EMI

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Magnetic Flux- The total number of magnetic field lines passing through an area normally is called
magnetic flux. The S.I unit-Weber.
It is a scalar quantity.
Dimensional formula [ ML2T-2A-1]

Consider a coil of area A, n is a unit vector normal to the area. B is the induction field strength,
θ is the angle between the normal to the coil and the direction of induction field.
Then the magnetic flux through the coil.Φ =A n.B =B A cosθ.
If the coil is having N number of turns, Φ =BANcosθ.
The magnetic flux can be changed by changing,
1. Induction field strength (B) θ
2. Area of the coil (A)
3. Number of turns (N) B
4. Angle between normal of the coil and direction of field (θ)

Electromagnetic Induction.
When ever magnetic flux associated with the coil changes an e.m.f and current generates in the
coil. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.
The generated e.m.f is called induced e.m.f and the current is called induced current.

Faraday’s Experiment
Faraday conducted three experiments for the identification of electromagnetic induction

Experiment-1

Consider a Coil C1 connected to a galvanometer.

When north pole of the magnet is moved towards the coil the galvanometer needle deflects in one
direction.
When north pole of the magnet is moved away the coil the galvanometer needle deflects in opposite
direction.
When the magnet is held stationary relative to the coil, no deflection is observed.
Also if the magnet is held stationary and the coil is moved towards or away from it, the needle
deflects.
Moreover when the south pole of a magnet is moved towards or away from the coil, the deflections in
the galvanometer are opposite to that observed with the north pole for similar movement.
Further the deflections (hence the current) is found to be larger when the bar magnet is pushed towards
or pulled away form the coil faster.
Result.
When ever there is a relative motion between a closed coil and magnet, induced current will be
produced in the coil.
Induced current lasts as longer as the movement of the magnet with respect to the coil continues.

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Experiment -2

The bar magnet is replaced by a second coil C2 connected to a battery.

When the coil C2 is moved towards the coil C1, the galvanometer shows a deflection.
When the coil C2 is moved away from the coil C1, the galvanometer shows a deflection in opposite
direction.
When C2 is held fixed and C1 is moved the same effects are observed.
The deflection lasts as long as the coils are in relative motion.
Result-the relative motion between a current carrying coil and conducting coil induces current in the
conducting coil.
C1
C2
Experiment -3

In this experiment Faraday connected a tap key K to the current carrying coil C2.
At the instant key K is closed, the galvanometer needle deflects in one direction and then returns to
zero.
At the instant key K is opened, the galvanometer needle deflects in opposite direction and again
returns to zero.
Finally the galvanometer reads zero when there is either a steady current or no current in the coil C2.

Reason for deflection

1. When the key is closed, the magnetic field produced by the current in the coil C2 changes from
zero to some value over some finite time, because the field associated with coil C1 changes.

2. Again when key is opened, the magnetic field decreases to zero over some finite time and
again the change in magnetic field induces current in C1.

3. When there is a steady current or no current in the coil C2, no change in magnetic field and
hence no deflection is observed.

4. From these observations, Faraday concluded that an electric current can be induced in a circuit
by changing magnetic field.

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Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
The induced e.m.f is equal to the negative rate of change of flux through the coil.
𝒅ø
𝒆=−
𝒅𝒕

Where Φ is the flux linked to one turn

If the coil has N turns,
𝒅(𝑵ø)
𝐞=−
𝒅𝒕
Negative sign indicates that the induced current opposes any change according to Lenz’s law.

Lenz’s law
Statement- the direction of induced e.m.f is always opposes the cause which creates it.
Explanation
S S
N N

When north pole of the magnet is moved towards the coil, due to increase in flux, e.m.f develops and
current flows in anti-clock wise direction. Then the plane of coil facing north pole of magnet will act
as a north pole. So the motion of the magnet is opposed. Hence work is done to move the magnet
towards the coil.
When north pole of magnet is moved away from the coil, the magnetic flux linked with the coil
decreases. Due to decrease in the flux, e.m.f develops in the coil and current flows in the coil in clock-
wise direction. So the plane of the coil facing the north pole of magnet acts as a south pole. So due to
the attraction between the coil and the north pole of magnet, the motion of magnet is opposed. So
work has to be done to over this repulsive force and this work is converted into electrical energy.

Lenz’s law is based on the law of conservation of energy and it is useful to find the direction of
induced current.

Different ways to induce e.m.f in a circuit

Induced e.m.f
𝒅ø 𝒅(𝐁𝐀𝐍 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉)
𝒆 = − 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝒅𝒕
.
1. By changing magnetic induction with respect to time.
2. By changing area of coil
3. By changing number of turns
4. By changing orientation of coil

Relation between charge flow and change in flux through a circuit

Induced e.m.f

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induced current

but

amount of charge flow

MOTIONAL E.M.F
the e.m.f induced in a conductor moving through a constant magnetic field is known as motional e.m.f.

Expression for motional e.m.f

Consider a conductor of length l moving in a magnetic field of induction B with velocity v.

Let the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of conductor.
The electrons in the conductor experience a magnetic force F = Bqv directed along the length of the
conductor.
Due to this force, the electrons move to the lower end of the conductor and accumulate there, leaving a
net positive charge at the upper end.
Due to this charge separation, as electric field is produced inside the conductor.
The charge accumulates at both ends until the downward magnetic force Bqv is balanced by the
upward electric force Eq.
In equilibrium condition
Eq = Bqv
E = vB
Induced e.m.f e = E.l = vB.l
There fore e = B l v
The upper end is at high potential than the lower end.
If the direction of motion is reversed, the induced current direction is also reversed.
Inductor – an element of an electric circuit like a tightly wound coil of insulated wire which opposes
the change in current flowing through it is called an inductor.
The symbol of an inductor is

Self induction and self inductance

When the current in a coil changes, an e.m.f is induced in the coil opposing the change in the current
through the coil. This phenomenon is called self inductance.

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Expression for induced e.m.f
When a current i flows through the coil, the magnetic flux through it is Φ. The magnetic flux is
directly proportional to the current flowing through the coil.

ΦαI or Φ=Li
Where L is called coefficient of self induction or self inductance of the loop.
From Faraday’s law of EMI,
𝒅ø 𝒅(𝐋𝐢)
𝒆=− =−
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

it is the expression for the induced e.m.f in the coil.

Self inductance
It is defined as the magnetic flux liked with the coil when unit current flows in it (or)
It is defined as the negative induced e.m.f in the coil when the rate of change of current in the coil is
unity. The S.I unit – weber/ampere or volt-second/ampere or henry
Self induction depends upon,
1) the geometry of the coils
2) the number of turns of the coil
3) the medium inside the coils.

Self inductance of a circular coil

From

Magnetic induction at center of circular coil

Self inductance of a solenoid

From

Magnetic induction at center of solenoid,

If the number of turns per unit length is n then,n=N/l or N = nl

µ (𝒏𝒍)𝟐 𝑨
𝐋= = µ 𝑨𝑵𝒍
𝐥
If the inside of the solenoid is filled with a material of relative permeability μr
L = μ0 μr N2Al

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Mutual induction C1
Consider two coils kept near to each other, C2
one of the coils is connected with a
galvanometer and the second coil is connected
with a battery in series with a tap key.
The coil with battery is called primary coil and
the coil with galvanometer is called secondary
coil.
When key in the primary coil is open there is
K
no current in it and there is no magnetic field
inside the coil.
When the key is suddenly closed, current starts flowing in the primary coil. Then this coil behaves like
a magnetic dipole and the magnetic field due to it passes through the secondary coil.
This creates magnetic flux that increases in the secondary with the closing off the key in the primary.
By the laws of electromagnetic induction, an e.m.f is induced in the secondary coil. This phenomenon
is called mutual induction.

Definition – when the current in it changes, an e.m.f is induced in another coil kept nearer to it. This
phenomenon is called mutual induction.

Expression for mutual inductance

The magnetic fulx in secondary coil is directly proportional to the current in the primary coil. Φsα ip
or Φs = M ip
Where M is called coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance
From Faraday’s law,
𝒅ø 𝒅(𝐌𝐢 )
𝒆=− =−
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

it is defined as the flux linked with the secondary coil when unit current flows through the primary coil
or it is defined as the induced in the secondary coil when the rate of change of current in the primary is
unity.
The units and dimensions of mutual inductance are same as that of self inductance.

Mutual inductance depends on,

i) Distance between the coils

ii) Geometric shape of the coils
iii) Material of the core
iv) Angle between the axes of the coils.

Energy stored in an inductor

Consider that a source of e.m.f is connected to an inductor of inductance L.
Let the current in the inductor changing at the rate di/dt
Then induced e.m.f (in magnitude)

If dw is the work done by the source to send a constant current i in the time dt, then
dw= e.i.dt=L.di/dt.i.dt=Lidi
If W is the work done by the source to send constant current i continuously then

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𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝒊𝟐
𝑾 = ∫ 𝒅𝒘 = ∫ 𝑳𝒊 𝒅𝒊 = 𝐋 ∫ 𝒊𝒅𝒊 = 𝑳
2
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
This work done is stored in the form of energy of the inductor

Energy stored in an inductor

EDDY Currents
When magnetic flux associated with a bulk metallic conductor changes, induced currents are set up in
the conductor in the form of closed loops. These currents look like eddies and whirlpools and known
as Eddy currents or Foucault’s currents`

Applications of eddy currents

1. Magnetic braking in trains – strong electro magnets are situated above the rails in some
electrically powered trains. When the electro magnets are activated the eddy currents induced in
the rails oppose the motion of the train.

2. Electro magnetic damping – certain galvanometer have a fixed core made of non magnetic
material. when the coil oscillates, the eddy currents generated in the core oppose the motion and
bring the coil to rest quickly. These galvanometers are called dead beat galvanometer.

3. Induction furnace – induction furnace can be used to produce high temperatures and can be
utilized to prepare alloys, by melting the constituent alloys. A high frequency alternating current is
passed through the coil which surrounds the metal to be melted. The eddy currents generated in the
metals produce high temperatures sufficient to melt it.

4. Speedometers – in the speedometer of an automobile, a small magnet is connected to the main

shaft of the vehicle and it rotates according to the speed of the vehicle. The magnet is arranged in
an aluminium cylinder with the help of hair springs. When the magnet rotates, it produces eddy
currents in the drum. A pointer attached to drum moves over a scale, which directly indicates the
speed of the vehicle.

Undesirable effects of eddy currents – since the resistance of a metallic conductor is quite low,
the magnitude of eddy currents produced in quite large producing heating effects. These heating
effects are undesirable in a choke coil, transformer, dynamo, etc..

Fleming’s right hand rule – Fleming’s right rule is used to identify the direction of induced
current.
Stretch the central finger, forefinger and thumb of the right in three mutual perpendicular
directions. I f fore finger indicates the direction of magnetic field, thumb indicates the motion of
conductor then the central finger indicates the direction of induced current.

Fore finger – field

Thumb – motion of conductor
Central finger – direction of induced current.

Alternating current generator – an electric generator is a device used to convert mechanical

energy into electrical energy.
It is based on the principle of electro magnetic induction.

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Principle – when the coil is rotated about an axis perpendicular to the direction of uniform
magnetic field, an induced e.m.f is produced across it.
Expression for instantaneous e.m.f
Consider a coil PQRS having area of cross section A, number of turns n is placed in a magnetic
field of induction B, normal to field.
The initial flux through the coil is BAN but as the coil is rotating with angular velocity w, at any
instant of time t then flux is given by,
ф = BAN cosθ = BAN cos wt
as the coil rotates, magnetic flux associated with it also changes and e.m.f is created in the coil.
Induced e.m.f,
𝒅ø 𝒅(𝐁𝐀𝐍 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭)
𝒆=− =−
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

when 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 = 1, induced e.m.f becomes maximum and let it be eo.

𝒆 = 𝐁𝐀𝐍𝛚 from equations (1) and (2)
e = eo sin wt
Therefore expression for induced emf e = eo sin wt

expression for induced current,

the induced e.m.f generated in the coil changes in magnitude and direction regularly with time since
coil is rotating.
The electric current produced varies sinusoidally with time, so it is known as alternating current
and hence the generator is called Ac
generator.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT

ALTERNATING CURRENT
Circuit symbol of AC source

It is the current which varies periodically with time. ~

NOTE:
Graphical representation of AC

V or I V or I V or I

t t t

Sinusoidal AC Square AC Triangular AC

Some of the typical AC wave forms are shown above. The simlest type of AC is sinusoidal AC.

What is sinusoidal AC?

The electric current whose magnitude changes with time and direction reverse periodically is known as
alternating current (OR) It is the Alternating Current which varies harmonically with time.

Definitions related to AC

Cycle of AC
Alternating current or voltage varies periodically with time. The cycle of AC is the complete
variation of current or voltage from zero to positive maximum then to negative maximum and back to
zero.

Period of AC (T)
It is the time taken by the AC to complete one cycle of variation.

Frequency of AC (f):
It is the number of cycles of AC in one second.
Phase of AC ()
It is the fraction of time period(T) that has elapsed since the current last passed its zero value
in the positive direction.

Representation of phase of AC at different instants.

V or I

3T/4 time

T/4 T/2 T

Instantneous value of AC
It is the value of alternating current at a given instant.
Consider I = Io sin t . where - angular frequency, I → Instantaneous value of alternating current.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
Peak Value of AC
It is the maximum value attained by alternating current in either half cycle.
Consider I = Io sin t. Where Io → Peak value of alternating current.
NOTE: Since current varies continuously with time its effect is measured by either mean value or rms
value
Mean value or average value of AC (Iav OR Im):
It is the stedy current which when passed through a circuit for half the time period of the altenating
current sends the same amount of charge as is done by alternating current in the same time through the
same circuit.(OR) It is the mean of all the instantaneous values of AC taken in one half cycle.
𝟐 𝟐
𝐈𝐚𝐯 = 𝛑 𝐈𝐨 V𝐚𝐯 = 𝛑 𝐕𝐨

Root mean square value or rms value: (Irms)

It is that stedy current which when passed through a resistance for a given time will produce the same
amount heat as the aletrnating current does in the same resistance and in the same time. ( OR) It is the
square root of mean of the squares of all the instantaneous values of AC .taken over a complete cycle
𝑰𝒐 𝑽𝒐
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √𝟐 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √𝟐

NOTE : MEAN value of AC is calculated over half cycle and RMS val;lue is calculated over full
cycle
Rleation between MEAN value and RMS Value:
2√2
Mean value = x RMS Value Iav=0.9Irms OR Irms= 1.1 Iav
𝜋

AC circuits: Electrical circuts fed by alternating voltage are called AC circuits.

Circuit Elements
The components used in the construction of circuits are called circuit elements. Resistors,
Inductors and Capacitors are the AC circuit elements.
Phasor:
Any periodically changing electrical quantity is represented by projection of a rotating vector is called
as phasor.
Phasor diagram: the diagram representing alternating e.m.f and current as the rotating vectors along
with the phase angle between them is called phasor diagram. OR It is the diagram, which represents
the phase relationships between AC and alternating voltage. It is obtained by treating current and
voltage as vectors.
Pure Resistor( R) :
It is a resistor, which is free from induction effects.
A wire doubled on itself such that currents in the adjacent parts are in opposite direction is
almost a pure resistor.

Obtain an expression for the current when an AC voltage is applied across a pure resistor and
mention the phase relation between current and voltage
OR
Show that current and voltage are in phase in AC circuit containing a pure resistor:
R
Vo Vo
Io
t Io

I
Circuit Diagram Graphical Representation of V&I Phasor Diagram

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
Consider a pure resistor of resistance R connected in series with an AC source

The applied voltage is given by, V = Vo Sint → (1)

V
But the current through the resistor is I = → (2)
R
Vo sin t
From (1) and (2) I =
R
Vo
I = Io Sint →(3) [Since = Io]
R
From equations (1) and (3), it follows that current and voltage are in phase.
Pure inductor (L):
It is a coil of negligible resistance.
A coil of a short length of thick copper wire wound on an iron core is almost a pure inductor.

Obtain an expression for the current, when an AC voltage is applied across a pure inductor and
mention the phase relation between the current and voltage.
OR
Show that voltage leads the current by /2 in AC circuit containing a pure inductor.
L
V0
I0 V0
t
Io

Circuit Diagram Graphical representation of V&I Phasor Diagram

Consider a pure inductor of inductance L connected in series with an AC source.

The applied voltage V is given by V = Vo Sint. ---->(1)
dI
e.m.f. induced in the coil is given by e = -L -----> (2) Where L → Self inductance.
dt
From Kirchooff’s Voltage law V+e= 0 [Since IR = 0]
 e = - V -----> (3)
dI
From (2) and (3), L =V
dt
V
dI = dt
L
Vo
dI = sint dt. [Since V = Vo Sint]
L
Integrating on both sides
Vo
 dI = L sint dt.

Vo  − cos t 
I =
L   

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
Vo
I= [ sin (t-90)] [since -cost = sin(t-90)
L
I = Io [Sin (t-/2)] -----> (4)
Vo
Where Io = is Peak Value of Current,
L
From equations (1) & (4), it follows that voltage leads the current by /2.

Inductive reactance (XL)

V V V
Consider the relation Io = o = o ====>XL = o Where L = XL is the Inductive reactance
L X L Io

Definition of inductive reactance

It is the opposition offered by the coil to the flow of AC
OR
It is the ratio of rms value of voltage acros the coil to the rms value of current through the coil.
V
XL = rms
I rms

NOTE: 1) Its SI unit is Ω. 2) XL = L = 2fL Since  = 2f

Pure Capacitor: It is a capacitor which is free from induction effects.

Obtain an expression for the current when an AC voltage is applied across a pure capacitor and
mention the phase relation between current and voltage:
OR
Show that the current leads the voltage by /2 in AC circuit containing a pure capacitor.

C V0
I0 Vo
t
~ Io

Circuit Diagram Graphical representation of V&I Phasor Diagram

Consider a pure capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connected in series with an AC source.

The applied voltage V is given by V = Vo sint -----> (1)
dq
We have Instantaneous Current, I =
dt
d
I = CV [since q = CV]
dt
d
= (CVo sint) [since V = Vo sint]
dt
d
= CVo sint
dt
= CVo cost . 
= CVo cost [since cost = sin(t+90)]

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
Vo
= [Sin (t + /2)]
1
C

I = Io Sin (t+/2) ----> (2)

Vo
Where Io = is Peak value of current,
1
C
From equation (1) & (2), it follows that current leads the voltage by /2 or voltage
lags behind the current by /2.
Capacitive reactance: [XC ]
V V V 1
Consider the relation,Io = o = o ==>XC = o Where = XC is Capacitive Reactance
1 XC Io C
C

Definition:
It is the opposition offered by the capacitor to the flow of AC
OR
It is the ratio of rms value of voltage across the capacitor to the rms value of current through
the capacitor.
V
XC = rms
I rms
1 1
NOTE: Its SI unit is  . XC = = Since  = 2f
C 2fC

Distinguish between inductive reactance and capacitance reactance in an AC

circuit.
Inductive Reactance Capacitive Reactance
1 It is the opposition offered by the coil to It is the opposition of offered by the
the flow of AC. capacitor to the flow of AC.
2 It is given by XL= 2fL It is given by XC =1/2fC
3 It increases with increase of inductance of It decreases with increase of capacitance of
the coil. the capacitor.
4 It increases with increase of frequency of It decreases with increase of frequency of
AC. AC.
5 It is the ratio of rms value of voltage It is the ratio of rms value of voltage across
across the coil to the rms value of current the capacitor to the rms value of current
through it. through it.

Distinguish between Resistance and Reactance

Resistance Reactance
1 It is the opposition offered by the It is the opposition offered by the conductor
conductor to the flow of DC. to the flow of AC.
2 It does not depend on the frequency of It depends on the frequency of AC.
AC.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
Derive an expression for resultant voltage, current and Impedance in LCR Circuit:
L
C R VL
A
VL I VR
I VC I VR B
O φ V I
(V -V )
C L
~
A
C
VC

Let an inductor of inductance L, capacitor of capacitance C, resistor of resistance R are

connected in series with an AC source which supplies an AC voltage V = Vo sint. Let I be the
current in the circuit. The voltages across the three elements are shown in the phasor.
VR= IR , VR is in phase with I, VL = IXL, VL leads L by 900 & VC = IXC, VC lags behind I by
900.

If VC > VL, then (VC-VL) is the resultant of VL and VC and is in th direction of VC. Let OA and
OC represents the resultant (VC-VL) and VR respectively. The rectangle OABC is completed. The
diagnal ‘OB’ represents the resultant voltage V. Let  be the phase angle between V and I.

From Triangle OCB, OB2 = OC2 + CB2

V2 = VR2 + (VC-VL)2

V2 = (IR)2 + [(IXC)-(IXL)]2
V2 = I2 [ R2 + (XC-XL)2]

V = I R2 + ( X C − X L )2 ------> Resultant voltage

V
= R2 + ( X C − X L )2
I
V
I=
R2 + (X C - X L )2

V
=
Z

Z = R2 + ( X C − X L )2 is called impedance.

To find the direction of resultant Voltage ()

CB
From the Triangle OBC, tan  =
OC

VC − VL V − V L  X − XL 
tan  = ==>  = tan-1  C  or  = tan-1  C 
VR  VR   R 

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
Impedance (Z): It is the opposition offered by the L.C.R. circuit to the flow of AC.
OR
It is the ratio of rms value of voltage across LCR circuit to the rms value of current through it.
V
Z = rms
I rms
Electrical resonance
It is the situation in the LCR circuit at which current is maximum, when the inductive
reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance.

Resonant Circuit
It is the LCR circuit in which the current is maximum, when the inductive reactance is equal to
the capacitive reactance.
At resonance, the phase difference between current and voltage is zero.

