube grows out
of the grain.
This tube grows down the style and into the ovary, where it enters a small hole, the
micropyle, in an ovule.
The nucleus of the pollen grain travels down the pollen tube and enters the ovule.
Here it combines with the nucleus of the egg cell.
Each ovule in an ovary needs to be fertilized by a separate pollen grain.

Pollination:
Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
Self-pollination: as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of the same flower or different flower on the same plant.
Cross-pollination: as transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of
a flower on a different plant of the same species.
The implications of self-pollination and cross-pollination are similar to those of asexual
and sexual reproduction.
The table summarizes Insect and Wind pollination feature in plants.

Feature Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated

Petals Present, often large, colored and Absent, or small, green and
scented, with guidelines to guide inconspicuous
insects into the flower

Nectar Produced by nectarines, to attract Absent

insects

Stamen Present inside the flower Long filaments, allowing the anthers
to hang freely outside the flower so
the pollen is exposed to the wind

Stigmas Small surface area; inside the flower Large and feathery; hanging
outside the flower to catch pollen
carried by the wind

Pollen Smaller amounts; grains are often Larger amounts of smooth and light
round and sticky or covered in pollen grains, which are easily
spikes to attach to the furry bodies of carried by the wind
insects

Seeds:
After the pollen and the egg nuclei have fused, the egg cell divides many times and
produces a miniature plant called an embryo.
This consists of a tiny root and shoot, with two special leaves called cotyledons.
The structure of the seed is outlined in the figure below.

plumule
position of radicle radicle
radicle

micropyle

hilum
cotyledons

cotyledon
testa

(a) external appearance (b) testa removed (c) one cotyledon removed
 Germination:
Three factors are needed for seeds to germinate, water, oxygen and suitable
temperature.
The stages of germination are shown below.

cotyledons
withdrawn
from soil
plumule protected growing
between cotyledons point

hypocotyl
‘elbows’ out of soil cotyledons
testa splits hypocotyl will fall
starts to grow hypocotyl off
staightens

radicle root lateral roots

emerges hairs grow

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Sexual Reproduction in Humans
Male Reproductive System:

bladder

rectum
front of
seminal right
pelvic
vesicle kidney
girdle
prostate
gland
urethra
erectile sperm duct
tissue bladder
penis prostate opening of
epididymis gland bladder and
foreskin urethra sperm ducts
testis to urethra
sperm
duct testis
scrotum epididymis

penis

Part Function

Epididymis A mass of tubes in which sperm are stored

Can become firm, to insert into the vagina of the female during
Penis
sexual intercourse in order to transfer sperm

Prostate Gland Adds fluid and nutrients to sperm to form semen

A sac that holds the testes outside the body, keeping them cooler
Scrotum
than body temperature

Seminal Vesicle Adds fluid and nutrients to sperm to form semen

Muscular tube that links the testis to the urethra to allow the
Sperm Duct
passage of semen containing sperm

Testis Male gonad that produces sperm

Passes semen containing sperm through the penis, also carries

Urethra
urine from the bladder
 Female Reproductive System:

oviduct
ovary
funnel of
oviduct
left kidney uterus
ureter
(in section)
bladder (here
shown ureter bladder
displaced to
one side, oviduct front of
normally it funnel of pelvic girdle vagina
lies in front oviduct
of the uterus) urethra
cervix ovary rectum
vulva
vagina
uterus
urethra (in section)

Part Function

Cervix A ring of muscle, separating the vagina from the uterus

Funnel of Oviduct Directs an ovum (egg) from the ovary into the oviduct

Ovary Contains follicles in which ova (eggs) are produced

Carries an ovum to the uterus, with propulsion provided by tiny

Oviduct
cilia in the wall also, the site of fertilization

Urethra Carries urine from the bladder

Uterus Where the fetus develops

Receives the male penis during sexual intercourse; sperm are

Vagina
deposited here

Fertilization: the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete
(egg cell/ovum)
The stages of Fertilization are outlined below.

sperms

meet and forming which undergoes cell division and growth to form an
fuse a zygote embryo
ovum
Human Gametes:
The male gametes are the sperm. jelly coat
nucleus
cell membrane
The adaptive features for sperm are cytoplasm
flagellum to allow the sperm to swim in the containing yolk
follicle cells
droplets
vagina, mitochondria to provide energy for
movement, the streamlines shape of the (a) ovum
sperm and digestive enzymes produced in
acrosome
acrosome to break down the egg’s jelly coat. which produces
enzymes mid-piece

The female gametes are the ova (singular: nucleus

ovum) or eggs. flagellum (tail)

The adaptive features for the ovum are

energy stores, more cytoplasm that stores
nutrients and the jelly coat that allows it to be
penetrated by one sperm only during
(b) sperm
fertilization.
The male produces millions of sperm, while the female produces a smaller number of
eggs (usually one a month for about 40 years).
A table comparing between the ovum and sperm is outlined below.