Resonant frequency of AC (fr)

It is the frequency of applied AC to an LCR circuit for which current is maximum when
the inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance.
Give an expression for impedance of a series LCR circuit. Mention the condition for resonance
and hence obtain expression for resonant frequency.
We have Impedance R2 + ( X C − X L )2
Z =
Where R → Resistance , XL → Inductive reactance and XC → Capacitive reactance.
Condition for resonance:
V V
Current in the circuit , I = =
Z R + ( X C − X L )2
2

I is maximum when Z is minimum. Z is minimum when XC = XL

i.e Inductive reactance = the capacitive reactance

This is the condition for resonance
Expression for resonant frequency
At resonance capacitive reactance=Inductive reactance
XC = XL
1
= L
C
1
= 2fL
2fC
1
f2 =
4 2 LC
1
Resonant frequency, fr =
2 LC

NOTE:
1) AC frequency applied for domestic purpose in India is 50Hz.
2) AC voltage supplied for domestic purpose in India is 220V.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
Resonance curve
It is the graph that represents variation of current with the frequency of applied alternating voltage for
a sieries LCR circuit. It is given below.

I0

Current
Frequency of alternating voltage
fr

Sharpness of resonance.
The resonance is said to be sharp if the current falls rapidly with the frequency.
Explain sharpness of resonance.
R1
Current

R2
Frequency

fr

Two resonant curves corresponding to the same values of L and C but dfifferent values of
resistances R1 and R2 such that R1 R2 are shown in the above fig. In the both cases, the current is
maximum for the same frequency. However, the sharpness is different for different values of R. For
resistance R1, the current falls rapidly with the frequency.
ie for smaller resistance, the sharpness of resonance is more.

Explain Quality factor of resonant circuit or Q factor of resonant circuit .

I0

Io
Current

Frequency
f1 fr f2
The sharpness of resonance is measured by the quality factor of the circuit. The amplitude of
current in sieries LCR circuit is maximum at the resonance frequency(fr). From the graph it is found
that, for two different frequencies f1 and f2 , the current is same. Let f1 and f2 be the fruqencies for
which the current is 1/2 times the maximum value (I0). The difference f2 – f1 is the band width of
current. Then the quality factor is given by

Resonant frequency fr
Q = ===> Q =
Band width f 2 − f1
If the band width is small, the resonance is said to be sharp

17
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Define Q-factor of resonant circuit.
It is the ratio of resonant frequency to the difference in frequencies for which the current is
1/2 times the maximum value.

NOTE:1
Alternate definitions of Q-factor.
o L Inductive reactance
It can be shown that Q = =
R Resistance of the circuit
1 L
NOTE:2 It can also be shown that Q =
R C
NOTE:3
Quality factor is dimensionless quantity. It is not having any unit. It signifies the measure
of sharpness of resonance.

NOTE:4
Importance of Q-factor
Circuits having larg Q factor (large shorpness of resonance curve) are more selective and
have many applications in electronics. For exapmle, the tuning of radio set to a perticular
frequncy. There are many signals in air whose frequencies are very close to each other. A
radio set is tuned to station by tuning the tuniog knob. When we turn the tuning knobof the
radio, we basically change the capacitance of the capacitor of LC circuit. Thus natural
frequency(resonant frequency fr) is adjusted till it matches the frequency (f) of the desired
signal and the radio catches the desired station. Hence we can select the desired signal from
a large no of signals of nearly same frequencies.

NOTE:5 Resonance will be exhibited only by a circuit having both inductance and capacitance. There
will be no resonance in a inductor circuit or capacitor circuit.
NOTE:6
a) Pure resistive circuit:
It is the circuit containing only resister. Phase difference between V and I is 0
b) Pure inductive circuit:
It is the circuit containing only inductor. Phase difference between V and I is /2
c) Pure capacitive circuit:
It is the circuit containing only capacitor. Phase difference between V and I is /2
d) Series LCR circuit:
It is the circuit containing resistor, inductor and capacitor in series.

Characteristics or salient features of an LCR circuit in resonance:

At resonance
1) Inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance.
2) Impedance is equal to the resistace of the circuit.
3) LCR circuit is pure resistance in nature.
4) Current is maximum.
5) Current is in phase with the applied voltage.
6) Phae difference between current and voltage is zero.
7) Power factor is equal to one ( Cos = 1)

18
ALTERNATING CURRENT

Power in AC circuits
It is the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated

Apparent Power (PA)

It is the power supplied by a source to the circuit. It is given by PA = Vrms x Irms

True Power (PT): It is the power consumed by the circuit. Power in an AC circuit is given by
PT = Vrms x Irms cos

Where  → Phase difference between V and I, cos → Power factor.

Power factor (Cos)

We know that
True power, PT = Vrms x Irms x Cos
PT = PA Cos Since Vrms x Irms = PA

PT R
Cos = =
PA Z

Definition of power factor

It is the ratio of true power to the apparent power.

NOTE:
Power factors of some AC circuits
1) AC circuit with pure resistor, cos = 1
2) AC circuit with pure inductor, cos = 0
3) AC circuit with pure capacitor, cos = 0
4) AC LCR circuit, cos = R/Z
5) AC LCR circuit at resonance. cos = 1 [since LCR circuit is pure resistance
in nature]

Wattless current
We know that, True Power PT = PA x Cos ---->(1)

 
In a pure inductor or pure capacitor circuit  = ==>cos = 0
2 2

Equation (1) ===> PT = PA x Cos0 ===> PT = 0 and corresponding current is wattles current

What is wattles current?

It is the current for which the power dissipation in the circuit is zero.
Ex: The current through a pure inductor circuit or pure capacitor circuit.

19
ALTERNATING CURRENT
LC Oscillations:
L
Consider a capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connected to
an inductor of inductance ‘L’ through a key k 2. A cell is
connected to ‘C’ through key k1 as shown in the figure.
When k1 is closed the capacitor is charged to a potential ‘V’.
The charge on the capacitor is given by q = CV C

k2
The energy stored in capacitor is given by

𝟏 𝟐 𝒒𝟐 cell
K1
𝑼𝑬 = 𝑪𝑽 =
𝟐 𝟐𝑪 + ⎺

Now key k1 is opened so that the cell is disconnected and the key k2 is closed so that the
capacitor is connected to inductor ‘L’. Thus the capacitor starts discharging through L and induced
EMF develops in the inductor which opposes the growth of current in L. When the capacitor is
completely discharged the energy stored in the capacitor appears as magnetic potential energy around
𝟏
L (𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑼𝑩 = 𝟐 𝑳𝑰𝟐 )

As soon as the discharge of capacitor is complete, the current stops and the magnetic flux
linked with L starts collapsing. Therefore, an induced EMF developed in L, which starts recharging the
capacitor in opposite direction. When the capacitor recharged completely, the magnetic energy around
L reappears in the form of electrostatic potential energy in a capacitor. This entire process repeats thus
the energy taken once from the cell and given to the capacitor keeps on oscillating between L and C.
Hence, it is called as LC oscillations.

1
Note: 1. Frequency of LC oscillation f =
2 LC
2. Total energy of LC oscillation is given by UE = UC + UL

1 𝑞2 1
UE = 2 + 2 LI2
𝑐

TRANSFORMER:
It is a device used to increase or decrease AC voltage.
It increases the AC voltage by decreasing current and vice versa.

Circuit Symbol :

Principle of transfarmer:
It is based on the principle of mutual induction.

Step up transformer
It is the transformer which increases the AC volage by decreasing the current.
Step down transformer:
It is the transformer which decreases the AC voltage by increasing the current.
20
ALTERNATING CURRENT

Construction of transformer

Input P S LOAD (output)

Step up transformer

It consists of two coils ‘P’ and ‘S’ of insulated copper wire wound on opposite arms of the
rectangular laminated iron core. The core is in the form of laminas and insulated from one another.
‘P’ is the primary coil to which input voltage is applied and ‘S’ is the secondary coil across which
output voltae is obtained. In a step up transformer, the primary coil consists of thick wire and few
number of turns when compared to secondary coil. It is just opposite in step down transformer.

Working and Theory of transformer

It works on the principle of mutual induction. When an alternating voltage is applied across
the primary, an alternating current flows through the coil. This sets up an alternating magnetic flux.
This alternating magnetic flux reaches the secondary coil through the core. Hence an e.m.f indudces in
the secondary coil (mutual induction). The magnitude of induced e.m.f. depends on the input voltage,
number of turns in primary and secondary.

If VP and VS are the voltages across primary coil of turns NP and secondary coil of turns NS
respectively, then for any transformer it is found that

VS N
= S = T ----->(1) Where T is called turns ratio.
VP NP
If IP and IS are currents through primary and secondary respectively, then for an ideal transformer

Input power = Output power

VP IP = VS IS

VS I
===> = P -----> (2)
VP IS

VS N I
From (1) and (2) we get = S = P =T
VP NP IS

Efficiency of transformer ()

It is the ratio of output power to the input power through the transformer.

Out put Power

i.e.  =
Input Power
For ideal transformer  = 1 i.e. Efficiency is 100%.

What is an ideal transformer?

It is the transformer in which output power is equal to the input power.

21
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Distinguish between step up transformers and step down transformer:
Step up transformer Step down transformer
1 It is the transformer which increases It is the transformer which decreases
the AC voltage by decreasing the the AC voltage by increasing the
current. current
2 Vp < Vs (voltages) Vp >Vs (voltages)
3 IP > IS (Currents) IP < IS (Currents)
4 Np<Ns (Turns) Np>Ns (Turns)
5 T>1 (Turns ratio) T<1 (Turns Ratio)

Different losses in a transformer:

1) Loss due to heating
2) Loss due to flux leakage
3) Loss due to eddy currents
4) Hysteresis loss.

Eddy Currents:
These are the currents induced in massive conductors when the magnetic flux linked with the
conductor changes.

Mention the uses/applications/advantages of eddy currents

Eddy currents are used in
1) Induction furnace. 4) Diathermy.
2) Electromagnetic brakes. 5) Energy meters.
3) Speedometer.

Mention the disadvantages of eddy currents.

1) Eddy currents dissipate large amount of energy in the form of heat
2) Eddy currents may cause unwanted dampening effect.

NOTE:
1) Loss due to heating:
When alternating current flows through the primary coil, the coil gets heated due to
its resistance. Thus some amount of energy is converted into heat energy.
This loss can be minimized by using wire of suitable thickness.
2) Loss due to flux leakage:
In actual transformers all the flux linked with the primary coil does not pass through
the secondary coil. Thus some amount energy is wasted.
This loss can be minimized by winding the coil in a specific manner.
3) Loss due to eddy currents:
The change in magnetic flux linked with the core of the transformer results in induced
currents on the surface of the core. These induced currents are called eddy currents.
Due to this eddy currents energy is lost in the form of heat.
To minimize this loss, the iron core is laminated by making it a number of sheets of
iron insulated from each other.
Foucault observed that when a metal plate is moving in a magnetic field or the
metal plate is placed in a changing magnetic field, induced currents produced in the metal
plate. Such currents are called eddy currents as they look like eddies or whirl pools in a
pond. Eddy currents flow in circular paths and their direction is given by Lenz’s law. Eddy
currents are also called as Foucault currents.
4) Hysteresis loss:
The alternating current flowing through the coils magnetizes and demagnetizes the iron
core repeatedly. During each cycle of magnetization some energy is lost due to
hysterelisis.
This loss can be minimized by selecting the material, which has less hysteresis loss.

22
ALTERNATING CURRENT

NOTE:
1) Eddy currents are used in the induction furnace.
Induction furnace is based on the heating effect of eddy currents. The metallic block to
be melt is placed in a high frequency changing magnetic field. Strong eddy currents are
induced in the block. Due to the high resistance of the metal, a large amount of heat is
produced in it. This heat ultimately melts the metal.
2) Eddy currents are used in the electromagnetic brakes.
A strong magnetic field is applied across the metallic drum rotating with the axel of the
electric train. Thus large eddy currents are produced in the metallic drum. These
currents oppose the motion of the drum and hence axel of the train. This makes the
train comes to rest.
3) Eddy currents are used in the speedometer.
Speedometer is a device used to measure instantaneous speed of a vehicle.
In a speedometer, a small magnet is attached to the axel of the wheel. This magnet
rotates according to the speed of the vehicle in an aluminium drum. Due to the rotation
of the magnet, magnetic flux linked with the aluminium drum changes and hence eddy
currents are produced in it. A pointer attached to the drum is deflected in the direction
of the rotation of the drum. This speed is measured which corresponds to the deflection
of the pointer.
4) Eddy currents are used in diathermy.
Eddy currents are used for the localized heating of tissues in human body. This type of
treatment is called as diathermy.
5) Eddy currents are used in energy meters.
Concept of eddy currents is used in energy meters to record the consumption of
electricity.
6) Heat produced in small transformers is taken away by the surrounding air. Heavy power
supply transformers are immersed in oil for cooling.

23
ALTERNATING CURRENT

24
ALTERNATING CURRENT

25
EMW

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Ampere’s circuital law- the line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop is µo times the total
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
current threading through the surface bounded by the closed loop. ∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = µ𝒐 𝑰
It is valid only for steady currents.
Maxwell found an inconsistency in Ampere’s circuital law while studying about magnetic field due to
electric current. He suggested an additional current, called by him, the displacement current to remove
this inconsistency.
Ampere circuital law fail to determine the magnetic field produced by displacement current which
is due to time varying electric field is inconsistency in Ampere’s circuital law
Maxwell argued not only electric current but also a time-varying electric field generates magnetic field.
To understand the inconsistency, let us consider the case of charging of capacitor, to find magnetic field
at a point around a capacitor
Case (i) - for a point P outside the parallel plate capacitor
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
From ampere’s circuital law ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = µ𝑜 𝐼
⃗⃗⃗ = µ 𝐼
⃗ ∮ 𝑑𝑙
𝐵 𝑜

⃗ (2𝜋𝑟) = µ 𝐼
𝐵 (1)
𝑜

Case (ii) - for a point M in-between the parallel plates

⃗ (2𝜋𝑟) = µ × 0 = 0
Applying ampere’s law we get, 𝐵 (2)
𝑜

From equations (1) and (2) the law is inconsistent and needs some modification and the modification
given by Maxwell known as displacement current.
Maxwell solved the above inconsistency by assuming flow of current across the gap between the plates
of capacitor.
Thus according to Maxwell, the time-varying electric field across the capacitor plates gives rise to the
𝒅𝝋
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
magnetic field.Thus Ampere’s circuital law is modified as ∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = µ𝒐 (𝑰𝒄 + 𝑰𝑫 ) = µ𝒐 (𝑰 + 𝝐𝒐 𝒅𝒕𝑬 )
known as Ampere-Maxwell law.
Displacement current-
The current which exists in-between the parallel plates of the capacitor, which is responsible for
magnetic field. The current which is due to time-varying electric fields is known as the
displacement current.
The displacement current has same physical effects as conduction current.
The current in conductors due to flow of charges is known as conduction current and that
because of varying electric fields is known as displacement current.
The total current I (𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝐷 ) possess the property of continuity, although individually they
may not be continuous.
i,e. Outside the plates, there is only conduction current and no displacement current and in-
between the plates, there is no conduction current and only displacement current.
Hence continuity for the flow of current.

26
EMW
Expression for displacement current
Consider a parallel plate capacitor of area of cross section A, separated by a distance d, having
capacitance C. The charge on the capacitor is given by, q =C V
𝜖0 𝐴
But 𝐶 = and V = E.d
𝑑
𝜖0 𝐴
q= E.d = 𝜖𝑜 AE
𝑑
𝜑
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐸 𝑑( 𝐸 ) 𝐴 𝑑𝜑𝐸
𝐴
= 𝜖𝑜 𝐴 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜖𝑜 𝐴 = 𝜖𝑜 𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝒅𝝋𝑬
𝑰 𝑫 = 𝝐𝒐
𝒅𝒕

𝑑𝜑𝐸
To show IC= ID from 𝐼𝐷 = 𝜖𝑜 𝑑𝑡
but flux 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸. 𝐴
𝑞
𝑑𝜑𝐸 𝑑(𝐸.𝐴) 𝑑( ) 𝑑𝑞
𝜖𝑜
𝐼𝐷 = 𝜖𝑜 = 𝜖𝑜 = 𝜖𝑜 = = 𝐼𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Maxwell’s equations
𝒒
1. Gauss’s law in electro statics ∮𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
𝝐 𝒐

2. Gauss’s law in magnetism ∮𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎

⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
−𝒅𝝋𝑩
3. Faraday’s law ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑬 𝒅𝒍 =
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝝋
4. Ampere-Maxwell law ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = µ𝒐 (𝑰 + 𝝐𝒐 𝒅𝒕𝑬 )
The most important prediction from Maxwell’s equations is the existence of electromagnetic waves.

Historical development of electromagnetic waves

In 1865 James Clerk Maxwell predicted the electromagnetic waves theoretically.
According to him, accelerated charges are the source for electromagnetic waves.
In 1887 Heinrich Hertz produced and detected electromagnetic waves experimentally of several meters.
In 1894 J.C.Bose was successful in producing electromagnetic waves of wavelength 5mm to 25 mm.
In 1899 Guglilemo Marconi used electromagnetic waves to establish wireless communication across
English channel about 50 km.
Source of electromagnetic waves
Accelerated charges are the source for electromagnetic waves.
These can be produced by using LC oscillators.
The frequency of electromagnetic wave is equal to the frequency of oscillation of charges.
The oscillating charge produces an oscillating electric field which produces an oscillating magnetic
field, which in turn produces oscillating electric field, and so on. Hence results in an electromagnetic
wave.
The electric and magnetic field wave equations are, E = Eo sin (kz -ωt) and B = Bo sin (kz- ωt)
27
 EMW
𝝎 𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝑬
𝒄= = 𝟐𝝅
= 𝒇𝝀 Similarly 𝒄=𝑩
𝒌 ( ⁄𝝀)

In 19th century scientists had the belief that as sound waves require a material medium for propagation
similarly the electromagnetic waves also may require a medium so they assumed a medium known as
the ether medium.
The existence of ether medium was so much believed that one famous person who was the creator of
detective Sherlock Holmes known as sir Arthur Canon Doyle wrote a novel named “The Poisson belt”
where it was included that the solar system was passing through that medium.
The concept of ether medium was demolished by Michelson and Morley from their experiment.
Electromagnetic waves and their characteristics

1) Electromagnetic waves are self-sustaining oscillations of electric and magnetic fields in free space or
vaccum.
2) The sinusoidal variation of disturbance in electric and magnetic fields propagated in space is an
electromagnetic wave.
3) The electromagnetic waves originate from accelerated charges.
4) The electric and magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other.
𝟏
5) The speed of electromagnetic wave is given by, 𝒄 = in air or vaccum and for other medium it is
√𝝁𝒐 𝝐𝒐
𝟏 𝒄
given by, 𝒗 = =
√ 𝝁𝝐 √𝝁𝒓 𝝐𝒓

6) Light is an electromagnetic wave. These are non mechanical waves.

7) They are transverse in nature.
𝟏 𝟏 𝑩𝟐
8) They carry energy which is given by, 𝒖 = 𝒖𝑬 + 𝒖𝑩 = 𝟐 𝝐𝒐 𝑬𝟐 + 𝟐 𝝁
𝒐

9) The energy carried by the wave is shared equally by electric and magnetic fields.
𝒖
10) They also carry momentum which is given by, 𝒑 = for complete absorption,
𝒄
𝟐𝒖
while 𝒑 = for complete reflection.
𝒄
𝑭 𝟏 𝒅𝒑
11) The pressure exerted known as radiation pressure is given by, 𝑷 = 𝑨 = 𝑨 𝒅𝒕

12) Poynting vector- the magnitude of poynting vector represents the rate at which energy flows through
⃗ ×𝑩
𝑬 ⃗⃗
⃗ =
unit surface perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. It is given by 𝑺 𝝁𝒐

13) Since electromagnetic waves do not carry any charge, they are not deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.

The value of speed of light was so much familiarized that its value was used to define the standard of
length meter.

Meter – is the distance travelled by light in 1/ 2.99792458 of a second.

28
EMW
Electromagnetic spectrum- the classification or arrangement of electromagnetic waves according to
increasing or decreasing order of their wavelengths or frequencies is known as electromagnetic
spectrum.
There is no sharp boundary between one kind of wave and the next.

Types of electromagnetic waves

Radio waves
Discovered by Marconi.
Wavelength – 0.3m to 104m.
Frequency – 500 KHz to 1000 MHz
Source –accelerated charges.
Applications
1) They are used in radio and television communication systems.
2) AM (amplitude modulation) band – 530 KHz to 1710 KHz.
3) Higher frequencies up to 54 MHz are used for short wave bands.
4) FM (frequency modulation) band – 88 MHz to 108 MHz
5) Cellular phones use radio waves to transmit voice communication in UHF (ultra high frequency)
band – 300 MHz to 3000 MHz
Micro waves
Discovered by Heinrich Hertz.
Wavelength – 10-3m to 0.3 m.
Frequency – 109 to 3x1011Hz.
Produced by special vaccum tubes (klystrons, Magnetrons and Gunn diodes).
Applications
1) Used in RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) they can penetrate through fog & snow.
2) Used in aircraft navigation.
3) Used in microwave ovens.
4) Used for studying atomic and molecular properties of matter.
Infrared waves
Discovered by Herschell.
Wavelength- 700nm to 10-3m.
Frequency- 3x1011Hz to 4x1014 Hz.
Produced by hot bodies.
Applications
1) Used in satellites both for military purposes and to observe growth of crops.
2) Used in remote switches of household electronic systems.
3) Used in solar cookers and solar heaters.
4) To reveal secret writings on ancient paintings.
5) In green house effect to maintain temperature hence also known as heat waves.

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EMW
Visible light
Part of the spectrum that is detected by human eye.
Wavelength- 400 nm to 700 nm.
Frequency- 4x 1014Hz to 7x 1014Hz.
Produced by rearrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules.
Applications
1) It provides the information about the things around us.
Ultraviolet waves
Discovered by Ritter.
Wavelength – 0.6 nm to 400 nm.
Frequency – 7.5 x 1014Hz to 5x 1017Hz.
Produced by very hot bodies and special lamps. The sun is an important source of UV light.
Applications
2) Used in eye surgery (LASIK- Laser Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis)
3) Used in water purifiers to kill germs.
4) Used in forensic labs to detect forgeries.
5) Used in the form of vitamin-D to prevent rickets.
They are harmful that cause tanning of skin or sun burns.
Sun glasses or glass windows absorb large amount of UV radiation.
Ozone layer in the atmosphere absorbs the most of UV entering through atmosphere from sun.
X- Rays
Discovered by William Roentgen.
Wavelength – 10-13 to 10-8m.
Frequency – 3x 1016 to 3x 1020Hz.
Produced by bombardment of fast moving electrons on metals.
Applications
1) Used as a diagnostic tool in medicine.
2) Used in treatment of certain forms of cancer.
3) Used in study of crystal structures.
4) Used in security check-ups.
Gamma rays
Discovered by Rutherford.
Wavelength – 10-14m to 10-10m.
Frequency- 3x 1018Hz to 3x 1022HZ.
Produced by certain nuclear reactions.
Applications
1) Used to study structure of nucleus of atoms.
2) Used to detect flaws or tiny cracks in finished goods.
3) Used to destroy cancerous cells or tumors.

30
EMW

31
RAY OPTICS

9-RAY OPTICS
LIGHT – light is a form of energy emitted by self luminous bodies and it causes the sensation of vision
when it falls on the eye.

• The wavelength of visible light is from 400 nm to 750 nm in electromagnetic spectrum.

• In vacuum, speed of light is c=3x108 m/s.
• Light is dual in nature (both particle as well as wave).
OPTICS – optics is a branch of physics which deals with the study of nature and properties and effects of
light.
It is divided into two parts (i) Ray optics and (ii) Wave optics
RAY OPTICS – the branch of optics which explains some properties of light by considering particle nature
of light and with the help of ray diagrams is called ray optics.
In this we study Reflection, Refraction, Dispersion etc.
WAVE OPTICS – the branch of physics which explains some properties of light by considering wave nature
of light is called wave optics.
In this we study Interference, diffraction, Polarization etc.

REFLECTION – The change in the path of light within the same medium is called reflection.
OR
When an incident ray incident on the reflecting surface, it bounces back into the same medium, such a
phenomenon is called reflection.
Laws of reflection -
1) Angle of reflection is equal to angle of incidence (r = i).
2) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the
point of incidence lies in the same plane.
TYPES OF REFLECTION –
1) Regular reflection – If reflection occurs at smooth surface,
then the reflection is called regular reflection.
Plane mirror
2) Irregular reflection – If the reflection occurs at rough
surface, then the reflection is called irregular reflection.
Note: In both reflections, the laws of reflection are valid.
PROPERTIES OF IMAGE FORMED BY PLANE MIRROR -
Image formed by the plane mirror is of,
• Same size of the object
• Formed at same distance of object
• Erect, Virtual & Laterally inverted.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS –
A spherical mirror is a part of hollow sphere, whose one side is reflecting and other side is opaque.

32
RAY OPTICS

Two types of spherical mirrors

1) Concave mirror, whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of the sphere.
2) Convex mirror, whose reflecting surface is away from the centre of the sphere.
Centre of curvature (C) – The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called centre of
curvature.
Pole (P) – The middle or centre point of the spherical mirror is called pole. It is represented by P.
Radius of curvature (R) - The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called radius of
curvature. Thus PC=R.
PRINCIPAL AXIS, PRINCIPAL FOCUS, FOCAL LENGTH OF A SPHERICAL MIRROR:

C P P C
F F
Principle axis

Converges the light rays Diverges the light rays

Principal axis – The line joining the pole and the centre of curvature of the mirror is called principal axis
of the mirror.
Principal focus (F) – The point at which, a narrow beam of light incident on the mirror parallel to its
principal axis, after reflection from the mirror, meets or appears to come from is called principal focus of
the mirror. It is represented by F.
In case of concave mirror, light rays will converge at F and in case of convex mirror; the light rays are
appearing to diverge from F.
Focal length (f) – The distance between the pole and the principal focus of the mirror is called focal
length. It is denoted by f.
In the above figure PF = f
RELATION BETWEEN F AND R OF A CONCAVE MIRROR –
Consider a concave mirror whose pole, focus and centre of
curvature are P, F and c respectively.
OA is a ray of light parallel to principal axis falls on the mirror at A o A
and after reflection; it will passes through focus F. θ
AC is normal at A. θ
From laws of reflection, OAC = FAC = θ C θ 2θ
P
Also by definition PF = f and PC =R F N
From figure PCA = OAC = θ f
Draw perpendicular line AN to principal axis from A.
𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑁 R
From ΔCAN, tan 𝜃 = = = [since CN ≈ CP and CP=R]
𝐶𝑁 𝐶𝑃 𝑅

Since θ is small, tan θ ≈ θ

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RAY OPTICS

𝐴𝑁
θ= ---------- (1)
𝑅

From Δ CFA, exterior angle = sum of interior angles

NFC = θ + θ = 2θ
𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑁
From Δ FAN, tan 2𝜃 = 𝐹𝑁 = = [since FN ≈ FP and FP=f]
𝐹𝑃 𝑓

Since θ is small, tan 2θ ≈ 2θ

𝐴𝑁
2θ = -------- (2)
𝑓

Substituting (1) in (2)

2 𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑁
=
𝑅 𝑓

2 1
=𝑓
𝑅

𝑹
𝒇= 𝟐

𝑅
Note – relation between f and R for concave mirror or convex mirror is 𝑓 = 2

NEW CARTESIAN SIGN CONVENTIONS –

To derive mirror formulae, new Cartesian sign conventions will be useful. Those are
1) All distances should be measured from the pole of the mirror.
2) The distances measured in the direction of light are taken as positive and taken as positive and
opposite to direction of light are taken as negative.
3) The heights measured perpendicular to principal axis in upward direction are considered as positive,
while those measured in downward direction are taken as negative.

Use following sign while solving the problem :

Concave mirror
Convex mirror
Real image (u ≥ f) Virtual image (u< f)

Distance of object u → – u → – u → –
Distance of image v → – v → + v → +
Focal length f → – f → – f → +
Height of object O →+ O→+ O → +
Height of image I → – I →+ I → +
Radius of curvature R → – R→ – R → +
Magnification m→ – m→+ m → +

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Position, size and nature of image formed by the spherical mirror

Mirror Location of Location of the Magnification, Nature
the object image Size of the
image Real Erect
virtual inverted
(a) Concave At infinity At focus i.e. v = f m<<-1, Real inverted
i.e. u = ∞ diminished
Away from Between f and 2f m < -1, diminished Real inverted
centre of i.e.
curvature (u f < v < 2f
> 2f)
C F P
 At centre of At centre of m =-1, same size as Real inverted
curvature u = curvature i.e. v = that of the object
2f 2f
Between Away from the m > -1, magnified Real inverted
centre of centre of curvature
curvature v > 2f
and focus :
F < u < 2f
At focus i.e. u At infinity i.e. v = m = -∞, magnified Real inverted
=f ∞
Between pole v>u m > +1 magnified Virtual erect
and focus u <
f
(b) Convex At infinity i.e. At focus i.e., v = f m< +1, diminished Virtual erect
u=∞
P F C Anywhere

between Between pole and
m< +1, diminished Virtual erect
infinity and focus
pole

MIRROR FORMULA :–
Mirror formula or mirror equation gives the relation between distance of the object (u), distance of the
image (v) and focal length (f) of the mirror.
CONCAVE MIRROR :
B E
Consider a concave mirror of focal length f,
AB is the object placed on the principal axis such that PA = u.
Consider three light rays coming from object incident on mirror A’ F P
and after reflection forms image A′B′ such that PA′ = v. A θ N
Draw a perpendicular line EN from E to principal axis.
v
From figure, Δ FA′B′ and Δ FEN are similar triangles. B’
𝐸𝑁
From Δ FEN, tan α = 𝐹𝑁 R

𝐴′ 𝐵′
From Δ FA′B′, tan α = u
𝐴′ 𝐹

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RAY OPTICS

𝐸𝑁 𝐴′ 𝐵′
=
𝐹𝑁 𝐴′ 𝐹

𝐸𝑁 𝐴′ 𝐵′
= 𝐴′ 𝑃−𝐹𝑃 [since FN ≈ FP and FA’= A’P-FP]
𝐹𝑃

𝐴𝐵 𝐴′ 𝐵′
= 𝐴′ 𝑃−𝐹𝑃 [Since EN = AB]
𝐹𝑃

𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝑃−𝐹𝑃
= --------- (1)
𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝑃

From figure, Δ PAB and Δ PA′B′ are similar triangles.

𝐴𝐵 𝐴′ 𝐵′
tan 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴′ 𝑃

𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐴′𝑃
= --------- (2)
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑃

From (1) and (2)

𝐴′𝑃 𝐴′ 𝑃−𝐹𝑃 𝐴′ 𝑃
= = −1
𝐴𝑃 𝐹𝑃 𝐹𝑃

But AP = -u, A’P = -v and FP = -f then

−𝑣 −𝑣
= −𝑓 − 1
−𝑢

𝑣 𝑣
+1=𝑓
𝑢

1 1 𝑣 1 1
= 𝑣 [𝑢 + 1] = 𝑢 + 𝑣
𝑓

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝒖+𝒗
𝒇

This is the mirror formula for u, v and f.

MAGNIFICATION – the ratio of size of image to size of object is called magnification.
𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝒎= 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

−𝐴′ 𝐵′ −𝐴′ 𝑃
𝑚= = [From (2)]
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑃

−𝑣 −𝒗
𝑚 = − (−𝑢) 𝒎= 𝒖

𝒇 𝒇−𝒗
Note – 1) In terms of u and f, 𝒎 = . 2) In terms of v and f, 𝒎 =
𝒇−𝒖 𝒇

REFRACTION :– The change in the path of light as it goes from one medium to another medium is called
refraction.
➢ When light ray travels from rarer medium to denser medium, It bends towards the normal.
➢ When light ray travels from denser medium to rarer medium, It bends away from the normal.
➢ The angle between incident ray and normal is called angle of incidence (i).
➢ The angle between refracted ray and normal is called angle of refraction (r).

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RAY OPTICS

LAWS OF REFRACTION –
FIRST LAW – the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the refracting surface at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane.
SECOND LAW (SNELL’S LAW OF REFRACTION) –
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant, for a given
pair of media and for a given wavelength of light.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓

This is known as Snell’s law. The constant in the equation is called refractive index (n or µ) of the second
medium with respect to first medium (1n2)
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝒏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
𝒏𝟐 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 ⟹ 𝒏𝟐 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝟏

𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
Limitations of Snell’s law:

• Snell’s law is not applicable for normal incidence of light.

ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDEX (n) –
The ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to velocity of light in a medium is called absolute refractive index
𝒄
of the medium. 𝒏 = 𝒗

RELATIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX (1n2) –

The ratio of velocity of light in first medium to velocity of light in second medium with respect to first
𝒗
medium. 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒗𝟏
𝟐

Note –
1) In refraction velocity, wavelength and path of light will change. But frequency and phase will
remain constant.
2) Refractive index is having no units and dimensions.
LATERAL SHIFT –
The perpendicular distance between incident ray produced and emergent ray is called lateral shift.
𝒕
𝑳𝑺 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒊 − 𝒓)

Lateral shift depends on,

1) Refractive index of the media.
2) Thickness of the medium.
3) Angle of incidence

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RAY OPTICS

Note -
1) For normal incidence lateral shift is zero.
2) For grazing incidence lateral shift is maximum.
𝑡 𝑡
3) For i=90, 𝐿𝑆 = cos 𝑟 sin(90 − 𝑟) = cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟 = 𝑡
1
4) Since 𝐿𝑆 𝛼 , the lateral shift is maximum for violet and minimum for red.
𝜆

NORMAL SHIFT –
The apparent shift in the position of an object in one
medium viewed normally from the other medium is
called normal shift.
𝟏
𝑵𝑺 = 𝒕 (𝟏 − 𝒏)

If an object is placed in a denser medium of

Refractive index n1 and it is surrounded by medium
of refractive index n2 (n1>n2).
𝒏
The normal shift is 𝑵𝑺 = 𝒕 (𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐 )
𝟏

Note –
1) It is thickness of the medium when object lies outside the medium.

2) Normal shift depends on,

a) Thickness of the medium

b) Refractive index of the medium.

𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
c) 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

d) When the observer is in the medium of R.I n1 and object is in the medium of R.I n2 then,
𝑛2 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
=
𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
1

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TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION AND CRITICAL ANGLE :–

➢ When light moves from denser medium to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
➢ As the angle of incidence increases, angle of refraction will also increase. At a particular angle of
incidence, the angle of refraction will be 900. This angle of incidence is called critical angle.
CRITICAL ANGLE – when a light ray moves from denser medium to rarer medium, for a particular angle of
incidence the angle of refraction is 900. This angle of refraction is called critical angle.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION - when a light ray moves from denser medium to rarer medium and if the
angle of incidence greater than critical angle. Light reflects into the same medium. This phenomenon is
called total internal reflection.

RELATION BETWEEN CRITICAL ANGLE AND REFRACTIVE INDEX –

Consider a light ray moves from denser medium (2) to rarer medium (1) then according to Snell’s law,

sin 𝑖 𝑛 sin 90
𝑛2 = sin 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑛2 =
1 sin 𝑐

𝑛 sin 𝑐
⟹ 𝑛1 = sin 90
2

𝑛1
⟹ = sin 𝑐
𝑛2
If rarer medium is air then n1 =1 and let n2 = n
1
= sin 𝑐
𝑛

𝟏
⟹ 𝒏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄

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RAY OPTICS

APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION –

(i)SPARKLING DIAMONDS – the refractive index of diamond is 2.5 which means the critical angle is 240
for diamond air interface.
1) A natural diamond has brilliance and jewelers by cutting it in a particular shape made as shine.
2) The faces of diamond are cut in such a way that whenever light falls on any of the faces, the angle
of incidence greater than critical angle i.e. 240.
3) So, when light falls on the diamond, it suffers repeated total internal reflections.
4) The light which finally emerges out from few places in certain directions makes the diamond
sparkling.
(ii)REFLECTING PRISMS – Prisms designed to bend light 900 or by 1800 make use of total internal
reflection.

1) These prisms also use to invert image without changing their size.
2) Refractive index of glass is 1.5 means critical angle is 41.80. If light incident on right angle
isosceles prism then, light will suffer total internal reflection.
3) These prisms are used in binoculars and periscopes.

(III) OPTICAL FIBER –

1) Optical fiber is a device used to transfer light energy from one place to another place without any
loss of energy.
2) It works on the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
3) It is having three parts (i) core (ii) cladding (iii) sheath.

a. Core – The central part of optical fibre is called core and it is made with high quality glass or
quartz of high quality of refractive index 1.7.

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RAY OPTICS

b. Cladding – Core is surrounded with cladding and cladding is also made with glass or quartz of
refractive index 1.5.
c. Sheath(Buffer coating) – Sheath protects core and cladding from external electrical and
magnetic interferences.
WORKING – core is behaves as denser medium and cladding behaves as rarer medium. Once light entered
in to core, due to T.I.R, it remains in core and due to reflection it transfers for long distances.
USES –
1) Optical fibres are used to transmit light without any loss in its intensity over distances of several
kilometers.
2) Optical fibres are used in the manufacture of medical instruments called endoscopes.
3) They are used in telecommunications for transmitting audio and video signals to long distances.
4) These are used to transmit the images of the objects.
5) Optical fibres are used to form toys.
NATURAL PHENOMENA OF TIR
MIRAGE – mirage is an optical illusion of water observed generally in deserts when the inverted image of
an object (ex-tree) is observed along with the object itself on a hot day.

1) On hot summer days, the air near the ground becomes hotter than air at higher levels.
2) Since refractive index increases with density, hot air is having less refractive index than cool air.
3) If we consider the light coming from tall object like tree, it will move from denser medium to rarer
medium.
4) If the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, it will undergo total internal reflection and
forms image.
5) To a distant observer, the light appears to be coming from ground and image of tree he observes
like reflected from a pool of water nearer the tree.
6) Observer thought that water is there nearer the tree and this phenomenon is called mirage.

Refraction at a spherical surface –

A refracting surface which is a part of a sphere is called spherical surface.

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Convex single refracting surface Concave single refracting

surface
➢ Pole – The midpoint of a spherical surface is called pole.
➢ Centre of curvature – The centre of curvature of a spherical surface is the centre of a sphere for
which the given surface is a part.
➢ Radius of curvature - the radius of curvature of a spherical surface is the distance between its pole
and centre of curvature.
➢ Aperture – aperture of a spherical surface is the area of spherical surface available for refraction.
➢ Principal axis – A line passing through the pole and centre of curvature of the spherical surface is
called principal axis.
Note -
➢ Real object – An object is said to be real if the rays are diverging from it.
➢ Real image – The image is said to be real if the rays are converging at a point.
➢ Virtual object – An object is said to be virtual if rays appear to converge at a point.
➢ Virtual image - An image is said to be virtual if rays appear to diverge from a point.
CARTESIAN SIGN CONVENTION :
1) All the distances are measured from the pole of the spherical refracting surface.
2) The distances measured in the direction of the incident light are taken as positive.
3) The distances measured in a direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as
negative.

THE RELATION BETWEEN n, U, V AND R FOR A SPHERICAL SURFACE.

Consider a convex refracting surface separating two media. Let P be the pole and C be the centre of
curvature. And n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of rarer and denser media. O is the point object on the
principal axis. The ray OP falls normally on the surface proceeds without deviation. Another ray OA
incident on the surface, after refraction bends towards the normal. The two refracted rays meet at I which is
the real image of point object O.

From ΔCOA exterior angle = sum of interior opposite angles.

i=α+γ ------------ (1)
Similarly from ΔACI
γ = r + β OR r = γ – β ----------- (2)
𝑀𝐴
tan 𝛼 = 𝑀𝑂
𝑀𝐴
tan 𝛽 = 𝑀𝐼
𝑀𝐴
tan 𝛾 = 𝑀𝐶

For small angles tan θ ≈ θ

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𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴
Therefore 𝛼 = 𝑀𝑂 𝛽= 𝛾= ----------- (3)
𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶

From (1) i = α + γ
𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴
Therefore i = + 𝑀𝐶 ----------- (4)
𝑀𝑂

From (2) r = γ - β
𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴
Therefore 𝑟 = 𝑀𝐶 − ------------ (5)
𝑀𝐼

According to snell’s law 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟

For small angles sin θ ≈ θ

Therefore 𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟 ------------- (6)

Substitute (4) and (5) in (6)

𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴
𝑛1 [ 𝑀𝑂 + 𝑀𝐶 ] = 𝑛2 [𝑀𝐶 – 𝑀𝐼 ]

𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴
𝑛1 [𝑃𝑂+𝑃𝑀 + 𝑃𝐶−𝑃𝑀] = 𝑛2 [𝑃𝐶−𝑃𝑀 – 𝑃𝐼−𝑃𝑀]

PM is small as compare to other distances, so it is neglected.

𝑛1 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
+ 𝑃𝐶1 = 𝑃𝐶2 − 𝑃𝐼2
𝑃𝑂

By using Cartesian sign convention

PO = -u, PI = v and PC = R
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏
− + =
𝒖 𝒗 𝑹

𝐧𝟐 𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐 −𝐧𝟏
Or − =
𝐯 𝐮 𝐑

Note

1. Object space - It is the medium in which incident ray lies.

2. Image space - It is the medium in which refracted ray lies.

(𝑛2 ~𝑛1 )
3. = 𝑃 where R is in metres.Therefore the power of a spherical surface.
𝑅

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LENS:

Lens is an optical medium bounded by two surfaces of which one surface must be spherical.
➢ Principal axis – A line passing through the centre of curvature of a lens.
➢ Optic centre – It is the point of intersection of the refracted ray with principal axis when a ray of light
incident on a lens and emerges parallel to the surface.
➢ Thin lens - A lens whose thickness is very small compared to its radii of curvature.
➢ In the case of thin lens, a ray directed towards the optic centre proceeds without any deviation.
➢ Principal focus –When a parallel beam of light incident on a lens parallel to principal axis, after
refraction if converges to (in convex lens) or appears to diverge from (in concave lens) a fixed point
on the principal axis. The fixed point is called principal focus.
➢ Focal length (f) – The focal length of a lens is the distance between its optic centre and principal focus.
LENS MAKER’S FORMULA –

Consider a convex lens of refractive index n1. Let R1 and R2 be the radii of curvature of the
faces ABC and ADC respectively. O is the point object on the principal axis. A ray OB incident on the lens
along principal axis proceeds without any deviation. Another ray OP incident on the lens at P is refracted
along QI. The two refracted rays meet at I. I is the real image of O.

The formation of image can be considered in two stages.