Feature Ovum Sperm

Relative size Larger Smaller

Numbers produced One per month Produced in large amounts

Does not move but is

Uses flagellum to swim
Mobility moved by peristalsis (of
and move
oviduct)

Sperm production is done in the tubules in the testes by meiosis.

The lining of the sperm-producing tubules in the testis consists of rapidly dividing cells.
After a series of cell divisions, the cells grow long tails called flagella (singular: flagellum)
and become sperm, which pass into the epididymis.
During copulation, the epididymis and sperm ducts contract and force sperm out through
the urethra.
The prostate gland and seminal vesicle add fluid to the sperm. This fluid plus the sperm
it contains is called semen, and the ejection of sperm through the penis is called
ejaculation.
 The egg cells (ova) are present in the ovary from the time of birth.
No more are formed during the female’s lifetime, but between the ages of 10 and 14 some
of the egg cells start to mature and are released, one at a time about every 4 weeks from
alternate ovaries.
As each ovum matures, the cells around it divides rapidly and produce a fluid-filled sac.
This sac is called a follicle and, when mature, it projects from the surface of the ovary
like a small blister.
Finally, the follicle bursts and releases the ovum with its coating of cells into the funnel of
the oviduct also the Corpus luteum is formed at this stage.
This is called ovulation, from here, the ovum is wafted down the oviduct by the action of
cilia in the lining of the tube.
If the ovum meets sperm cells in the oviduct, it may be fertilized by one of them.
The released ovum is enclosed in a jelly-like coat called the zona pellucida and is still
surrounded by a layer of follicle cells.
Before fertilization can occur, sperm have to get through this layer of cells and the
successful sperm has to penetrate the zona pellucida with the aid of enzymes secreted
by the head of the sperm.
The process of Fertilization is outlined below.

follicle cells

sperm nucleus
ovum
cytoplasm tail
nucleus

zona egg membrane

pellucida

(b) Follicle cells are scattered, possibly

by enzymes produced by sperms.
(a) Sperms swim towards ovum.

(c) One sperm (d) Sperm passes (e) The sperm

gets through through cell nucleus and
the zona egg nucleus
pellucida. fuse.
Pregnancy and Development:
The fertilized ovum (zygote) first divides into two cells. Each of these divides again, so
producing four cells.
The cells continue to divide in this way to produce a solid ball of cells, an early stage in
the development of the embryo.
This early embryo travels down the oviduct to the uterus.
Here it sinks into the lining of the uterus, a process called implantation.
developing developing
The embryo continues to grow and produces ear eye

new cells that form tissues and organs.

12 mm
1.5 mm

40 mm
After 8 weeks, when all the organs are formed, heart

the embryo is called a fetus.

umbilical cord
One of the first organs to form is the heart, which (a) after 2 weeks (b) about 5 weeks (c) 8 weeks
pumps blood around the body of the embryo.
As the embryo grows, the uterus enlarges to contain it. Inside the uterus the embryo
becomes enclosed in a fluid-filled sac called the amniotic sac, which protects it from
damage and prevents unequal pressures from acting on it. The fluid is called amniotic
fluid.
The oxygen and food needed to keep the embryo alive and growing are obtained from
the mother’s blood by means of a structure called the placenta.
Soon after the ball of cells reaches the uterus, some of the cells, instead of forming the
organs of the embryo, grow into a disc-like structure, the placenta.
The placenta becomes closely attached to the lining of the uterus and is attached to the
embryo by a tube called the umbilical cord.
The nervous system (brain, spinal cord and sense organs) start to develop very quickly.
After a few weeks, the embryo’s heart has developed and is circulating blood through the
umbilical cord and placenta as well as through its own tissues.
Oxygen and nutrients such as glucose and amino acids pass across the placenta to the
embryo’s bloodstream.
Carbon dioxide passes from the embryo’s blood to that of the mother.
Blood entering the placenta from the mother does not mix with the embryo’s blood.
 The whole process is summarized in the figure below.
oviduct placenta

implanted umbilical
umbilical
embryo cord embryo
cord
(12 mm) (470 mm)
embryo
uterus (60 mm) amnion
uterus
embryo
cervix (250 mm)
amnion amnion
amniotic
vagina (water sac)
cavity

uterus cervix

(a) 5 weeks (b) 10 weeks (c) 5 months (d) 35 weeks (a few weeks before birth)