REFRACTION THROUGH 1ST FACE ABC :

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In the absence of the 2nd surface ADC the refracted ray PQ travels along straight line to meet the principal
axis at I’.
I’ be the real image of O.
Form the equation of refraction at spherical surface,
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 −𝑛1
− + =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1

𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 −𝑛1
Then − + = ------------- (1)
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1

REFRACTION THROUGH 2ND SURFACE ADC :

The second surface ADC, I′ serves as virtual
object and I is the real image.
From the equation of a spherical surface
𝑛 𝑛1 𝑛1 −𝑛2 −(𝑛2 −𝑛1 )
− 𝑣′2 + = = -------------- (2)
𝑣 𝑅2 𝑅2

By adding equations
𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
− + = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
𝑢 𝑣 1 2

1 1 𝑛 1 1
− 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑛2 − 1) (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
1 1 2

1 1 1 1
− 𝑢 + 𝑣 = ( 𝑛2 − 1) (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
1 2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= ( 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟏) (𝑹 − 𝑹 )
𝒇 𝟏 𝟐

This is known as Lens maker’s formula.

1 1 1
Where =𝑣−𝑢
𝑓

POWER -
The power of the lens is its ability to converge or diverge a ray of light passing through it.
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in meter.
𝟏
𝑷 = 𝒇 where f is in metres. The unit of power is Dioptre.

If f = 1m then P = 1D. “The power of lens is said to be 1D if its focal length is 1m”.

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Expression for equivalent focal length of two thin lenses in contact –

Consider two thin lenses L1 and L2 of focal

length f1 and f2 respectively
placed in contact co-axially.
O is the point object on their common principal axis.
I is the real image of O formed due to refraction through the lenses.
The formation of the image can be considered in two stages,
1. REFRACTION THROUGH LENS L1
In the absence of second lens L2, I′ is the real image of O.
Form the lens formula,
1 −1 1
= + 𝑣′ ----------- (1)
𝑓1 𝑢

Where u is object distance and v′ is image distance.

2. REFRACTION THROUGH LENS L2

In the absence of L1 I′ serves as virtual object and I is the real image.
From the lens formula,
1 1 1
= − v′ + v ---------- (2)
f2

Adding (1) and (2)

1 1 1 1
+ 𝑓 = − 𝑢 + 𝑣 ----------- (3)
𝑓1 2

The combination of lenses can be replaced by a single lens called

effective or equivalent lens, which produces the same effect as that of
the combination.
If F is the focal length of the equivalent lens then,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= − 𝒖 + 𝒗 ------------ (4)
𝑭

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
From (3) and (4) = +
𝑭 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐

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Thus, the reciprocal effective focal length of number of lenses in contact is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual focal lengths.
Effective power P = P1 + P2
EXPRESSIONS FOR EQUIVALENT FOCAL LENGTH FOR TWO THIN LENS SEPARATED BY DISTANCE d :
Consider two thin convex lens L1 and L2 placed co-axially separated by a distance d.
The equivalent focal length of the combination is given by,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒅
=𝒇 +𝒇 −𝒇
𝒇 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝒇𝟐

Also power
P = P1 + P2 – d (P1 P2)

REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM :

A prism is a homogenous optical medium bounded by three rectangular and two triangular surfaces.
Two rectangular surfaces are well polished and are called refracting surfaces. The third, rectangular surface
is grounded and is called base of the prism.The angle between two refracting surfaces is called angle of the
prism. The line joining the two refracting surfaces is called refracting edge and any section of the prism
cut perpendicular to refracting edge is called principal section of the prism is equilateral or isosceles.

EXPRESSIONS FOR REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A PRISM IN TERMS OF ANGLE OF THE PRISM AND
OF MINIMUM DEVIATION :

ABC – it is the principal section of a prism of angle A and refractive index n placed in air.
PQ – incident ray
QR – refracted ray
RS – emergent ray
OM and ON – normal to AB and AC respectively
i1 – angle of incidence at AB
r1 – angle of refraction at AB
i2 – angle of emergence at AC
r2 – angle of incidence at AC
d – it is the angle of deviation i.e, the angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray.
From the Δ QTR
Exterior angle = sum of the interior opposite angles
d = (i1 - r1) + (i2 - r2)
d = (i1 + i2) - (r1+ r2) ------------ (1)

47
RAY OPTICS

From quadrilateral AQOR

𝐴̂ + 𝑄̂ + 𝑂̂ + 𝑅̂ = 3600
But

𝑄̂ + 𝑅̂ = 1800

𝐴̂ + 𝑂̂ = 1800 ------------ (2)

From the Δ OQR

𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑂̂ = 1800 -------------- (3)

From (ii) and (iii)

𝑨 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 --------- (4)
Form (i) and (iv)
d = (i1 + i2) – A ---------- (5)

ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION (D)

For given prism the angle of deviation depends on the angle of incidence. If the angle of incidence
is gradually increased then the angle of deviation goes on decreasing reaches a minimum deviation (D) and
then increases as shown in the figure. From the figure it is clear that for any value of d, there are two angles
of incidence (i1 and i2), but at minimum deviation there is only one angle of incidence, thus at minimum
deviation.
d = D or Dm
i1 = i2 = i (say) ------------- (6)
r1 = r2 = r (say)
From (4) and (5)
A = r + r = 2r
𝐴
𝑟= 2

D = (i1 + i2) – A
𝐴+𝐷
A + D = 2i Or 𝑖 = 2

From Snell’s law

sin 𝑖
𝑛 = sin 𝑟

Substituting for i and r,

𝑨+𝑫
𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐
𝒏= 𝑨
𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐

48
RAY OPTICS

Note –
1) At minimum deviation, the ray passes symmetrically through the prism.
2) At minimum deviation the refracted ray is parallel to the base of prism.
𝐴
3) For all colours at minimum deviation, 𝑟 = 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 2

DISPERSION OF LIGHT THROUGH THE PRISM

The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent colours is known as dispersion. A
medium which brings about dispersion is called a dispersive medium. The bands of colour obtained on a
screen is called visible Spectrum.
TYPES OF SPECTRUM
Pure spectrum : A spectrum in which the constituent colours are seen distinctly without overlapping is
called pure spectrum.
Impure spectrum : A spectrum in which constituent colours overlap and cannot be seen distinctly is called
impure spectrum.

Cause of dispersion
𝐵
According to Cauchy’s formula 𝑛 = 𝐴 + 𝜆2 + − − −

Where A, B are constants and 𝜆 is wavelength of light.

This relation shows that the refractive index of a medium depends upon the wavelength of the light
incident.
In the visible region, red colour has maximum wavelength and violet colour has minimum wavelength.
Therefore n for red colour is less than that of the violet colour.
The red colour deviates least and the violet colour deviates the most.
Note : Dispersion without deviation
Consider two thin prisms of angle A and A’ of
refractive indices n and n’ for mean ray respectively.
Let the two thin prisms be placed in contact.
For no deviation d + d′ = 0
i.e. (n - 1) A + (n′ - 1) A′ = 0
(n - 1) A = - (n′ - 1) A′
(𝐧 − 𝟏) 𝐀
𝐀′ = − [ (𝐧′ − 𝟏) ]

Negative sign indicates that the refracting angle of the prisms are in opposite direction.
For net dispersion

Dispersion = (𝐧 − 𝟏)𝐀(𝛚 – 𝛚′)

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RAY OPTICS

Where ω and ω′ are the dispersive powers of the two prisms. In order to have net dispersion ω ≠ ω′.
i.e. two prisms must be made of different materials.
SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA DUE TO SUNLIGHT
(i) THE RAINBOW

The spectacular rainbow that we see in the sky is produced due to the dispersion of sunlight by the
spherical water droplets of the rain. The rainbow can be seen when the sun is at the back of the observer.
The explanation for formation of rainbow can be clearly understood using the above diagram.
Sunlight is first refracted as it enters a raindrop, which causes the dispersion of white light and separate the
constituent colours which is as shown in the figure (a).
The refracted light is again reflected at the other surface. The violet light emerges at an angle of 400 and
red light emerges at an angle of 420 after refraction at the first surface as shown in figure (a).
In rainbow we see that red is at top and violet is at bottom. We see that red light from drop 1 and violet
from drop 2 reach the observer eye. The violet from drop 1 and red light from drop 2 are directed at level
above or below the observer, thus the primary rainbow is formed.
The formation of secondary rainbow can be understood by figure (c). in this case two times total internal
reflection is observed as shown in the figure. Hence we can observe red is at an angle 500 and violet is at
530. Therefore we can observe violet in the top and red in the bottom in the secondary rainbow. Thus
secondary rainbow is formed.

(ii) SCATTERING OF LIGHT

The process of reemitting of light by the atoms and molecules in all directions after absorption is known as
scattering of light.
Scattering of light depends upon the size of the scatterers in the atmosphere.

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RAY OPTICS

According to Raleigh, the intensity of the scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of
the wavelength of the incident light, provided the size of the particle is less than the wavelength of light.
Wavelength of scattered light is very small as compared to the wavelength of the incident light.
𝟏
i.e. 𝑰𝜶 𝝀𝟒

λ – Wavelength of light
this shows the larger the wavelength less is the intensity of scattering light.
Example – red colour is least scattered and blue colour is most scattered.
Some phenomena due to scattering of light
(a)Blue colour of the sky – When light from the sun enters the earth’s atmosphere it gets scattered due to
interaction with a large number of very small particles. The wavelength of blue colour is smaller than the
red colour. According to Raleigh scattering the intensity of the blue light scattered is much more than that
of red colour. Though violet has fewer wavelengths than blue, sky appears blue because, human eye is
more sensitive to blue than the violet colour. Hence sky appears blue in colour.
(b)The sun appears reddish at sunset or sunrise – This is due to scattering of light. The light from the
sun at sunset or sunrise travels a longer distance through the earth’s atmosphere.The light of smaller
wavelength in the visible spectrum get scattered most and light of higher wavelength reaches the earth
without scattering. Hence the light received by the observer is red.
(c)The clouds appear white – The clouds contain water droplets or ice crystals that are much larger than λ
and hence scatter light of all wavelengths nearly equally. Hence clouds appear white. (This does not obey
Raleigh scattering).

THE EYE –
Human eye – Is an optical instrument and acts as a natural
camera.
The main parts and function
➢ Cornea - it is curved surface in front of the eye and
allows the light to enter in the eye.
Cornea is the outermost part of the eye.

➢ Iris – it is a circular diaphragm having a central hole. This hole is called pupil. The circular
diaphragm has muscles and colored. The colour of an eye depends upon the colour of these
pigments.
The function of iris is to control the amount of light entering the eye through the pupil.

➢ Lens - the eye lens is double convex les and is made of transparent flexible tissues. It is behind the
pupil and held by the muscles.
The lens focuses the image of objects on the retina of the eye.

➢ Retina – it acts as a screen to obtain the image of the objects.

The cells cones and rods convert light energy into nerve impulses.
WORKING OF THE EYE

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RAY OPTICS

The light from the objects which enters the pupil of the eye and falls on the eye lens, forms a real inverted
image on the retina of the eye. The retina of the eye contains special cells in the shape of rods and cones.
These cells convert light energy into electrical signal and these signals are carried to the brain through optic
nerves.
ACCOMMODATION
The focal length of the eye lens is adjusted automatically by the action of cilliary muscles so that sharp
images of the objects at different positions are formed on the retina. This process is known as
Accommodation.
➢ Near point – The nearest point from the eye at which an object can be placed so that its sharp
image is formed on the retina is known as near point of the eye. For a normal adult eye, the near
point is 25cm.

➢ Far point – The farthest point from the eye at which an object can be placed so that its sharp image
is formed on the retina is known as far point. For a normal human eye it is at infinity.

➢ Power of accommodation – power of accommodation of eye is defined as the minimum variation

in the power of the eye lens. For normal eye, the power of accommodation is about 4 dioptre.
Defects of vision, causes and their corrections

1. LONG SIGHTEDNESS OR HYPERMETROPIA – A human eye which can see far off
objects but cannot see near objects clearly is said to be suffering from long sightedness or
hypermetropia.
Causes – (1) Decrease in the size of the eye ball. (2) Increase in the focal length of the eye lens.

Correction – By making the eye lens more convergent. This can be done by placing convex lens of
suitable focal length before the eye lens.

2. SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS OR MYOPIA – A human eye which can see the near objects
clearly but is unable to see far off objects.

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RAY OPTICS

Causes – (1) Increase in the length of the eye balls. (2) Decrease in the focal length of the eye lens.
Correction – By making the eye lens more divergent. This can be done by placing concave lens of suitable
focal length before the eye lens.

3. PRESBYOPIA – A human eye which cannot see the near as well as far off objects clearly is said
to be suffering form presbyopia.
Causes – The ciliary muscles are weakened by flexibility of the crest alien lens of the human eye decreases
with age of the person.
Correction – By using bifocal lens. Bifocal lens consists of

• A concave lens which forms the upper surface.

• A convex lens which forms the lower surface.

4. Astigmatism – a human eye which cannot focus on both horizontal and vertical lines
simultaneously is suffering from astigmatism.
Causes – The cornea of the eye has different curvatures in different directions.
Or
The cornea is not spherical.
Correction – By using glasses consisting of
cylindrical lenses of desired axes and radii of
curvature.

SIMPLE MICROSCOPE –
It is convex lens of short focal length.The object is placed close
to the lens such that the object distance is less than the focal
length of the lens. A virtual erect and
magnified image A′B′ at the least distance
of distinct vision D from the eye. For
normal eye, 25cm is the point of near vision
and is called near point.

𝛽
Magnification 𝑀=𝛼

𝐷
𝑀 = 1+𝑓 (But v = -D)

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RAY OPTICS

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE -
It consists of two convex lenses co-axially separated by some distance of objective and eye piece.
Angular magnification
𝛽
𝑀=𝛼

𝑣 𝐷
𝑀 = 𝑢𝑜 [1 + 𝑓 ]
𝑜 𝑒

𝐿 𝐷
𝑀 = − 𝑓 [1 + 𝑓 ]
𝑜 𝑒

TELESCOPE -
It is an optical instrument which is used to see the distant objects clearly and magnified.
TYPES OF TELESCOPE
1) Astronomical telescope – to observe heavenly objects like moon.
2) Terrestrial telescope – to observe objects on the earth.
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE(REFRACTING TELESCOPE):
➢ When the final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision
Angular magnification
𝛽
𝑀=𝛼
𝑓 𝑓
𝑀 = − 𝑓𝑜 [1 + 𝐷𝑒 ]
𝑒

CASSEGRAIN TELESCOPE (REFLECTING TELESCOPE):

The objective O of the telescope is an enlarged parabolic mirror with a hole in the centre. A small convex
lens placed in front of the objective acts as eye-piece. Fo is the focus of the objective lens. The inverted
image is formed at F and it is seen through the eye-piece.

54
RAY OPTICS

55
RAY OPTICS

56
WAVE OPTICS

10.WAVE OPTICS
OPTICS : The study of light & phenomenon associated with its generation, transmission &
detection is called optics.
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS OR RAY OPTICS : In geometrical optics, light is assumed to
be travelling in a straight line. This property is called rectilinear propagation. By using this
phenomenon laws of reflection, refraction, total internal reflection etc., are explained
geometrically.

PHYSICAL OPTICS OR WAVE OPTICS : In physical optics light is considered as a

wave. By using wave optics, phenomenon such as interference, diffraction, polarization etc.,
are explained.

CONDITIONS FOR APPLICABILITY OF GEOMETRICAL OPTICS & WAVE

OPTICS
When the size of the object interacting with light is much larger than the wavelength
of light, we can apply geometrical optics.
When the size of the object is comparable or less than the wavelength of light incident,
we can apply wave optics.
If ‘b’ is the size of the object interacting with light, ‘D’ is the distance between the
object and the screen and ‘λ’ is the wavelength of light, then
𝑏2
(i) The condition for applicability of geometrical optics is ≫1
𝐷𝜆
𝑏2 𝑏2
(ii) The condition for applicability of physical optics is ≪ 1 (or) ≈1
𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆
NOTE : The objects interacting with light may be a mirror, a lens, a prism, an aperture (pin
hole), a slit and a straight edge.

THEORIES OF LIGHT :
NEWTON’S CORPUSCULAR THEORY :
Assumptions :
1. Light consists of stream of tiny particles, which travels in all direction in a straight line.
2. Different colours of light are due to different sizes of corpuscles.
3. Velocity of light is more in denser medium than in rarer medium.
4. He explained rectilinear, reflection & refraction.
Failures :
1. Velocity of light is more in denser medium than in rarer medium is proved wrong by
Foucault’s experimentally.
2. When a source of light emits particles, the mass of source of light should decrease with
time which is not correct experimentally.

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WAVE OPTICS

3. He couldn’t explained the phenomenon like interference, diffraction, photoelectric effect &
Compton effect.

HUYGEN’S WAVE THEORY :

Assumptions :
1. He assumed that a source of light emits light in the form of waves.
2. He assumed a hypothetical medium called ether, for propagation of light.
3. He could explain the phenomenon like reflection, refraction, interference & diffraction.
Failures :
1. He couldn’t explain the phenomenon of polarization.
2. He fails to explain black body radiation, photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Raman
effect.
3. Ether medium was never discovered.

MAXWELL’S ELECTROMAGNET THEORY :

1. Maxwell proposed that light is propagated in the form of electromagnet wave.
2. Electromagnetic waves are generated by accelerating charges.
3. Sinusoidal time varying electric & magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and also
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave is called electromagnetic wave (ie.,
transverse in nature).
1
4. Velocity of light, c = ≈ 3𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠, where 𝜀0 is the absolute permittivity of free
√𝜀0 𝜇0
space & 𝜇0 is the absolute permeability of free space.
5. Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by electric & magnetic fields.
6. E.M.waves can undergo reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction & polarization.
7. E.M.theory couldn’t explain photoelectric effect and Compton effect.

PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT :

According to this theory, electromagnetic radiations are emitted or absorbed in small descrete
energy packets and also they propagate photons. Energy associated with a photon is given by
E = hγ = hc/λ where h is Planck’s constant, 6.63 x 10-34 J-s. Quantum theory explains
photoelectric effect, scattering, emission & absorption of radiations successfully but it fails to
explain interference, diffraction, polarization.
From the above discussions, we conclude that light can exist in particle form as well as wave
form, so, light is having a dual nature.

PHASE:
Phase of vibrating particle determines the position of the particle at any instant.
(OR) Which gives the direction of vibration of the particle & displacement from their mean
position.

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WAVE OPTICS

Wave Front & Ray: The continuous locus of all the particles of the medium which are
vibrating in the same phase is called wave front.The speed with which the wave front moves
outwards is called the speed of the wave. The energy of the wave travels in a direction
perpendicular to the wave front and this direction is called a ray. A ray is a line perpendicular
to the wave front.

Depending upon the shape of the source of light, the wave front can be of three types.

1. Spherical wavefront: When the source of light is a point source, then the locus of all
points which are equidistant from the point source is a sphere. All points in this sphere
are vibrating in the same phase with same amplitude and it is called spherical
wavefront.
2. Cylindrical wavefront: If the source of light is linear in shape such as a slit, the locus
of all points vibrating in the same phase is a cylindrical surface and it is called
cylindrical wavefront.
3. Plane wavefront: A small portion of the spherical wavefront or cylindrical wavefront
at a large distance from the source appears to be plane. Such a wavefront is called the
plane wavefront.

S
S

Plane wavefront
Spherical wavefront
Cylindrical
wavefront
Note: Parallel rays indicate plane wavefront, diverging rays indicate diverging spherical
wavefront and converging rays indicate converging spherical wavefront.

Huygens’s principle: Huygen’s principle is based on the following assumptions :

1. Every point on a wavefront is a source of secondary disturbance which produces

secondary wavelets. These wavelets are spherical and travel with the speed of light in
all directions.
2. The new wavefront at any later time is obtained by taking the tangential surface in the
forward direction to all the spheres of secondary wavelets.

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WAVE OPTICS

Explanation: Consider the diverging spherical wave moving through a medium. At t

= 0 the spherical wavefront has the position AB. Secondary wavelets originating from
every point on this wavefront travel in all directions with the same speed V and in a
time t they develop into a sphere of radius Vt. The tangential surface CD drawn to all
these spheres in the forward direction gives the shape and position of the new
wavefront after a time t. same process takes place in the case of a plane wavefront.
Here envelopes CD and EF are termed as forward secondary wavefront and backward
secondary wavefront. Huygen assumed that the backward secondary wavelets does not
exist at all.
A
E C
A C
•
E •
• •

S
• •
• • New wavefront
• New wavefront
F
•
B D
F D
B

Applications of Huygens’s Principle:

1. Refraction of a plane wavefront at a plane refracting surface(from rarer to

denser):

Let PP` represent the surface separating medium 1 (rarer) and medium 2
(denser). Let V1 and V2 be the speed of the light in medium 1 and medium 2
respectively. Consider a plane wavefront AB incident in medium 1 at an angle I on the
surface xy.

When the end of the

wavefront strikes the point A
on the surface PP`, secondary
wavelets starts emitting from
A.

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WAVE OPTICS

According to Huygens principle, every point on the wavefront AB is a source of secondary

wavelets. Let the secondary wavelet from B strike the surface PP` at c in a time t. then BC =
V1t. The secondary wavelet from A will travel a distance V2t in medium in the same time.
With A as centre and V2t as radius draw an arc in medium 2. The tangent from C touches the
arc at E, CE is the tangential surface touching all the spheres of refracted wavefront and r be
the angle of refraction.