The blood vessels in the placenta are very close to the blood vessels in the uterus so that
oxygen, glucose, amino acids and salts can pass from the mother’s blood to the embryo’s
blood.
So, the blood flowing in the umbilical vein from the placenta carries food and oxygen to
be used by the living, growing tissues of the embryo.
In a similar way, the carbon dioxide and urea in the embryo’s blood escape from the
vessels in the placenta and are carried away by the mother’s blood in the uterus.
In this way the embryo gets rid of its excretory products.
There is no direct communication between the mother’s blood system and that of the
embryo.
The exchange of substances takes place across the thin walls of the blood vessels.

uterus capillary in
lining placenta
embryo artery in umbilical cord
(deoxygenated blood) deoxygenated ca
rb
o
blood ur n d
ea io
pa xid
ss e
ou an
blood space t d

in uterus

d
oo
df
n an in
e s
yg pas
ox
blood space
vein in umbilical cord
in uterus
(oxygenated blood)
capillary network
in placenta oxygenated
(a) blood (b)
In this way, the mother’s blood pressure cannot damage the delicate vessels of the
embryo and it is possible for the placenta to select the substances allowed to pass into
the embryo’s blood.
The placenta can prevent some harmful substances in the mother’s blood from reaching
the embryo.
It cannot prevent all of them, however: alcohol and nicotine can pass to the developing
fetus. If the mother is a heroin addict, the baby can be born addicted to the drug.
Some pathogens such as the rubella virus and HIV can pass across the placenta.

Breast-feeding and Bottle-feeding:

Advantages Disadvantages

Passes passive immunity through antibodies to Difficulty in producing

baby enough milk

Develops bond between baby and mother Embarrassment

Breast-feeding

Caters more specifically to the baby’s needs

Nipples become painful
and is easier to digest

Cannot delegate to male

Reduced risk of cancers for mother and child
partner

HIV, Drugs or nicotine may

Lower in cost
be passed to baby

The milk is sterile, at body temperature and less

chance of allergy.
Ante-natal Care:
Antenatal or prenatal refers to the period before birth.
Antenatal care is the way a woman should look after herself during pregnancy, so that
the birth will be safe and her baby healthy.
The mother-to-be should make sure that she eats properly, and perhaps takes more iron
and folic acid (a vitamin), than she usually does to prevent anemia.
Pregnant women who drink or smoke are more likely to have babies with low birth
weights. These babies are more likely to be ill than babies of normal weight.
Smoking may also make a miscarriage more likely.
So, a woman who smokes should give up smoking during her pregnancy.
Alcohol can cross the placenta and damage the fetus.

Birth and Labor:

A simple outline is shown as.
Breaking of the amniotic sac.
Contraction of the muscles in the uterus wall.
Dilation of the cervix.
Passage through the vagina.
Tying and cutting the umbilical cord.
Delivery of the afterbirth.

Sex Hormones in Humans.

Puberty:
Although the ovaries of a young girl contain all the ova she will ever produce, they do not
start to be released until she reaches the age of about 10–14 years.
This stage in her life is known as puberty.
At about the same time as the first ovulation, the ovary also releases female sex
hormones into the bloodstream.
These hormones are called oestrogens and when they circulate around the body, they
bring about the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
In a girl these are the increased growth of the breasts, a widening of the hips and the
growth of hair in the pubic region and in the armpits.
There is also an increase in the size of the uterus and vagina.
Once all these changes are complete, the girl is capable of having a baby.
Puberty in boys occurs at about the same age as in girls. The testes start to produce
sperm for the first time and also release a hormone, called testosterone, into the
bloodstream.
The male secondary sexual characteristics, which begin to appear at puberty, are
enlargement of the testes and penis, deepening of the voice, growth of hair in the pubic
region, armpits, chest and, later on, the face.
In both sexes there is a rapid increase in the rate of growth during puberty.

The Menstrual Cycle:

The table below summarizes hormone secretion during the menstrual cycle.