By geometry 𝐵𝐴̂𝐶 = i & E𝐶̂ 𝐴 = r

From Δle BAC, sin I = BC/AC
Δle ECA , sinr = AE/AC
𝐵𝐶/𝐴𝐶
Sin i/ Sin r = = BC/ AE = V1t/ V2t = Sin I / Sin r = V1/ V2 ------- (1)
𝐴𝐸/𝐴𝐶

We know that n1 = C/ V1 and n2 = C/ V2

n2/ n1 = V1/ V2 ----- (2)
From (1) and (2) we get
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑛2
=
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑛1

n1 sin i = n2 sin r
This represents Snell’s law of refraction.
Note:
1. AE is shorter than BC or V2 < V1. Hence light possess more speed in rarer medium
than in denser medium.
2. The incident ray, normal and refracted ray are respectively perpendicular to AB, XY
and CE all lie in the same plane. This is the first law of refraction of light and hence
laws of refraction are proved on the basis of wave theory of light.
3. Refraction at a rarer medium using Huygens principle:

Consider refraction of
plane wave at a surface
separating a denser medium
from a rarer medium. The
angle of refraction will now
be greater than angle of
incidence. From Snell’s law
we can write n1 sin i = n2 sin r

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WAVE OPTICS

We define an angle ic by the equation sin ic = n2 / n1

If i = ic then sin i = 1 and r = 900. The angle ic = C is known as critical angle, there will be no
refracted wavefront and the wavefront undergoes total internal reflection.

2. Reflection of plane wave by a plane surface using Huygens principle: Consider a

plane wavefront AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN. Let v be the speed
of light wave in the medium. The first point on the plane surface to be disturbed by the
incident wave is A.

Every point on the wavefront AB is a source of secondary wavelets. Let the secondary
wavelets from B strike the surface MN at C in a time t. then BC= vt. The secondary wavelet
from A will travel the same distance vt in the same time. With A as centre and vt as radius,
draw an arc. The tangent from C touches this arc at E and CE is the tangential surface
touching all the spheres of reflected secondary wavelets. CE is the reflected wavefront and r
be the angle of reflection. Δles AEC and BAC are congruent. Therefore i = r. thus during
reflection of light angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

3.Behaviour of a plane wavefront in a prism lens and concave mirror:

A
Prism: A plane wavefront DB is incident on the prism.
Each point on the wavefront acts as a source of secondary D E
wavelets. These secondary waves will travel through
different thickness of the prism. The secondary Emerging
wavelet from B will travel almost the entire Incident Wavefront
distance in prism to reach C. wavefront
The secondary wavelet from D will travel
almost the entire distance in air and small distance
B C
in prism.

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WAVE OPTICS

The distance travelled in air is greater than the distance travelled in the prism.
All the secondary waves starting from BD reach CE at the same time and hence CE is the
emergent wavefront. since velocity of light in glass is less, the wavefront travelling from B to
C will get delayed resulting inclination in the emerging wavefront. This shows that a ray of
light emerging from the prism always bends towards the base.

Lens: A plane wavefront AB is incident on a convex lens and each point on the wavefront is
a source of secondary wavelets. The different portions of this wavefront have to travel
through different thickness of the lens before emerging out. The central part of the incident
plane wave traverses the thickest portion of the lens and is delayed the most.
A Spherical Refracted
Therefore,the emerging wavefront has a depression converging
wavefront

at the centre and therefore the wavefront becomes

F
spherical and converges to the point F which is known P1 P2

as the focus. This explains why a parallel beam of light

B
on refraction through a convex lens gets converged.

Concave mirror: A plane wavefront AOB is incident on a concave mirror XY. Each point on
the wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets. The centre O of the wavefront has to
travel larger distance to the mirror before getting reflected. The wavelets from A and B travel
smaller to the mirror before getting reflected. Therefore the emergent wavefront is
converging spherical wavefront converging to the focal point F. This explains why a parallel
beam of light on reflection from a concave mirror gets converged.
X
A

O F
Refracted converging
Wavefront

B
Y

Doppler Effect: When the source of light or the observer is moving, the later wavefronts
have to travel for a longer or shorter time. As a result there is a change in frequency of light
received by the observer. This is known as Doppler Effect.

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WAVE OPTICS

If the source moves from the observer, the later wavefronts have to travel a greater distance
to reach the observer and hence take longer time. The time taken between the arrivals of two
successive wavefronts is longer at the observer than it is at the source. Therefore the
frequency will be smaller. This decrease in frequency or increase in wavelength during
Doppler effect is known as red shift. When the source is moving towards the observer, there
is an increase in frequency or decrease in wave length due to Doppler Effect. This is known
as blue shift.

Interference of light:

Introduction: With a single source of light the energy distribution in the surrounding
medium is uniform. But when there are two or more adjacent sources of light the distribution
of energy is no longer uniform. At some points the intensity becomes maximum and at some
other points the intensity is minimum due to the superposition of waves.

The modification in the distribution of light energy due to the superposition of light waves
from two coherent sources is called Interference.

If crest of one light wave meets the crest of another,the resultant intensity is maximum and
interference is said to be constructive. If crest of one light wave meets the trough of another
the resultant intensity is zero and the phenomenon is called Destructive interference.

Note:

1. The colour pattern observed on soap bubbles, oil spills on wet roads and bright colours
produced on spider webs when exposed to sunlight are due to interference of light.
2. During interference, there is transfer of energy from one region reappears at the other.
Hence light energy is conserved.

Coherent sources: Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of

a. Same wavelength, same frequency

b. Nearly equal amplitude and
c. Same phase or constant phase difference

Two independent sources cannot be coherent, because even though they may emit light
waves of equal wavelength, the amplitude may not be equal and to obtain coherent sources a
single source is used and its beam is split into two different beams so that each beam behaves
like a source. Coherent sources are obtained by two methods

1. By division of wavefront: Young’s double slit experiment, Fresnel’s bi prism,

Lloyd’s mirror etc.
2. By division of amplitude: Interference at thin film, Newton’s rings etc.

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WAVE OPTICS

Coherent and incoherent addition of waves (condition for constructive and destructive
interference):
Consider two light sources s1and s2 reaching an observation screen. The sources are
coherent. Let O be equidistant from s1and s2.
Since s2o-s1o is zero, the path difference is zero and
thus phase difference between waves coming from
s1 and s2 reaching o is zero.

Let the displacement produced by the sources s1 and s2 be y1= a cos 𝜔𝑡 and y2 = a cos 𝜔𝑡
From the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement is given by y = y1 + y2 = 2a
cos 𝜔𝑡
Amplitude of resultant wave at o is 2a since intensity 𝛼 (amplitude)2, I 𝛼 a2 ,I = 4I0
Let P1 be a point on the screen such that
S1
S2P1 – S1P1 = 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆 etc
At P1, path difference = 𝜆 O
2𝜋
 phase difference at P1 = × 𝜆 = 2𝜋
𝜆
Thus if y1 = a cos 𝜔𝑡 S2
y2 = a cos (𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋) = a cos 𝜔𝑡
y = y1+ y2 = 2a cos 𝜔𝑡
At P1 , I 𝛼 4a2
Thus for points of max intensity, path difference = n 𝜆 where n = 1,2,3……..
Points which satisfy the above condition are called points of constructive interference.

Let P2 be a point such that the path different P2

S1
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆
S2P2 – S1P2 = = = etc
2 2 2
S2

𝜆
A path difference of corresponds to a phase difference of 𝜋 . Thus if y1 = a cos 𝜔𝑡 then
2

y2 = a cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋 ) = - a cos 𝜔𝑡

y = y1+ y2 = 0  Intensity = 0
𝜆
Thus for points of minimum intensity, path diff = (2n+1) where n = 0,1,2,3,4……..
2
Points which satisfy the above condition are called points of destructive interference.

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Theory of interference:
Consider two light waves of same frequency travelling in a medium in the same direction.
Let a and b be the amplitudes of the two waves and 𝜙 be the phase difference between them.
The displacements of any particle due to these waves is given by
y1 = a sin 𝜔𝑡 & y2 = b sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
then resultant displacement y = y1+ y2
y = a sin 𝜔𝑡 + b sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 + b cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙

y = (a + b cos 𝜙) sin 𝜔𝑡 + b sin 𝜙 cos 𝜔𝑡 ------ (1)

put a + b cos 𝜙 = R cos Ѳ ------ (2) & b sin 𝜙 = R sin Ѳ ----- (3)

Eqn (1) becomes

y = R sin 𝜔𝑡 cos Ѳ + R cos 𝜔𝑡 sin Ѳ

y = R sin (𝜔𝑡 + Ѳ)

the resultant wave is a simple harmonic wave having amplitude R and phase difference Ѳ.

Squaring and adding equations (2) and (3) we get

R2cos 2 Ѳ+ R2sin2 Ѳ = (a+b cos 𝜙)2 + b2 sin2 𝜙

R2 = a2 + b2 cos 2 𝜙 + 2ab cos 𝜙 + b2 sin2 𝜙

R2 = a2 + b2 (cos 2 𝜙 +sin2 𝜙) + 2ab cos 𝜙

R2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos 𝜙

R= √a2 + b 2 + 2ab cos 𝜙

If a = b then R = √2𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 cos 𝜙

=√2𝑎2 (1 + cos 𝜙)

𝜙
=√2𝑎2 (2cos2 )
2

𝜙
=2a cos
2

If IO be the intensity of light due to any one source then IO 𝛼 a2

𝜙 𝐼 𝜙 𝜙
I 𝛼4a2 cos2 = 4 cos2 I = 4IO cos2
2 𝐼𝑜 2 2

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Condition for constructive interference: The resultant intensity will be maximum when
𝜙
cos2 =1
2

taking square root on both sides

𝜙
cos = ±1
2

𝜙
= 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋 − − − −
2
𝜙 = 0,2𝜋, 4𝜋 − − − −

𝜙 = 𝑛(2𝜋) where n = 0,1,2…….

𝜆 𝜆 2𝑛𝜆
Path difference = ×𝜙 = 𝑛2𝜋 = 𝑛𝜆 =
2𝜋 2𝜋 2

For constructive interference phase difference between the waves equal to even multiple of 𝜋
𝜆
or path difference between the waves must be equal to even multiple of
2

Resultant amplitude R = a+b

Resultant intensity I = 4I0 since 𝜙 = 0

Condition for destructive interference: The resultant intensity will be minimum when
𝜙 𝜙 𝜙 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
cos2 = 0 therefore cos =0 = , , , − − − − − 𝜙 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋 − − − −
2 2 2 2 2 2

𝜙 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 where n = 0,1,2,------

𝜆 𝜆
Path difference = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2𝜋 2

For destructive interference, phase difference between the waves must be equal to odd
𝜆
multiple of 𝜋 or path difference between the waves must be equal to odd multiple of
2

Resultant amplitude R = a-b

Resultant intensity I = 0 since 𝜙 = 𝜋

Note:1. For two wave of different amplitudes I = I1 + I2 + 2 √𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙

For constructive interference

I = I1 + I2 + 2 √𝐼1 𝐼2 since 𝜙= 0

Amplitude R = a + b
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For destructive interference

I = I1 + I2 - 2 √𝐼1 𝐼2 since 𝜙 = 180

Amplitude R = a - b
2. If W1 and W2 be the width of two slits then W1/ W2 = I1 / I2 = a2 / b2
Young’s double slit experiment:

Thomas Young established the wave nature of light by showing that light waves can
interfere with each other. The experimental arrangement is as shown in the figure. Light from
a monochromatic source is incident on a screen X which has a narrow slit S. the spherical
wavefronts emerging from S falls on the screen Y which contain two close narrow parallel
slits S1 and S2 at equal distance from S. S1 and S2 act as individual sources which are in phase
and hence they behave like coherent sources.

The spherical wavefronts emerging from S1 and S2 interfere with each other and produce
interference pattern on a screen. The interference pattern consists of alternate bright and dark
bands parallel to the slits. They are also known as interference fringes.

S1 Central Fringe
•
S•
•S2

X Y

Screen

Thick lines represents the crests and dotted lines represents troughs. The intersection of two
thick lines or dotted lines i.e, waves arriving in phase corresponds to a bright band on the
screen. Intersection of a thick line and a dotted line i.e, waves arriving in out of phase
corresponds to a dark band on the screen. All dark fringes have zero intensity. The distance
between the centers of two consecutive bright fringes or dark fringes is called fringe width.

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Note: In Young’s double slit experiment

1. If the source slit S is moved nearer the double slits the separation of fringes is
unaffected but their brightness increases.
2. If the source slit S is widened, the fringes gradually disappears
3. If one of the slits S1 and S2 is covered up, the fringes disappears.
4. If a thin transparent sheet is introduces in the path of one of the beams. The entire
fringe pattern shifts through a distance (n-1) t D/d towards the side on which the sheet
is introduced. N is the R.I of the material of the sheet and t is its thickness.
5. If a third slit is made between S1 and S2,then the contrast between bright and dark
bands is reduced.
6. If white light is used instead of monochromatic light, then each bright fringe is found
to be coloured in the order VIBGYOR with violet colour towards the central fringe
except the central bright fringe which is always bright and white since it is formed due
to zero path difference.
7. If a thin transparent sheet is introduced then the fringe pattern shifts but there is no
change in fringe width. The number of fringes that shift is given by N = (n-1)t/𝜆

Expression for fringe width: Consider two coherent sources S1 and S2 separated by a
distance d. let a screen be placed at a distance D from the coherent sources. The point O on
the screen is equidistant from S1 and S2 so that the path difference between the light waves
reaching O is zero. Thus the point has maximum intensity.

Consider a point P at a distance x from O. the path

difference between the two light waves from S1 and
P
S2 reaching the point P is  = S2P – S1P
x
From the figure S1 Q
2 2 2 d/2
(S2P) = (S2R) + (PR) d O
= D2 + (x+ d/2)2
S2 R
2 2 2
(S1P) = (S1Q) + (PQ) D

= D2 + (x- d/2)2

(S2P)2 - (S1P)2 = D2 + (x+ d/2)2 - D2 - (x- d/2)2 = 2xd

(S2P + S1P)( S2P- S1P)= 2xd

S2P= S1P = 2xd / S2P+ S1P

Since P is very close to O, S2P + S1P = 2D

 Path difference  = S2P - S1P = 2xd/2D = xd/D

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→For bright fringe, the path difference must be an integral multiple of 𝜆. i.e. n𝜆

Xd/D = n 𝜆  x = nD𝜆/d

Distance of nth bright fringe from the center O is xn = nD𝜆/d

Distance of (n+1)th bright fringe from the center O is xn+1 = (n+1)D 𝜆/d

The distance between the centers of any two consecutive bright fringes is called the fringe
width. It is given by 𝛽 = xn+1 - xn

𝛽 = (n+1)D 𝜆/d - nD 𝜆/d = 𝜆D/d

→For dark fringe path difference must be an odd multiple of 𝜆/2

Xd/D = (2n+1) 𝜆/2  x= (2n+1)D 𝜆/2d where n = 0,1,2,3….

OR x= (2n-1)D 𝜆/2d where n=1,2,3,…

Since the center of the screen is a bright fringe, the distance of nth dark fringe from the center
is

xn = [2(n-1)+1]D 𝜆/2d = (2n-1)D 𝜆/2d

Distance of (n+1)th dark fringe from the center is

Xn+1 = (2n+1)D 𝜆/2d

𝛽 = xn+1 - xn

𝛽 = (2n+1)D 𝜆/ 2d – (2n-1)D 𝜆/2d = D 𝜆/d

Hence width of bright fringe is equal to the width of dark fringe

Conditions for sustained or permanent interference: The interference pattern in which the
positions of maximum and minimum of intensity of light remain fixed on the screen is called
permanent interference.

Conditions:
1. The two sources must be coherent.
2. The two sources should be very narrow.
3. The two sources should be very close to each other and observation must be done at a
large distance from the sources.
4. The two interfering waves must propagate in the same direction.
5. If the interfering waves are polarized then both the waves must have the same plane of
vibration.

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Note: 1. Intensity distribution curve for interference:

I
4IO

2IO

-5𝜋 -4𝜋 3𝜋 -2𝜋 -𝜋 0 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋

Phase difference

1. For a constant path difference, the fringe pattern is a hyperbola as shown in figure (a).
However if the distance D is very large compared to fringe width, the fringes will be
straight lines as shown in figure (b)

(b)
(a)

2.In case of thin film such as soap bubble interference takes place in reflected light as well as
transmitted light. In refracted light, for a bright fringe path difference
2ntcos r = (2n+1)𝜆/2
Dark fringe, path difference 2nt Cos r = n 𝜆
In transmitted light, For a bright fringe 2nt Cos r = n 𝜆
For a dark fringe 2ntCos r = (2n+1) 𝜆/2

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Diffraction:
Diffraction was first noticed by Grimaldi. Diffraction effects are clearly observed when the
size of an obstacle is comparable to the wavelength. Sound waves has the wavelength of the
order of few meters. Hence they can bend round the corners of large obstacles. So a person
hidden form direct view can be heard.

To observe similar effects with light, the size of the object must be very small since the
wavelength of light is of the order of 10-7m.

The phenomenon of bending nature of light around the edges of a sharp obstacle whose size
is comparable to wavelength of light is called diffraction.

By viewing a distant source of light through a fine cloth hand kerchief, colored spectra will
be observed due to diffraction. The luminous border surrounding the mountain just before the
sunrise is due to diffraction. Diffraction can be successfully explained on the basis of
Huygens wave theory.

There are two types of diffraction 1) Fresnel diffraction and 2) Fraunhoffer diffraction.
1. Fresnel diffraction: Here the source of light and the screen on which the diffraction is
observed are at finite distance from the obstacle. The wavefront falling on the obstacle
is either spherical or cylindrical. Diverging beam of light is incident on the obstacle.

S
S

Fresnel Fraunhoffer

2. Fraunhoffer diffraction: The source of light and the screen on which diffraction is
observed are at infinite distance from the obstacle . A parallel beam of light is incident
on the obstacle.

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Diffraction of light at a single slit: A monochromatic source of light S is placed at the

principal focus of convex lens L1. The emergent parallel beam or plane wavefront xy is
incident on a narrow slit AB of width a. After diffraction light is made to fall on another
convex lens L2. The diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen placed at the principal focus of
lens L2.

Second secondary maxima

P First secondary maxima

x A 
Central maxima

O
S
c N
First minima
y

L1 L2


The diffraction pattern on the screen can be explained by using Huygens principle. The
diffraction pattern consists of a central bright band of decreasing intensity on either side. AN
is a perpendicular drawn from A to the ray diffracted from B. The path difference between
the secondary waves from A and B reaching the point ‘P’ is equal to BN

From right angled triangle ANB

Sin  = BN/AB  BN = AB sin 

Path difference = a sin  ∵AB = a, is the slit width

Central maximum: the secondary waves from all the points on the wavefront AB travel the
same distance in reaching the point O on the screen. Hence the path difference between them
is zero. These secondary waves superpose with each other and produce maximum intensity at
O. Thus O is the position of the central maximum on the screen.

Positions of secondary minima: If the path difference is equal to 𝜆 then the point P will be
of minimum intensity. It is called the first secondary minimum on either side of the central
maximum. The whole wavefront AB can be divided into two equal halves AC and CB. If the
path difference between A and B is 𝜆 then the path difference between the secondary waves
from A and C be 𝜆/2 i.e, phase difference = 1800. Similarly corresponding to every point in
the upper half AC, there is a point in the lower half CB for which the path difference is 𝜆/2.
Hence the secondary waves from the two halves reach the point P always in opposite phase
and they interfere destructively so as to produce a minimum. Similarly if the path difference
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WAVE OPTICS

between A and B is 2𝜆, then the point P will be the position of second secondary minimum.
Here the wavefront AB is divided into four equal parts so that the path difference between
any two corresponding points is 𝜆/2 when they reach P. Hence they interfere destructively
and produce minimum intensity. Hence the various secondary minim are formed at positions
given by

asinѲn = n 𝜆 where n = 1,2,3,4……

Positions of secondary maxima: If the path difference between A and B is 3𝜆/2 then P is a
point of first secondary maxima. The wavefront AB is divided into three equal parts. The
path difference between two corresponding points of first two parts will be 𝜆/2. The
secondary waves from these points will interfere destructively. The secondary waves from
the third part of the wavefront will contribute to some intensity forming the first secondary
maximum. Similarly the second secondary maxima is formed when the path difference
between A and B is 5 𝜆/2. In general the positions of various secondary maxima are given by

asinn =(2n+1) 𝜆/2.where n = 1,2,3,4 -------- The intensity of secondary maxima decreases as
n increases.

Linear width of central maximum: If the distance between first secondary minimum on
either side of central maximum at O to the first secondary minimum at P when the screen is at
a distance D from the slit then

Sin ==x/D = 𝜆/𝑎 ( since sin ≈ tan) x


a

x=D 𝜆/a ∵a sin = n 𝜆, for the first fringe

 Linear width of central maximum = 2x = 2D 𝜆/a D

The directions of first minima on either side of central maximum are given by Ѳ = 𝜆/a
Angular width of central maximum = 2Ѳ = 2𝜆/a
Note: Direction of nth minimum Ѳn = n 𝜆/a
Direction of (n+1)th minimum Ѳn+1 = (n+1) 𝜆/a
(n+1)𝜆 n𝜆 𝜆
Angular width of nth secondary maxima = Ѳn+1 – Ѳn = - =
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
th 𝐷𝜆
Linear width of n secondary maximum = Angular width x D =
𝑎

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Differences between Interference and Diffraction:

Interference Diffraction
1. Modification in the distribution of light 1. Bending of light around the edges of a
energy due to the superposition of small obstacle whose size is
waves from coherent sources comparable to wave length.
2. It occurs due to superposition of waves 2. It is due to the superposition of
coming from two coherent sources secondary waves form different points
of the same wavefront.
3. Fringes are of equal width 3. Fringes are of unequal width
4. Intensity of all bright bands is same. 4. Intensity of bright bands decreases on
either side of central maxima.
5. Intensity of all dark bands is perfectly 5. Intensity of all dark bands is not
dark. perfectly dark
6. There is a good contrast between 6. There is a poor contrast between
maxima and minima maxima and minima
7. Fringes are large in number 7. Fringes are few in number

Resolving power of Optical instruments:

When light from a point object passes through a lens according to ray optics a point
image must be produced. But due to diffraction of light, a circular diffraction pattern
consisting of a central bright disc (central maximum) surrounded by alternate dark and bright
concentric circular rings (secondary minima and maxima) of decreasing intensity is produced.
Thus the image of a point object is a circular patch of light with a bright disc called Airy disk
at the centre surrounded by alternate dark and bright rings.

2a

0.61𝜆f/a
f

When two objects very close to each other are seen through an optical instrument, then their
patterns will overlap on each other if the overlapping is small then both the images are seen
separate and the optical instrument is able to resolve the objects. If the overlapping is large.
The objects will not resolving the objects. Hence diffraction sets a limit to the resolving
power of an optical instrument.

Resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability to produce distinctly separate

images of two closely lying point objects.
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WAVE OPTICS

The minimum distance between two objects whose images appear just resolved by an
optical instrument is called limit of resolution. Smaller the limit of resolution, greater is the
resolving power

i.e, Resolving power = 1/ limit of resolution

Note:
1. In microscope & telescopes, resolving power is termed as Geometrical resolution (includes
resolution of geometric distances.
2. In spectroscope, resolving power is termed as Spectral resolution (of wavelengths)
3. Limit of resolution of human eye is 0.1mm or 1 min or 1/60 degree. If two distant objects
subtend an angle at the eye equal to or greater than 1 min then the objects will be resolved by
eye.
4. According to Rayleigh two point objects are just resolved when the central maximum of
the diffraction pattern of one falls over the first secondary minimum of the diffraction pattern
of the other.
Resolving Power of Microscope:
The minimum distance between two point objects whose
images appear just resolved is known as the limit of resolution of a
microscope.
Objective
It is given by d = 𝜆/2n sin  for non luminous point objects  
where 𝜆= wavelength of light used, n sin =numerical aperture,
n→RI of the medium between the object and objective lens.
→ Semi vertical angle subtended by the cone of
light rays entering the objective of the objective of the microscope.
The reciprocal of minimum distance between two point objects whose images appear just
resolved is known as resolving power of a microscope
R.P = 1/ Limit of resolution
R.P = 2 sin/𝜆 for non luminous point. Resolving power of a microscope can be increased by
1. Using oil of high R.I between the object and objective of the microscope. Such
microscope are called oil immersion microscopes.
2. Using ultraviolet light whose wavelength is small compared to visible light. Such
microscopes are called ultra microscopes. Here quarts lenses are used and the image is
photographed. For still higher resolving powers. Electrons microscopes are used.
3. For self luminous point objects
Limit of resolution d = 1.22 𝜆/2nsin, R.P = 2n sin / 1.22 𝜆

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Resolving power of Telescope: The angle subtended at the objective of the telescope by two
distant object whose images appear just resolved is called limit of resolution of telescope.
It is given by d = 1.22𝜆 /d , Where 𝜆 is the wavelength of light and d is the diameter or
aperture of the objective lens.
The reciprocal of angle subtended at the objective of the telescope by two distant objects
whose images are just resolved is known as resolving power of a telescope
RP = d/ 1.22 𝜆 thus to increase the resolving power of telescope objectives of large diameter
are used.
Validity of ray optics: Ray optics is based on the assumption that light travels in straight
lines. Diffraction effects show that light does not travel in straight lines.
The linear width X of the central maximum from the centre O of the central maximum is
x = D 𝝀/a. The diffraction spread x increases as D increases. The distance at which the
diffraction spread of a beam of light is equal to the size of the aperture is called Fresnel
distance. It is denoted by ZF
Diffraction spread, x= D 𝜆/a
When x = a, then D =ZF ,a = ZF 𝜆/a ZF = a 2 / 𝜆
If D < ZF then diffraction effects can be neglected and ray optics is valid. If D> ZF then
spreading due to diffraction is appreciable and ray optics is not valid.
Polarization:
A beam of light incident on a calcite crystal emerged as a pair of beams travelling in
different directions. Since the incident beam was obtained from a single source, the emergent
beams were thought to be coherent.When these two beams emerging from calcite crystal
were superposed on a screen, the beams did not produce an interference pattern. The two
beams cannot interfere because their plane of vibrations are mutually perpendicular. In each
beam the vibrations are restricted to a particular plane and these planes are perpendicular to
each other for the two beams.
The phenomenon by which the vibrations of light (electric vector) are restricted to a
particular plane in called polarisation.
The phenomenon of polarisation can be explained only by considering the transverse
nature of light. In an ordinary light, the vibration of light occur normal to the direction of
propagation in all possible planes. Such a beam light is called unpolarised light. If the
vibrations are confined to only one plane then it is called plane polarized or linearly polarized
light.

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Plane of vibration and plane of polarisation: The plane containing the direction of
vibration and direction of propagation of light is called plane of vibration.
The plane which is perpendicular to the plane of vibration and contains the direction of
propagation of light is called plane of polarisation.
The plane of vibration and plane of polarisation are perpendicular to each other. Unpolarized
or ordinary light is represented as shown in figure (c)

A B

E F

ABCD → Plane of vibration

Unpolarised EFGH → Plane of

H G
light Polarisation
C D

Unpolarised or ordinary light is represented as shown in the figure (a). Plane polarized light
with vibrations parallel to the plane of the paper is as shown in figure (b). Plane polarized
light with vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the paper is as shown in the figure (c).

• • • • • • •

(a) (b) (c)

Polaroids:
Polaroid is a thin sheet of specially prepared plastic material used to produce and
analyse plane polarized light. Herapath discovered that the synthetic small needle shaped
crystals of iodosulphate of quinine possess the property of polarizing the light. These crystals
are called hereathite. These crystal are not stable and cannot be used as such. Polarised sheet
is prepared from the suspension of these crystals in nitrocellulose. To give stability, its thin
sheet is mounted between the two glass sheets.

A Polaroid sheet can also be obtained from a sheet of polyvinyl alcohol. When this
sheet is stretched, the molecules get oriented in the direction of stretching. If this stretched

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WAVE OPTICS

sheet is strained with iodine then it becomes dichoric. The Polaroid sheet so obtained is
colourless and is called H-Polaroid.
If the stretched sheet is heated in the presence of dehydrating agent like H2SO4, it becomes
strongly dichoric and very stable. It possess slight brownish colour and is called K-Polaroid.

Working:
A Polaroid consists of long chain molecules aligned in a particular direction. When
light is passed through a polaroid, the electric vector in the direction of aligned molecules
gets absorbed. The electric vector perpendicular to the direction of aligned molecules is
unaffected. When unpolarised light is passed through a Polaroid, we get linearly polarized
light with electric vector in a direction perpendicular to the aligned molecules. This direction
is known as the pass axis of the polaroid. In this way poloroids can be used as polarisers to
produce polarized light.
They can also be used as analysers to analyse whether the light is polarized or not. When
ordinary light is passed through the polaroid P1, its intensity is reduced by half. Rotating the
poloproid P1 has no effect on the intensity of transmitted light. This is because in every
position P1 transmits the electric vector along its transmission axis, if the light transmitted by
P1 is passed through the second poloproid P2 then intensity of transmitted light varies. As P2
is rotated through one complete rotation, the light transmitted by P2 varies becoming twice
maximum and twice zero. Whenever the transmission axes of the two polaroids are parallel,
intensity of transmitted light is maximum and when the axes are perpendicular, the intensity
is zero. This shows that unpolarised light gets polarized on passing through P1

Parallel Polaroid Crossed Polaroid

Malus’Law :
When unpolarised light of intensity I/ is passed through a Polaroid P1. The transmitted
polarized light will have an intensity I0 = I1/2. If this light is passed through a second Polaroid
P2, the intensity of light transmitted by P2 depends on the orientation of the pass axis of the
polaroids P1 and P2. If Ѳ is the angle between the two pass axes, the intensity of light
transmitted by P2 is given by
I = I0 Cos2 Ѳ. This is called Malus law.
When Ѳ = 00 or 1800 then I = I0
When Ѳ = 900, then I = 0

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Note: When ordinary light is passed through P1 the intensity of transmitted light will be
50%. The intensity can be further controlled from 50% to zero by adjusting the angle between
the pass axes of two polaroids.
Uses of Polaroids:
1. Polaroids are used to produce and analyse the polarised light.
2. Polaroids are widely used in goggles or sunglasses to reduce glare.
3. Polaroids are used to reduce glare due to head light of automobiles approaching from
opposite direction.
4. Polaroids are used as windows in buses, trains and aeroplanes to vary the intensity of
light.
5. Polaroids are used to view 3-D pictures and movies
6. In photography, they are used to eliminate the glare of reflected light.

Note: A calcite crystal splits the incident ray of light into two refracted rays called ordinary
ray and extraordinary ray. This phenomenon is called double refraction. Tourmaline crystal is
also a doubly refracting crystal with an additional property of absorbing ordinary and
extraordinary rays unequally. Such crystals are called dichoric crystals and this phenomenon
is called dichorism or selective absorption.
Polarisation by scattering: Light can also be polarised by scattering. The blue colour of the
sky is due to scattering of sunlight by atmospheric molecules. If the sunlight from blue
portion of the sky is observed through a rotating Polaroid, the intensity of transmitted light
varies between a maximum and minimum. This shows that the scattered light that we observe
is partially polarised.
When an unpolarised beam of sunlight travelling in horizontal direction falls on an
atmospheric molecule, it sets the electrons of the molecule into vibration. The horizontal
component of electric field vector of the incident beam results in the horizontal component of
vibration of charges and the vertical component of the electric field vector of the incident
beam results in the vertical component of vibration. The motion of electrons is equivalent to
two dipoles oscillating in mutually perpendicular directions. Their axes are represented by the
arrow and the dot at O.
Oscillating
electron
• • • •
O •
Unpolarised sunlight •
•
•
•

A
C Scattered light
B
80
WAVE OPTICS

An oscillating dipole does not radiate along its own axis. Thus an observer at B would
receive no radiation from the dipole represented by the arrow at O. The light that he receives
would come entirely from the dipole represented by the dot at O. hence this light is plane
polarised with vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
Observers at A and C would receive partially polarized light because both the dipoles
would radiate to some extent in these directions. Observers viewing the transmitted or the
back scattered light would not detect any polarization effects because both the dipoles at O
would radiate equally in these two directions. Hence light scattered forward or backward
remains unpolarised while light scattered at 900 becomes linearly polarized and in
intermediate directions it is partially polarized.

Polarisation by reflection: Malus found that when a beam of ordinary light is reflected by
the surface of a transparent medium like glass or water, the reflected light is partially
polarized. The degree of polarisation increases with the angle of incidence the reflected light
becomes completely polarized. The angle of incidence at which the reflected light is
completely polarized is called polarising angle or Brewster’s angle.
Consider an unpolarised light PQ be incident on a transparent medium. It is partially
reflected and refracted along QR and QS. The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the
paper always remain parallel to the reflecting surface, whatever be the angle of incidence.
Hence the condition of reflection remains the same even if the angle of incidence is changed.
The other vibrations make different angles with the reflecting surface as the angle of
incidence is changed.
When light is incident at the polarising angle the vibrations perpendicular to the plane of
paper or parallel to the reflecting surface are reflected along QR while the other vibrations are
transmitted and are not reflected. The reflected light is therefore completely polarized in the
plane of incidence. M
P
R
• •
• •
•
• Ѳp •
Ѳp •

r
•
•
N

81
WAVE OPTICS

It was experimentally found that the Brewster’s angle ѲP and the refractive index of the
material of the refractive index of the material of the reflector are related by the equation n =
tan ѲP
i.e, Refractive index of the reflecting medium is equal to the tangent of the polarising angle.
This is called Brewster’s law.
When the angle of incidence on a surface is equal to the Brewster’s angle, the reflected and
refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.
From Brewster’s law: n = tan ѲP
n = sin ѲP / cos ѲP ------ (1)
From snell’s law of refraction
n = sin ѲP / sin r ------ (2)
From (1) and (2)
Sin ѲP / cos ѲP = Sin ѲP/ sin r
Cos ѲP = sin r = cos (90-r)
ѲP = 90 – r therefore ѲP + r = 90
From the figure
MQR+RQS+SQN = 180
ѲP + RQS+ r = 180
90 + RQS = 180
RQS = 90
Hence reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other when light is incident at
the Brewster’s angle.

Brewster’s Law:
Refractive index of the reflecting medium is equal to the tangent of the polarising angle. This
is called Brewster’s law.
From snell’s law :
M
P sin 𝑖
•
R 𝑛=
• • sin 𝑟
• •
• Ѳp •
Ѳp •
Here i = Ѳp, & r = 90 – Ѳp
Q

sin Ѳp sin Ѳp
r
• 𝑛= =
sin(90−Ѳp) cos Ѳp
•
N

S 𝒏 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 Ѳ𝐩

82
WAVE OPTICS

83
WAVE OPTICS

84
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

11.DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

Certain phenomenon like interference, diffraction etc can only be explained on the basis of
wave nature of light. However certain phenomenon like photoelectric effect, electron emission etc
can be explained only by considering particle nature of light. From these observations we can
conclude that radiation(light) has dual nature i.e., wave like nature and particle like nature.

Louis de Broglie argued that moving particles of matter electrons, neutrons etc also have
dual character i.e., particle like and wave like. Davisson and German experiment confirmed the
wave nature of matter. Therefore it is concluded that matter has dual nature.

Note: In interference, diffraction etc interaction of radiation takes place with radiation itself. Such
phenomenon can be explained on the basis of electromagnetic (wave) nature of radiation only. In
photoelectric effect, electron emission etc interaction of radiation takes place with matter. Such
phenomenon can be explained on the basis of quantum (particle) nature of radiation. In reflection,
refraction etc interaction of radiation takes place neither with itself nor with matter. Such
phenomenon can be explained on the basis of two natures of radiation.

Electron emission: The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface is called
electron emission. Metals are preferred for electron emission. Since they contain a large number of
free electrons. The free electrons are prevented from leaving the surface of the metal by surface
barriers or potential barrier. If sufficient external energy is supplied to the free electrons then they
get ejected from the metal surface.

The minimum amount of energy required by an electron to just escape from the metal surface
is called work function of the metal. Its value depends on nature of metal, its purity and
surface condition. It is measured by a smaller unit of energy called electron volt. The work
function of pure metals varies from 2 eV to 6eV. Work function of platinum (5.65 eV) is highest
and it is lowest for caesium (2.14eV).

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DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

Depending on the sources of external energy, electron emission is classified in to four types.

1. Thermionic emission: The process of electron emission from a heated metal surface is
called thermionic emission. The thermal energy supplied increases the kinetic energy of
electrons and when they acquire an energy equal to the work function of the metal, they
leave the metal surface. The emitted electrons are called thermal electrons or thermions.
Higher the temperature, greater is the number of electrons emitted. It is used in electronic
vacuum tubes and cathode ray tubes. Commonly used thermionic emitters are tungsten,
oxides of metal such as barium, strontium etc.
2. Field emission: The process of emission of electrons by the application of a strong electric
field at the surface of a metal is called field emission. A strong the electric field of the order
of 108 Vm-1 applied to a metal pulls the electrons out of the metal. The stronger electric
field, greater is the number of electrons emitted from the metal surface. Since it takes place
at low temperatures, it is also called cold cathode emission. This method is used in the
working of X-ray tubes.
3. Photoelectric emission: The process of electron emission from a metal surface when a light
of suitable frequency is incident on it is called photoelectric emission. Energy of incident
radiation gets transferred to the electron in the metal. As a result electrons are liberated from
the metal. This method is used in photocells.
4. Secondary emission: The process of emission of electrons from a metal surface by the
bombardment of high speed electrons is known as secondary emission. The electrons
striking the metal surface are called primary electrons and the liberated electrons are called
Secondary electrons. When high speed electrons strike the metal surface, their KE is
transferred to the free electrons in the metal and The electrons are emitted. The number of
electrons emitted depends on the nature of the material of the surface and energy of the
incident electrons. This process is used in photomultiplier tubes which is used in the
detection of gamma ray photons.

Photoelectric effect:

The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal when radiation of
suitable frequency falls on it is called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called
photoelectrons and the current due to these electrons is called as photoelectric current

Hertz’s observations(1857-1894):

Photoelectric effect is discovered by Henrich Hertz in 1887.While demonstrating the

existence of electromagnetic waves by means of spark discharge, Hertz found that the high voltage
sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated by UV light
from an arc lamp. The UV light falling on the metal surface caused the emission of negatively
charged particles which are now known to be electrons into the surrounding space and hence
enhanced the high voltage sparks.

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DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

Hallwach’s and Lenard’s observations(1886-1902):

Lenard’s observations on photoelectric effect:

Lenard observed that, when UV radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate
(cathode)kept at negative potential of an evacuated glass tube, current flows through the external
circuit. As soon as the UV radiations were stopped, the current flow is also stopped. These
observations indicated that when UV radiation fall on emitter plate, electrons are ejected from it
which are attracted towards the collector plate (Anode) kept at positive potential. This flow of
electrons through the tube results in the current in the external circuit.

Hallwach’s observations on photoelectric effect:Hallwachs and Lenard studied how this

photoelectric current varied with collector plate potential and with frequency as well as intensity of
incident light. Hallwachs connected a negatively charged zinc plate to a negatively charged
electroscope and observed the increase in divergence of leaves. when zinc plate was illuminated
by UV light, he observed the decrease in divergence of leaves i.e the uncharged zinc plate became
positively charged when it was exposed to UV radiation. The +ve charge on a +vely charged zinc
plate was further enhanced when it was more illuminated bu UV light. From these observations
Hallwachs concluded that negatively charged particles were emitted from zinc plate under the
action of UV light. Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when UV light fall on the emitter
plate, no electrons were emitted when frequency of incident radiation was smaller than a certain
minimum value. This minimum frequency of the incident radiation for photoelectron emission
is called threshold frequency. It depends on the nature of the UV
material
rays of emitter plate.

Zinc Plate

Gold Leaves
87
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

Experimental study of Photoelectric effect :

The experimental arrangement to study photoelectric effect is as shown in the above figure.
It consists of an evacuated glass bulb with a side tube fitted with a quartz window C and A are the
electrodes. C is the emitter coated with photosensitive material and is maintained of negative
potential and anode A is maintained at positive potential by using a battery. Micro ammeter is
connected to measure photoelectric current and voltmeter measures potential difference between the
plates. When no UV rays falls on emitter, photoelectric current is zero. As soon as UV rays falls on
emitter micro ammeter shows current due to the emission of electrons from emitter which are
attracted towards anode. This confirms the emission of electrons from the emitter when UV rays
falls on it.

Experimental observations of photoelectric effect OR Laws of photoelectric effect:

1) Photoelectric effect is instantaneous process.

2) For a given metal photoemission takes place above certain minimum frequency of incident
radiations. It is called threshold frequency.
3) Above threshold frequency, photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.

Photoelectric
current

Intensity

88
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

4) Above threshold frequency , the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly

proportional to the frequency of incident radiation.

Stopping
potential Metal A Metal B
(V0)

0 01
O Frequency of incident radiation

5) Photoelectric current just becomes zero at a particular negative voltage. It is called stopping
potential.

Note :

1) Stopping potential : It is the minimum negative potential given to the anode at which
photoelectric current becomes zero.
2) Stopping potential is a measure of maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons. Hence
stopping potential is directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiation.
3) From the below graph it is found that stopping potential is independent of intensity.

I3 > I2 > I1
Photoelectric I3
current
I2
I1

Stopping potential

Retarding potential V0 Accele. potential

4) From the below graph it is

found that stopping

89
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

potential is directly proportional to frequency.

Failure of Wave theory to explain Photoelectric effect :

According to wave nature

❖ Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to intensity of radiation.

❖ Photoelectric effect takes place for all frequencies of radiation.
❖ There is a time lag between the incidence of photons and ejection of photoelectrons.

But according to particle nature

❖ KE is independent of intensity.
❖ Photoelectric effect does not take place below threshold frequency.
❖ Photoelectric effect is instantaneous.

Hence it is clear that predictions of wave theory are against the photoelectric experimental
observations.

Einstien’s explanation of photoelectric effect:

According to Planck light consists of discrete packets of energy called quanta or photon.
The energy associated with each photon is given by E = h where  is the frequency of radiation
and h is the Planck’s constant. Einstein gave accurate explanation of photoelectric effect on the
basis of quantum theory. When a photon interacts with an electron, it transfers all its energy to a
single electron. The energy of the incident photon is utilised in two ways. A part of the energy is
used to free the electron from the surface of the metal i.e., work function and the remaining energy
is used to provide maximum KE to the ejected photoelectron.

i.e., Energy of the incident photon = maximum KE of the photoelectrons + work function

h = Kmax + W

Kmax = h - W

i.e., ½ mV2 = h(-0) since W = h0

This equation is known as Einstien’s photoelectric equation. This equation can be used to explain
the laws of photoelectric effect as follows

1. Since Kmax is non negative, photoelectron emission is possible only if h > 𝜙0 . The
minimum energy of the incident photon required for photoelectron emission is h0 = 𝜙0
where 0 is the threshold frequency.
2. As frequency of incident radiation increases, work function being constant for a given metal
max KE of photoelectrons increases with the frequency of incident radiation.
3. When light intensity is increased, the number of photons colliding with the free electrons
inside the metal increases. Therefore more electrons are emitted for frequencies greater than
threshold frequency.

90
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

4. According to Einstein , the collision between a photon and an electron is similar to the
collision between the two microparticles. Hence photoelectric effect is instantaneous.