Site of
Hormone Function
Secretion

Thickens the lining of the Uterus in preparation to

Implantation
Oestrogen Ovaries
Stimulates the release of LH
Inhibits secretion of FSH so only one egg is produced

Maintain the thickness of the lining of the Uterus

Stops menstrual cycle in pregnancy
Progesterone Ovaries Prevent release of FSH and Inhibits LH
Prevents follicle development
Prevent Uterus wall muscles contractions

Pituitary Stimulates the follicle to mature the egg and stimulates

FSH
Gland Oestrogen production

Pituitary
LH Releases the mature egg from the ovary
Gland
At the start of the cycle, the lining of the uterus wall has broken down (menstruation).
As each follicle in the ovaries develops, the amount of oestrogens produced by the ovary
increases.
The oestrogens act on the uterus and cause its lining to become thicker and develop
more blood vessels.
These are changes that help an early embryo to implant.
Two hormones, produced by the pituitary gland at the base of the brain, promote
ovulation.
The hormones are follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone, or
lutropin (LH).
They act on a ripe follicle and stimulate maturation and release of the ovum.
Once the ovum has been released, the follicle that produced it develops into a solid body
called the corpus luteum.
This produces a hormone called progesterone, which affects the uterus lining in the same
way as the oestrogens, making it grow thicker and produce more blood vessels.
If the ovum is fertilized, the corpus luteum continues to release progesterone and so
keeps the uterus in a state suitable for implantation.
If the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum stops producing progesterone. As a result,
the thickened lining of the uterus breaks down and loses blood, which escapes through
the cervix and vagina.

menstruation uterus lining thickens ready to breaks down if menstruation

receive embryo no implantation
takes place

corpus luteum developing corpus luteum

follicle maturing ovulation breaks down

FSH and LH pro

g
ns
est

ge
er

stro
on

oe
e

menstruation menstruation

DAYS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 1 2 3 4 5
start of end of copulation could
menstruation menstruation result in fertilisation
Birth Control Methods:

Method Function

Avoiding sexual intercourse. In this way, sperm

Abstinence cannot come into contact with an egg and
fertilization cannot happen

By keeping careful records of the intervals

between menstrual periods, it is possible to
Natural

Monitoring body
calculate a potentially fertile period of about 10
temperature
days in mid-cycle, when sexual intercourse
should be avoided if children are not wanted.

As the time for ovulation approaches, the mucus

becomes more fluid. Women can learn to detect
Cervical mucus
these changes and so calculate their fertile
period.

A thin rubber sheath is placed on the erect penis

before sexual intercourse. The sheath traps the
Condom
sperm and prevents them from reaching the
uterus.
Barrier

A thin rubber disc, placed in the vagina before

Diaphragm intercourse, covers the cervix and stops sperm
entering the uterus

This is a female condom. It is placed outside the

Femidom vagina. During sexual intercourse, semen is
trapped inside the femidom.

Spermicides are chemicals which, though

harmless to the tissues, can kill or immobilize
sperm.
Spermicides The spermicide, in the form of a cream, gel or
foam, is placed in the vagina. On their own,
Chemical

spermicides are not very reliable but, in

conjunction with condoms or diaphragms, they
are effective.

A small T-shaped plastic and copper device, also

known as a coil, can be inserted by a doctor or
Intra-uterine device (IUD) nurse into the wall of the uterus, where it
probably prevents implantation of a fertilized
ovum.
 This is similar to an IUD; is T-shaped and
releases the hormone progesterone slowly over a
Intra-uterine system (IUS)
long period of time (up to 5 years). The hormone
prevents ovulation.

The pill contains chemicals, which have the same

effect on the body as the hormones Oestrogen
and progesterone.
When mixed in suitable proportions these
Contraceptive pill
hormones suppress ovulation and so prevent
conception.
Chemical

The pills need to be taken each day for the 21

days between menstrual periods.

This is a small plastic tube about 4cm long, which

is inserted under the skin of the upper arm of a
Contraceptive implant woman by a doctor or nurse.
Once in place it slowly releases the hormone
progesterone, preventing pregnancy

This injection, given to women, contains

progesterone and stays effective for between 8
Contraceptive injection and 12 weeks.
It works by thickening the mucus in the cervix,
stopping sperm reaching an egg.