Note: We have Kmax = eVo

From Einstein’s photoelectric equation

eVo= h - W

Vo = (h/e) - W/e

The graph of V0 versus  will be a straight line with slope equal to h/e and y intercept is W/e

V0
A
ℎ
Slope= 𝑒
B
A

C
O ϒ0 ϒ
𝑊 /𝑒 D
Particle nature of light:

Photoelectric effect gave strong evidence to the particle nature of light. According to
Einstein photon is associated with definite value of energy and momentum. This is the property of
photon and hence light is considered to have particle nature.

Properties of photons: (Photon picture of an Em radiation):

1. Rest mass of a photon is zero

2. Each photon has energy E = h = hc/𝜆 and momentum p = h/c = h/ 𝜆
3. The photon energy and momentum depend only on frequency of the radiation and it is
independent of intensity of the radiation.
4. Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
5. All photons travel with the speed of light in space.
6. When photons collides with particle the total energy and total momentum are conserved but
the number of photons may or not be conserved.

Photocell:

It is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy. It is also known as an
electric eye. It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb. A semi cylindrical photosensitive metal
plate serves as emitter and a thin metal rod serves as collector. These electrodes are connected to the
external circuit having a high tension battery with a microammeter.

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DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

When light of suitable frequency falls on the emitter, photoelectrons are emitted. These
photoelectrons are drawn to the collector. A photocurrent of the order of a few micro ampere can be
normally obtained from photocell. A photocell converts a change in intensity of illumination into a
change in photoelectric current.

Cathode (emitter) Anodes (collector)

𝜇𝐴

_
+ Rh
H.T battery

Applications of photocells: They are used

1. In automatic switching circuits
2. To control the thickness of paper in a factory
3. For automatic opening of doors and garages
4. In solar batteries
5. In traffic signals
6. To control the temperature of furnace etc.
Wave nature of matter: Louis de Broglie made a daring suggestion that like radiation, moving
materials particles like electrons, neutrons etc also exhibit dual character i.e., sometimes they
behave as particles and sometimes as waves. This suggestion was based on the reasoning that since
nature loves symmetry, the two physical quantities i.e., energy and matter must be mutually
symmetrical. That is if radiant energy has dual nature then matter in motion must also posses dual
nature. Davission and Germer succeeded in diffracting electrons and this experiment confirmed the
wave nature of matter.The wave associated with a moving particle is called matter wave or de
Broglie wave.
Expression for de Broglie wavelength: The energy associated with a photon of frequency  is
given by
E = h where h is Planck’s constant.
If photon is considered as a particle of mass m then its energy is given by
E = mc2 where c is the speed of light

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DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

h = mc2
hc/𝜆 = mc2 where 𝜆 is the wavelength of photon
𝜆 = h / mc = h/p where p = mc the momentum of photon
The above equation has been derived for a photon of radiation. de Broglie suggested that the above
equation is applicable to both photons and material particles. Thus if m is the mass of a particle
moving with a velocity V then the wavelength associated with it is given by
𝜆 = h / mv
The above equation is known as de Broglie wave equation. It explains the dual nature of matter as it
connects the wave characteristic 𝜆 with the particle characteristic P.
The K.E of the particle is K = ½ mv2
Hence mv = √2𝑚𝐾  𝜆 = h / √2𝑚𝐾
Where a charged particle of charge q is accelerated by p.d V, then the KE gained is
K = ½ mv2 = Vq
Hence 𝜆 = h / √2𝑚𝑉𝑞
12.27 0
For an electron 𝜆 = h / √2𝑚𝑒𝑉 = A
√𝑉
NOTE;

1. If V = 0 then 𝜆 = ∞. This implies that waves are associated with material particles only
when they are in motion.
2. To be associated with a de-Broglie wave a particle need not have a charge. That is why de
Broglie waves are also known as matter waves.
3. de Broglie waves cannot be electromagnetic in nature because electromagnetic waves are
only associated with accelerated charged particles.
4. De Broglie wavelength 𝜆 𝛼 1/ m. This wavelength is significantly measurable only in case
of subatomic particles like electrons, neutrons etc, and due to the smallness of their masses.
But the de Broglie wavelength of large moving objects is very small, quite beyond
measurement due to their large masses. That is why the macroscopic objects in our daily life
do not show wave like properties.
5. According to de Broglie relation, if an electron has a definite momentum P, then it has a
definite wavelength 𝜆. It is accurate only if we have a large number of wavelengths i.e., the
wave should be spread all over the space (-∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞). If the wave is so spread momentum is
accurate but the postion of electron is not defined. It can be anywhere from -∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞. Thus
to overcome this situation we can superpose a number of waves to form a compact wave
packet to locate the position with reasonable accuracy. A wave packet extends over some
finite region of space. It has a spread of wavelengths around some central wavelength as
shown in figure (b). Hence there is a spread in momentum also. The electron is associated
with an uncertainly in position (Δx) and uncertainly in momentum (Δp). Thus both the
position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously measured accurately. This
principle is called Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
The product of Δx and Δp is of the order of ħ (ħ = ħ /2𝜋)
Δx Δp ≈ ħ
Hence the moving particle is not associated with matter wave of a definite
wavelength but is associated with a wave packet.

+∞
93 −∞

(𝑎) (𝑏)
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

Davission and Germer experiment:

The wave nature of electrons was first experimentally verified by Davisson and
Germer in 1927 and independently by G.P. Thompson in 1928. The basis of Davisson and
Germer experiment was that since the wavelength of an electron is of the order of spacing of
atoms of a crystal, a beam of electrons shows diffraction effects when incident on a crystal.
The experimental arrangement used by Davisson and Germer is as shown in the
figure. F is a tungsten filament coated with barium oxide and heated by a low voltage power
supply (L.T). Electrons emitted by the filament are accelerated to a desired velocity by
applying a high voltage between filament F and anode A by a high voltage power supply
(H.T). A narrow hole in the anode A renders the electrons into a narrow beam of electrons.
This narrow beam of electrons from anode A is allowed to fall on the surface of nickel
crystal. The electrons are scattered in all directions by the atoms in the nickel crystal. The
intensity of the electrons scattered in a given direction is measured by the electron detector.
The electron detector can be moved on a circular scale and it is connected to a sensitive
galvanometer. The deflection of the galvanometer is proportional to the intensity of
electrons entering the detector. The apparatus is enclosed in an evacuated chamber

H.T

Nickel crystal
Electron Ѳ
F
beam

L.T Diffracted
Electron beam
Movable
collector
Circular crystal
To Vacuum
Galvanometer chamber

By moving the detector on the circular scale the intensity I of the scattered electrons
is measured for different angle of scattering. The variation of intensity I with scattering
angle Ѳ was obtained for different values of accelerating voltage. The experiment was
performed by varying the accelerating voltage from 44 V to 68 V. It was noticed that s
strong peak appeared in the intensity I of the scattered electron for an accelerating voltage of
54 V at a scattering angle Ѳ = 500.

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DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

The appearance of the peak in a particular direction is due to constructive

interference of electrons scattered from different layers of atoms of the crystal. i.e.,
Diffraction of electrons takes place and this confirms the wave nature of moving electron.
For the first order (n=1) diffraction maximum, the Bragg’s law is 2d sin 𝜙 = 𝜆
Where 𝜙 is glancing angle and d is interplanar spacing in the crystal. For nickel crystal d =
0.91A0
For scattering angle Ѳ = 500, glancing angle is

Electron beam
I
Ѳ
𝜙
𝑑
Scattered beam
𝜙
Ѳ
500 Atomic planes in Ni crystal

𝜙= (180 – Ѳ)/2 = (180 – 50)/2 = 650

𝜆= 2 x 0.91 x sin 650

= 1.65 A0

From de Broglie hypothesis, the wave length associated with electrons accelerated by 54 V
is
𝜆= 12.27 / √𝑉 A0 = 12.27 / √54 A0 = 1.67 A0

Thus there is an excellent agreement between experimental value determined by

Davisson and Germer and the theoretical value using de Broglie’s hypothesis. This proves
the existence of wave nature of electrons.
Note:
The wave nature of electrons have been utilised in the design of electron microscope
which can produce a high magnification of ≈ 1,00,000 over an optical microscope with a
magnification of ≈ 1500

95
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

96
ATOMS

12.ATOMS
Atom is the smallest particle of any matter which is invisible and further indivisible.
It was discovered by John Dalton.

A theoretical explanation for the structure of atom is called an atomic model.

Thomson’s model of atom: The first attempt to explain the structure of an atom
was made by Thomson. According to him

1. An atom consists of a sphere of diameter about 10-15 m in which the entire

mass and positive charges are uniformly distributed.
2. Electrons are embedded in the positive charged sphere just like seeds in a
water melon or plums in pudding.
3. Total positive charge of the atom is equal to the total negative charge.

Thomson’s model satisfactorily explains the electrical neutrality of an atom. It also

explains

thermionic emission.
Positively charged matter −
−
−
Electrons
− −
− −
−
−

Drawbacks:
1.It fails to explain the origin of spectral lines.
2.It could not account for large angle scattering of 𝛼 rays.
Rutherford’s 𝜶 particle scattering experiment or Geiger-Marsden experiment:
Hans Geiger and Ernst Marsden performed the alpha scattering experiment at the
suggestion of Rutherford. The experimental arrangement is as shown in the figure. S
is a radioactive source (83Bi214) contained in a lead cavity. Alpha particles of energy
5.5 MeV emitted by this source are collimated into a narrow beam with the help of a
lead slit. The collimated beam of alpha particles allowed to fall on a thin gold foil of
thickness 2.1 x 10-7 m. The alpha particles scattered in different directions are
observed through a rotatable detector consisting of a zinc sulphide screen and a
microscope. The alpha particle produce bright flashes or scintillations on the ZnS
screen. These are observed in the microscope and counted at different angles from
the direction of the incident beam. The angle of deviation of the alpha particle from
its initial direction is called scattering angle.
97
ATOMS

Lead slit
Gold foil ZnS Screen

Detector (Microscope)
The graph obtained by plotting the number of 𝛼 particles scattered at different angles
in a given time is as shown in figure

No of 𝛼 particles
scattered

900
• •
O Scattering angle  1800

Observations:

1. Most of the 𝛼 particles passed through the gold foil undeflected.

2. Some of the 𝛼 particles were deflected through small angles
3. A few 𝛼 particles (1 in 8000) were deflected through large angles (may be
greater than 900). Some of them even retraced their path i.e, angle of
deflection was 1800.

Conclusions of Rutherford’s 𝜶 particle experiment:

1. Most of the 𝜶 particles passed through the gold foil undeflected which lead
Rutherford to conclude that atom has lot of empty space in it.
2. The back scattering of 𝛼 particles lead Rutherford to conclude that most of
the positive charge and nearly the entire mass of the atom were
concentrated in a small central core called nucleus.

98
ATOMS

Rutherford’s atom model: The salient features of Rutherford’s atom model are:

1. The atom contains a positively charged tiny particle at its center called
atomic nucleus.
2. Most of the mass is concentrated in a atomic nucleus.
3. The size of the nucleus is extremely small which is about 10-15 m compared
to the size of the atom which is about 10-10m. Most of the space in an atom
is empty.
4. The negatively charged particles electrons revolve around the nucleus in the
circular orbits. The necessary centripetal force is provided by the
electrostatic force of attraction between the electron and the nucleus.
5. The number of revolving electrons is equal to the number of positive charges
in the nucleus hence atom is electrically neutral.

Alpha particle Trajectory: According to Rutherford, the scattering of 𝜶 particle is

due to repulsive force of the positive nucleus on the positively charged 𝜶 particle as
shown in the figure.

1
2
3
4 +
3l
2l
1l

The 𝛼 particles like 1 and 1 pass through the atom without any deflection. The
𝛼 particles like 2 and 2 which pass through the atom at a large distance from the
nucleus experience small repulsive forces due to nucleus and hence undergo very
small deflection. The 𝛼 particles such as 3 and 3 which pass closer to the nucleus
experience large repulsive forces and hence scatter through large angles. Very rarely
the 𝛼 particle such as 4 travels head on towards the nucleus. It shows down due to
the repulsive force of the nucleus, finally stops and is repelled back through an angle
of 1800.

As the 𝛼 particle approaches the nucleus, its kinetic energy decreases and potential
energy increases, when the 𝛼 particle is at a distance D from the nucleus, its KE
becomes zero. The distance D is the distance of closest approach. At this distance,
KE of the 𝛼 particle is completely converted in to PE and because of repulsion it
retraces its path.
99
ATOMS


𝛼 particle
b
•
Nucleus

The trajectory traced by an 𝛼 particle depends on the impact parameter (b). It is

perpendicular distance of initial velocity vector of the 𝛼 particle from the centre of the
nucleus. When the value of impact parameter b is large, the repulsive force
experienced by the 𝛼 particle is small so that 𝛼 particle is scattered through a small
angle. For small value of impact parameter the repulsive force on the 𝛼 particle is
large and is scattered through a large angle. For head on collision, the impact
parameter b = 0, so that scattering angle is 1800. It can be shown that impact
parameter b = D/2 cot /2
Where D is the distance of closest approach and  is the scattering angle.
Draw backs:
1. According to this model, electron continuously looses energy so it takes the
spiral path finally falls into the nucleus. Hence it does not account for
stability of the atom.
2. According to this model, electrons looses energy continuously. It should
result in a continuous spectrum, but atoms produce line spectra.
Electron orbits: According to Rutherford’s nuclear model, atom is an electrically
neutral sphere consisting of a very small massive and positively charged nucleus at
the centre surrounded by electrons revolving in their respective dynamically stable
orbits. The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and revolving
electron provides the necessary centripetal force to keep them in their orbits. For a
dynamically stable orbit in hydrogen atom
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2
Fe= Fc =
𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
𝑒2 𝑒2
𝑟= and mv2 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝑣 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
1 1 𝑒2 𝑒2
Kinetic energy of the electron is 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = ( ) = 8𝜋𝜖
2 2 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 0 0𝑟
1 (−𝑒)(𝑒) −𝑒 2
Potential energy of the electron is 𝑈 = =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
Negative sign indicates that revolving electrons are bounded to the nucleus
Total energy of the electron is
𝑒2 −𝑒 2 −𝑒 2
E= K+U = +( ) = 8𝜋𝜖
8𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 0𝑟

The total energy of the electron is negative. This implies that the electron is bound to
the nucleus and it will move in a closed stable orbit.

100
 ATOMS

Atomic spectra: When an atomic gas or vapour of 𝛼 particle at low pressure is

exited by passing an electric current through it, the gas or vapor emits radiation of
certain specific wavelengths. A spectrum of this kind is called line emission
spectrum, and it consists of a few bright lines on a dark background.
When white light is passes through the same gas of vapour, we observe some dark
and the transmitted light is analyzed using a spectrometer. Lines against bright
background. These dark lines or missing wavelength correspond precisely to those
wavelengths which are found in the line emission spectrum of the gas. This is called
line absorption spectrum of the gas.
Every gas or vapour has its own characteristic line emission or absorption spectrum
which shows that the line spectra serve as finger prints for identification of the gas.
91 nm 122 nm 365 nm 656 nm 820 nm 1875 nm

Layman series Balmer series Paschen series

Emission lines in Hydrogen spectrum

Spectral series: Emission line spectrum of a hydrogen shows that the spectral lines
are in groups. The spacing between lines within certain sets of the hydrogen
spectrum decreases in a regular way. Each of these sets is called a spectral series.
Balmer was the first to observe one such series in the visible region of the hydrogen
spectrum. This series is called Balmer series. The line with the longest wavelength
656.3 nm in the red region is called H line, the next line with  = 486.1 nm in the
blue-green is called H , third line 434.1 nm in the violet region is called H and so
on. As the wavelength decreases, the lines appear closer together and their intensity
goes on decreasing.

H H H Hβ Hα

1 1 1
Balmer found an empirical formula for the observed wavelengths = 𝑅 (22 − 𝑛2 )
𝜆

Where R is a constant called the Rydberg constant and its value is 1.097 x 107 m-1 .
n is an integer having values 3, 4, 5 etc.

𝐻𝛼 line n = 3, 𝜆= 656.3 nm

𝐻𝛽 line n = 4, 𝜆= 486.1 nm and so on

101
ATOMS

For n = ∞,  = 364.4 nm which is the limit of the Balmer series. This is the shortest
wavelength in the Balmer series. Beyond this limit, there are no further distinct lines.

Other series of spectra for hydrogen discovered later are Lumen, Paschen, Brackett
and Pfund series named after their discoveries. The empirical formula for these series
are the following
1 1 1
Layman series : 𝜆= 𝑅 [12 − 𝑛2 ] where n = 2, 3, 4…….

1 1 1
Paschen series: 𝜆= 𝑅 [32 − 𝑛2 ] where n = 4, 5…….

1 1 1
Brackett series: 𝜆= 𝑅 [42 − 𝑛2 ] where n = 5, 6…….

1 1 1
Pfund series: 𝜆= 𝑅 [52 − 𝑛2 ] where n = 6, 7…….

The Layman series is in the ultraviolet region where as the Paschen, bracket and
Pfund series are in infrared region. Since c = 𝛾𝜆, the Balmer formula can be written
as
1 1
𝛾 = RC [22 − 𝑛2 ]

Bohr model of the hydrogen atom: In view of the limitations of Rutherford atom
model, Neil’s Bohr came to the conclusion that classical mechanics and
electromagnetism could not be applied to the process on the atomic scale i.e., for
subatomic particles like electrons. Thus according to Bohr, the revolving electron in
the atom do not emit radiations under all conditions. He gave a new atom model in
the form of three postulates.

First postulate: An electron in an atom could revolve round the nucleus in certain
stable orbit without the emission of radiant energy. According to this postulate, each
atom can exist in certain definite total energy. These states are called the stationary
states of the atom. The orbits of electrons in these states is called stationary orbits or
non radiating orbits.

Second postulate: The electron revolves round the nucleus only in those orbits for
which the angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2𝜋 where h is the Plank’s
constant, the angular momentum of the orbiting electron is quantized. That is
𝑛ℎ
L= where n = 1, 2, 3….
2𝜋

Third postulate: An electron can make a transition from a stationary orbit of higher
energy to a stationary orbit of lower energy. In this process a photon is emitted
having energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final states

102
ATOMS

If 𝛾 is the frequency of the photon emitted when electron makes transition from a
higher energy state E2 to a lower energy state E1 then h𝛾 = E2 - E1

a. Radii of stationary orbits: Consider an electron of mass m and charge ‘-e’

revolving round a nucleus of charge Ze in a circular orbit of radius r with an
orbital velocity V. According to Bohr’s postulate, the centripetal force is
provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and
electron

𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑍𝑒 2
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

𝑍𝑒 2 Ze
2 -e
𝑚𝑣 𝑟 = …….. (1) r
4𝜋𝜖0
Angular momentum of the electron for nth orbit is
𝑛ℎ
mvr = …….. (2) Where n = 1, 2, 3 ………
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
𝑣=
2𝜋𝑚𝑟
From equation (1) we get
𝑍𝑒 2
(𝑚𝑣𝑟)𝑣 =
4𝜋𝜖0
𝑛ℎ 𝑛ℎ 𝑍𝑒 2
(2𝜋 ) (2𝜋𝑚𝑟) = 4𝜋𝜖
0

𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜖0 𝝐𝟎 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝑟= For hydrogen atom Z = 1 𝒓=
𝜋𝑚𝑧𝑒 2 𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐
Radius of first orbit of hydrogen atom is called base radius denoted by
𝜖0 ℎ2
r0 =
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
Substituting the values of 𝜖0 h, m and e we get r0 = 5.29 x 10 -11m

For a given atom Z being constant

r = K n2 r 𝛼 n2 r1 : r2 : r3 = 1 : 4 : 9
Hence stationary orbits are not equally spaced.

b. Velocity of electron in Bohr’s stationary orbit: The centripetal force is

provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the electron and the
nucleus.
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍𝑒 2
=  mv2r = ------ (1)
𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖0
103
ATOMS

Angular momentum of the electron in the nth stationary orbit is

𝑛ℎ
mvr = − − − − − (2)
2𝜋
Eqn 1 by 2 gives
𝑍𝑒 2
v=
2𝜖0 ℎ
For a given atom Z being constant v 𝛼 1/n. this shows that electrons in outer
orbits have lower speeds that those in inner orbits
𝑒2 𝑍 𝐶 𝑍
V= x = x
2𝜖0 ℎ 𝑛 137 𝑛
𝐶
For first orbit, V1 =
137
Speed of electron in the first orbit of hydrogen atom is 1/137 times the speed
of light.

c. Total energy of electron in a stationary orbit: An electron revolving in a

stationary orbit possess potential energy because it lies in the electric field of
nucleus and also possess KE by virtue of its motion.
The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and electron provides
the necessary centripetal force
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑍𝑒 2 1 1 𝑍𝑒 2
= 𝑚𝑣 2 = KE = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
The PE between two point charges q and q2 separated by a distance r is given
by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑍𝑒 2
PE = == −
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 4𝜋∈0 𝑟
 PE possessed by an electron due to the nucleus is given by:
E = KE + PE
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍𝑒 2
= – =−
2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 8𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
Substituting for ‘r’ we get
𝑍𝑒 2
E=− 𝜖 𝑛2 ℎ2
8𝜋𝜖0 0 2
𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑧

𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
E=−
8𝜖0 2 𝑛2 ℎ2
For hydrogen atom,Z=1
−𝒎𝒆𝟒
E=
𝟖𝝐𝟎 𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐

Note:
1. Negative sign shows that energy must be supplied to remove an electron
from its orbit i.e., electron is in a bound state
104
ATOMS

2. E  i/n2 As the value of n increases, En also increases on account of –ve

sign
3. Energy of electron in the nth orbit is
−𝑚𝑒 4 𝑍2
En = ×
8𝜖0 2 ℎ2 𝑛2
𝑍2
= -13.6 x eV
𝑛2
In hydrogen atom, E1 = -13.6 eV, E2 = 3.4 eV etc
1 𝑍𝑒 2
4. We have KE = 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
𝑍𝑒 2
PE = − 4𝜋𝜖
0𝑟

 PE = -27.2 eV, KE = 13.6 eV

5. As we go to higher orbits KE decreases but PE increases, so that total
energy increases

Origin of spectral lines in hydrogen: In normal state electron is in the lowest

energy state with n =1. When electron absorbs energy it jumps to higher orbit. In a
very short interval of time of the order 10-8 s the electron jumps back to lower orbit.
In this process the difference in energy between the two orbits is emitted in the form
of radiation. Let E1 and E2 be the energies of an electron in the lower orbit n1 and the
higher orbit respectively. When an electron jumps from higher orbit n2 to lower orbit
n1 then from Bohr’s frequency condition we have

h = E2 – E1

𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
But E = − 8𝜖 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2 For Hydrogen atom Z =1
0

𝑚𝑒 4 𝑚𝑒 4
h = − 8𝜖 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2 − (− 8𝜖 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2
)
0 2 0 1

𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
= 2 ℎ3
[𝑛 2 − 𝑛 2 ]
8𝜖0 1 2

If  be the wavelength of emitted radiation then  = C / 

𝐶 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
= [ 2 − 2]
 2 3
8𝜖0 ℎ 𝑛1 𝑛2

The reciprocal of wavelength is called wave number. It denotes the number of waves
present in one meter length of the medium.