This is a simple and safe surgical operation in

which the man’s sperm ducts are cut and the
Male sterilization ends sealed.
(vasectomy) This means that his semen contains the
secretions of the prostate gland and seminal
vesicle but no sperm, so cannot fertilize an ovum.
Surgical

A woman may be sterilized by an operation in

which her oviducts are tied, blocked or cut. The
ovaries are unaffected.
Female sterilization
Menstruation continue as before, but sperm can
(laparotomy)
no longer reach the ova.
Ova are released, but break down in the upper
part of the oviduct.
The Use of Hormones in Contraception and Fertility Drugs:
Infertility:
About 85–90% of couples trying for a baby achieve pregnancy within a year. Those that
do not may be sub-fertile or infertile.
Female infertility is usually caused by a failure to ovulate or a blockage or distortion of the
oviducts. The latter can often be corrected by surgery.
Fertility Drugs:
Failure to produce ova can be treated with fertility drugs. These drugs are similar to
hormones and act by increasing the levels of FSH and LH.
Administration of the drug is timed to promote ovulation to coincide with copulation.
Artificial Insemination (AI).
Male infertility is caused by an inadequate quantity of sperm in the semen or by sperm
that are insufficiently mobile to reach the oviducts.
There are few effective treatments for this condition, but pregnancy may be achieved by
artificial insemination (AI). This involves injecting semen through a tube into the top of
the uterus. In some cases, the husband’s semen can be used but, more often, the semen
is supplied by an anonymous donor.
In vitro fertilization
In vitro means literally in glass or, in other words, the fertilization is allowed to take place
in laboratory glassware (hence the term ‘test-tube babies’).
This technique may be employed where surgery cannot be used to repair blocked
oviducts.
The woman may be given fertility drugs, which cause her ovaries to release several
mature ova simultaneously.
These ova are then collected by laparoscopy, i.e. they are sucked up in a fine tube
inserted through the abdominal wall.
The ova are then mixed with the husband’s seminal fluid and watched under the
microscope to see if cell division takes place.
One or more of the dividing zygotes are then introduced to the woman’s uterus by means
of a tube inserted through the cervix.
Usually, only one (or none) of the zygotes develops, though occasionally there are
multiple births.
The success rate for in vitro fertilization is between 12 and 40% depending on how many
embryos are transplanted.
Using Hormones for Contraception:
Oestrogen and progesterone control important events in the menstrual cycle.
Oestrogen encourages the re-growth of the lining of the uterus wall after a period and
prevents the release of FSH. If FSH is blocked, no further ova are matured.
The uterus lining needs to be thick to allow successful implantation of an embryo.
Progesterone maintains the thickness of the uterine lining.
It also inhibits the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH), which is responsible for ovulation.
If LH is suppressed, ovulation cannot happen, so there are no ova to be fertilized.
Because of the roles of Oestrogen and Progesterone, they are used, singly or in
combination, in a range of contraceptive methods.
Some religions are against any artificial forms of contraception and actively discourage
the use of contraceptives such as the sheath and femidom.
However, these are important in the prevention of transmission of STDs in addition to
their role as contraceptives.
Fertility treatments such as in vitro fertilization is controversial because of the ‘spare’
embryos that are created and not returned to the uterus.
Some people believe that since these embryos are potential human beings, they should
not be destroyed or used for research.
In some cases, the ‘spare’ embryos have been frozen and used later if the first transplants
did not work.
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs):
Sexually Transmitted Infection: an infection that is transmitted via body fluids through
sexual contact.
AIDS and HIV
The initials of AIDS stand for acquired immune deficiency syndrome. (A syndrome is a
pattern of symptoms associated with a particular disease.)
The virus that causes AIDS is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV is transmitted
by direct infection of the blood.
Drug users who share needles contaminated with infected blood run a high risk of the
disease.
It can also be transmitted sexually, both between men and women and, especially,
between homosexual men who practice anal intercourse.
Prostitutes, who have many sexual partners, are at risk of being infected if they have sex
without using condoms and are, therefore, a potential source of HIV to others.
Control of the Spread of STIs
The best way to avoid sexually transmitted infections is to avoid having sexual intercourse
with an infected person.
However, the symptoms of the disease are often not obvious and it is difficult to recognize
an infected individual.
So, the disease is avoided by not having sexual intercourse with a person who might have
the disease.
The risk of catching a sexually transmitted disease can be greatly reduced if the man
uses a condom or if a woman uses a femidom.
These act as barriers to bacteria or viruses.
The Effects of HIV on the Immune System:
HIV attacks certain kinds of lymphocyte, so the number of these cells in the body
decreases.
Lymphocytes produce antibodies against infections. If the body cannot respond to
infections through the immune system, it becomes vulnerable to pathogens that might not
otherwise be life-threatening.
As a result, the patient has little or no resistance to a wide range of diseases such as
influenza, pneumonia, blood disorders, skin cancer or damage to the nervous system,
which the body cannot resist.