1 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
 Wave number ̅ = 
= 8𝜖 2 ℎ3 [𝑛 2 − 𝑛 2 ]
0 1 2

1 1 1
̅ =  = 𝑅 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ]
1 2

105
ATOMS

𝒎𝒆𝟒
Where R = is a constant Rydberg constant. The experimental value of Rydberg
𝟖𝝐𝟎 𝟐 𝒉𝟑
constant is R = 1.097 x 107 m-1

The value of Rydberg constant and the wave numbers of spectral lines obtained from
this theory agree with experimentally determined value for hydrogen. The Bohr’s
theory explains the origin of spectral lines in hydrogen and hydrogen like atoms. For
hydrogen like atoms
1 1
̅ = Z2R [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ]
1 2

Spectral series of hydrogen atom: When an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from
higher orbit to lower orbit, the atom emits radiation of particular wavelength. It is
called a spectral line. The spectral lines of hydrogen atom are classified in to five
series:

1. Lyman series: The spectral lines corresponding to transition of electron from

higher energy orbit to the first orbit are called Layman series.
2. Balmer series: The spectral lines corresponding to transition of electron from
higher energy orbit to the second orbit are called Balmer series. The first
member of this series is known as H and second member is known as H and
so on.
3. Paschen series: The spectral lines corresponding to transition of electron from
higher energy orbit to the third orbit are called Paschen series.
4. Brackett series: The spectral lines corresponding to transition of electron from
higher energy orbit to the fourth orbit are called Brackett series.
5. Pfund series: The spectral lines corresponding to transition of electron from
higher energy orbit to the fifth orbit are called Pfund series.

Note:
1. Spectral lines corresponding to transition of an electron from n2 = ∞ to n1 in
any series is called the series limit and this corresponds to the shortest
wavelength of highest frequency in that series.
2. Longest wave length of shortest frequency in any series corresponds to n2 = n1
+1
3. The total number of possible transitions of an electron from the nth exited state
is given by n(n-1)/2.

106
ATOMS

Energy levels: (Energy level diagram)

It is a diagram in which the total energies of electron in different stationary orbits of

an atom are represented by parallel horizontal lines drawn according to some
suitable energy scale

The total energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom is

En = -13.6/n2 eV
 E1 = -13.6 eV, E2 = -13.6 /(2)2 = -3.4 eV
E3 = -13.6/32 = -1.51 eV etc
When the electron in hydrogen atom is in the ground state, it has the lowest energy
of -13.6eV. At room temperature nearly all the atoms of hydrogen are in the ground
state. When a hydrogen atom receives energy, the electron jumps to higher energy
levels. The atom is then said to be in an exited state. The energy required to excite an
electron in hydrogen atom to its first exited state is equal to E2-E1 = -3.4-(-13.6) =
10.2 eV, similarly energy required to excite an atom to second excited state = E3-E1 =
-0.51 – (-13.6) = 12.09 eV. In an excited state, the atom is unstable. After a short
interval, the electron fall back to a state of lower energy by emitting a photon.

Unbounded (ionized atom)

continuous
0 n= ∞
-0.85
n=4

-1.51 n=3

-3.4 n=2

-13.6 n=1

The total energy of electron for n = ∞ is zero. If electron is raised to this level then it
becomes free. The minimum energy required to free the electron from the ground
state of an atom is called ionization energy. For hydrogen atom it is 13.6 eV. The
difference between the adjacent levels goes on decreasing as the value of n increases.
Higher energies above En=0 represent the translation KE of the free electron. This
energy is not quantized and so all energies are allowed and the region is continuous.

107
ATOMS

The line spectra of the hydrogen atom: The discrete energy values of an electron in
hydrogen atom and the transitions responsible for spectral lines in different series
are represented in this spectrum. The horizontal lines correspond to discrete energy
values of the stationary of the electron. Vertical lines are drawn to show the different
transitions of the electrons between the orbits. The energy gap between the orbits
decreases as the orbit number increases

E (eV)

0 Ionized atom

n=5
-0.85
n=4 pfund series

Bracket series
-1.51 n=3
Paschen series

-3.4 n=2
Balmer series

Ground state
-13.6
n =1 Layman series

Ionization energy and excitation energy: The process of removing an electron from
its orbit to an infinite distance from the nucleus is called ionization.

The minimum energy required to remove the electron from the ground state of the
atom to infinite distance from the nucleus is called ionization energy. The minimum
potential difference to which an outside electron should be accelerated so that it
acquires KE just sufficient to ionize the atom by collision is called ionization
potential.

Ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV and ionization potential is 13.6 volt.
The process of transferring an electron from lower energy state to a higher energy
state is called excitation.

The energy required to transfer an electron from lower energy state to higher energy
state is called excitation energy.

The minimum potential difference to which an outside electron should be accelerated

so that it acquires KE just sufficient to excite an atom by collision is called excitation
potential. First excitation energy of hydrogen atom is 10.2 eV and first excitation
potential is 10.2V.

108
ATOMS

de Broglie’s explanation for Bohr’s second postulate of quantization:

According to Bohr, an electron can orbit around the nucleus only in those
orbits in which the angular momentum of the electron is equal to an integral multiple
ℎ 𝑛ℎ
of i.e., mvr = where n = 1, 2 …. Why should the angular momentum have only
2𝜋 2𝜋
those values that are integral multiples of h/2𝜋. Louis de Broglie, the electron in its
circular orbit must be seen as a particle wave. We know that when a stretched string
fixed at two ends is plucked, a large number of wave lengths are exited. However only
those wavelengths survive which have nodes at the ends and form the standing wave
in the string. It means that in a string, standing waves are formed when the total
distance travelled by a wave down the string and back is one wave length, two
wavelengths or any integral number of wavelengths. Waves with other wavelengths
interfere with themselves upon reflection and their amplitudes quickly decreases to
zero.

Hence according to de Broglie, a stationary orbit is that which contains an integral

number of de Broglie waves associated with the revolving electron.

For an electron revolving in nth circular orbit of radius rn,

Total distance travelled = circumference of the orbit = 2𝜋rn

For the permissible orbit, 2𝜋rn = n where n = 1, 2 …….

For a de Broglie wave, the wavelength is

 = h/p = h mVn

 2𝜋rn = n(h/mVn)

mVnrn = n h/2𝜋

This is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr for the angular momentum
of the electro. Thus de Broglie hypothesis provided an explanation for Bohr’s second
postulate for the quantization of angular momentum of the orbiting electron. The
figure illustrates a standing wave on a circular orbit for n =4 i.e., 2𝜋rn = 4

Nucleus
+
109
ATOMS

Limitations of Bohr atomic model:

1. It is applicable only to one electron atom. It cannot be extended even to two
electron atom such as Helium.
2. Fine structure of spectral lines cannot be explained.
3. It cannot give any information about the intensity of each spectral line.
4. It could not explain the splitting up of spectral lines in the presence of
magnetic field (Zeeman effect) and in the presence of electric field (Stark effect)
5. Bohr’s model considered only circular orbits while elliptical orbits are also
possible.

110
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Introduction: Rutherford developed the nuclear model of atom from the observations of his 𝛼 - ray
scattering experiment. According to this model, the entire mass of atom is located in its central part,
called the nucleus. Some other theories also have explained the stability of nucleus and liberation of
energy from it.

Composition of Nucleus: Nuclei are mainly composed of protons and neutrons. The total number
of protons and neutrons in a nucleus is equal to the mass number (A) of that atom. The number of
protons in the nucleus is equal to the atomic number ‘Z’ and (A-Z) is equal to the number of
neutrons (N). Symbolically ZXA represents nucleus of an atom of an element. ‘X’ stands for
chemical symbol of element A = Z + N.

PROTON: It is positively charged particle of charge 1.6 x 10-19c and has a mass 1.6726 x 10-27 kg.

NEUTRON: It is a chargless particle and has mass equal to 1.6750 x 10-27 kg

Isotopes Isobars Isotones Isomers

1. The nuclei having the 1. The nuclei 1. The nuclei 1. Nucleids with
same atomic number having same having same same atomic
(Z) but different mass mass number of number (Z) and
numbers (A) are called numbers (A) neutrons (A- mass numbers
Isotopes but different Z) but (A) but
atomic different different
numbers (Z) atomic nuclear
are called numbers (Z) properties like
Isobars in their radio activity
nuclei are and magnetic
called moments are
Isotones called isomers
2. Chemical properties 2. Chemical 2. Chemical 2. Chemical
are same properties properties properties
are different are different are same
3. Number of electrons 3. Number of 3. Number of 3. Number of
are same electrons are electrons are electrons are
different different same
4. Occupy same plane in 4. Occupy 4. Occupy 4. Occupy
periodic table different different same plane
plane in plane in in periodic
periodic periodic table
table table
5. Ex: 5. Ex: 5. Ex: 5. Ex:
16 17 18 3 3 7 8 80
80 , 80 , 80 1𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝐻 3𝐿𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4𝐿𝑖 ., 35Br
1 2 3 76 76 2 3 (stable)
1𝐻 , 1𝐻 , 1𝐻 32Ge and 34Se 1𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝐻𝑒 80
14 14
20 21 22
6𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7𝑁 3 4 35Br
10𝑁𝑒 , 10𝑁𝑒 , 10𝑁𝑒 1𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝐻𝑒
17 17 (radioactive)
80 𝑎𝑛𝑑 9𝐹 80Hg
198
and 79Au197
40 39
20Ca and 19K

111
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

The dimensions of Nucleus:

SIZE OF NUCLEUS: The scattering experiment of Rutherford has shown that estimated size of
the nucleus is of the order of 10-15 m where as the diameter of an atom is of the order of 10-10m.
Therefore most of the atom is empty. To a first approximation, nucleus may be considered as a
sphere whose radius is determined quite accurately by the formula

V 𝛼 A where V = volume of the nucleus and A = mass number

4/3 𝜋R3 𝛼 A

R 𝛼 A1/3 => R = R0 A1/3

R0 = proportionality constant
= 1.4 x 10-15 m = 1.4 fm
R = 1.4 x 1015 x A1/3 m
VOLUME: As the radius of nucleus varies as A1/3, the volume of nucleus is obtained as

V = 4/3 𝜋R3 = 4/3 𝜋 (R0 A1/3)3 = 4/3 𝜋R03A

DENSITY: Density is the mass per unit volume
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐴 ×1.66 × 10−27
D = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 4
( )𝜋(1.4 ×10−15 )3 𝐴
3

= 1.444 x 1017 kg/m3

From the above expression it is clear that density of nucleus is independent of mass number.

MASS: The atomic mass unit (amu) is defined to be one-twelfth of the actual mass of the 6C12
isotope of carbon, and is equal to 1.66 x 10-27kg

According to Avogadro’s hypothesis the number of atoms in 12g of 6C

12
is equal to Avogadro
number. i.e 6.023 x 1023.
12
The mass of one carbon atom (6C12) = 6.023 × 1023 = 1.99 × 10−26 𝑘𝑔

1 amu = (1/12) x 1.99 x 10-26 kg

1 amu = 1.66 x 10-27 kg this gives the relation between amu and SI unit of mass.

Using Einstein’s mass energy relation E = mc2, mass can be be expressed in terms of energy.

1 amu = (1.66 x 1027 kg) x (2.998 x 108 m/s)2

= 1.4925 x 10-10 J

Since 1 MeV = 1.602 x 10-13 J

1 amu = 1.4295 x 10-10/1.602 x 10-13 = 931.5 MeV

112
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Definition of Electron volt : It is the amount of the energy that would be imparted to an electron on
being accelerated through a potential difference of one volt is called an electron volt. The product of
electron charge and the potential difference results in energy. Therefore we have

1 eV = (1.602 x 10-19 C) x (IV) = 1.602 x 10-19J

1 MeV = 106 eV = 1.602 x 10-13 J.

Mass Defect and Binding energy: The difference between the rest mass of an atom and the sum of
the masses of the constituent particles is known as mass defect. It is denoted by m.

Consider a nucleus of atom zXA. It contains Z protons, (A-Z) neutrons, therefore Mass of the
constituent nucleons = Zmp + (A-Z)mn. Where mp and mn are the masses of proton and neutrons
respectively. If mn is the mass of nucleus of the atom zXA, then the mass defect is given by m =
[Zmp + (A-Z)mn] – mN.

In terms of mass of atom

m = [Zmp + (A-Z)mn] – m(zXA).

Mass defect per nucleon of the nucleus is defined as packing fraction.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐴−𝑀
Packing fraction = =
𝐴 𝐴

Binding energy: The minimum energy required to split the nucleus into its constituent nucleons is
known as B.E (or)

The energy equivalent to the mass defect is known as the binding energy of nucleus. (or)

It is defined as the energy released when protons and neutrons combine to form a nucleus.

Calculation of binding energy: According to mass energy relation, Binding energy BE = mc2
Joules. Here mass defect is measured in kg. In case, the mass defect is measured in amu, then
Binding energy of The nucleus = (m) x 931.5 MeV

Binding fraction: Binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus is called Binding fraction. Binding
fraction

BE= (Binding energy of the nucleus) /A. The higher value of the binding fraction indicated
comparatively greater stability of the nucleus.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number: The graph is obtained by plotting
𝐵.𝐸
the binding energy per nucleon ( ), as a function of mass number ‘A’ for various nuclei, such
𝐴
curve is shown in figure. The binding energy curve has the following features.
4
He 56Fe
12
C •
Binding 8 ¯
• •-16 O
236
U
energy per • • •
14
nucleon 6 N
Mev •6
4 Li

2
¯•
І І І І І І І І І І І І
20 40 60 80 100 120 160 180 220 240

Mass Number (A)

1. With the exception of the lighter nuclei, the average B.E/ A is around 8.8 MeV. This shows
that the nuclear force saturates.
2. The curve has a maximum around A = 60. This means that nuclei with mass numbers
around 60 have the greater stability. So 26Fe56 is most stable.
3. The decline in the curve at high mass numbers tells us that energy can be released by
breaking a single heavy nucleus into two smaller fragments. The mass number of each of the
two smaller fragments will be greater than 60. Such a process is called nuclear fission. Ex:
238
92U has relatively low BE per nucleon as 7.6 Mev. To attain greater stability, it break up
into two nuclei of intermediate mass.
4. The steep decline in the curve at low mass numbers indicated that energy will also be
released if two very light nuclides combine to form a single nucleus will be less than 60.
This process is called nuclear fusion.
5. Certain “kinks” in the B.E curve on the side of low mass numbers signify the exceptionally
higher B.E per nucleon of the nuclide than its neighbours.
6. In the region of smaller mass numbers, the B.E curve shows certain minima and maxima
odd number of protons and neutrons. Maxima are associated with nuclei having an even
number of protons and nucleons.

Natural Radioactivity: In 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity in

potassium uranyl sulphate. (Uranium salt)
The nuclei of certain elements disintegrate spontaneously by emitting alpha (𝛼), beta (𝛽) and
gamma (𝛾) rays. This phenomenon is called natural radioactivity.
𝜶 Radiation: If the nucleus of a radioactive element emits an 𝛼 ray ( 2He4 ). Its atomic number ‘Z’
decreases by two units and its mass number A decreases by four units and atom is transformed into
the atom of another element whose place moves left in the periodic table by two places from parent
element so formed is called daughter element.
The general equation of 𝛼 - decay can written as
A A-4
ZP Z-2 D + 2 He 4

Parent Nucleus Daughter Nucleus 𝛼 particle

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

226 222
Ex: 88 Ra 86 Rn + 2 He 4

Radium Radon 𝛼 particle

𝜷 –Radiation: If the nucleus of a radioactive element emits a 𝛽 ray ( -1e0 ), tis atomic number
increases by 1 and atomic mass number remains same and the atom is transformed into atom of
another element whose place moves right in the periodic table by one place from parent element.
The general equation of 𝛽 -decay can be written as
A A 0
ZP Z+1 D + -1 e
Parent Nucleus Daughter Nucleus 𝛽 particle
234 234 0
Ex: 90 Th 91 Pa + -1 e
Thorium Protactinium 𝛽 particle

Note:

1. Both electric charge and neutron number are conserved in 𝛼-decay and 𝛽 decay.
2. In 𝛽 –decay, a neutron is transformed into a proton and an electron. The electron is emitted
with high speed as 𝛽 -ray.
n → P+ + e - + 𝑣̅ (anti neutrino)
3. No two particles are emitted simultaneously by the same atom. Either an 𝛼 -particle or a 𝛽
particle is emitted by an atom at a time

𝜸 Radiation: 𝜸 rays are nothing but electromagnetic radiations of short wave lengths. The
emission of 𝜸 ray from the nucleus do not change its atomic number and mass number.

Properties of 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠

𝜶 rays 𝜷 rays 𝜸 rays

1. They are Helium nuclei 1. They are fast moving 1. They are
or doubly ionised electrons coming from electromagnetic waves
Helium atoms the nucleus. of wavelengths less than
1A0 having no charge.
2. They are deflected by 2. They are deflected in 2. They are not deflected
electric and magnetic electric and magnetic by electric and magnetic
fields through small fields in a direction fields.
angles opposite to that of 𝛼
rays but in larger
angles.
3. They can ionise the gas 3. They can ionise the gas 3. They can ionise the gas
through which they through which they through which they
pass and the ionising pass. Their ionising pass. But the ionising
power is 100 times that power is 1/100 th of the power is less than that
of 𝛽 rays and 1000 𝛼 rays and 100 times to of 𝛼 and 𝛽 rays,
times to that of 𝛾 rays 𝛾 rays
4. They can penetrate 4. They can penetrate 4. They can penetrate
through matter. The through matter. The through matter. The
penetrating power is penetrating power is penetrating power is
1/1000 the of 𝛽 rays 100 times that of 𝛼 rays more than that of 𝛼 and
and 1/10000 th of 𝛾 but 1/100 th of 𝛾 rays 𝛽 rays,
rays
115
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

5. These are particles 5. These are particles 5. These are photons

6. Their velocities are in 6. Their velocities are in 6. They travel with the
the order of 106 m/s the order of 1/10 th of speed of light
the speed of light
7. They affect 7. They affect 7. They affect
photographic plate photographic plates photographic plates
8. They cause 8. They cause 8. They cause fluorescence
fluorescence fluorescence

𝑑𝑁
Law of radioactive decay or disintegration: the rate of radioactive decay ( 𝑑𝑡 ) i.e the number of
nuclei decaying per unit time at any instant, is directly proportional to the number of nuclei N
present at that instant and is independent of the external physical conditions like temperature,
pressure etc.

Let ‘N’ be the number of radioactive atoms present at a time ‘t’. Let dN atoms disintegrate in time
𝑑𝑁
‘dt’. According to the law of radioactive decay ( 𝑑𝑡 ) 𝛼 𝑁

𝑑𝑁
( 𝑑𝑡 ) = −𝜆 𝑁 − − − (1) the proportionality constant 𝜆 is called decay constant or disintegration
constant.

The negative sign indicates that as time increases N decreases.

𝑑𝑁
From eqn (1) = −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁

Integrating on both sides

𝑑𝑁
∫ = 𝜆 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑁

No. Of Exponential decay

logeN = - 𝜆t + C ...... 2
radioactive
nuclei
Here C is the constant of integration

At t = 0, N = N0 substituting in equation (2),

We get logeNo = C Z

 logeN = - 𝜆t + logeNo
O
 logeN - logeNo = - 𝜆t Time t

𝑁
loge(𝑁 ) = - 𝜆t
0

𝑁
= 𝑒 − 𝜆t
𝑁0

N = N0𝑒 − 𝜆t

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Half life period: The time required for one half of the original radioactive nuclei of the substance to
disintegrate is known as its half life period. It is denoted by T.
𝑁
From eqn (3) 𝑁 = 𝑒 − 𝜆t
0

𝑁0 ••••
When N = ,𝑡= T ••••
2 ••••
••••
1/2 = 𝑒 − 𝜆t or 2 = 𝑒 𝜆t or loge2 = 𝜆t No. Of
radioactive
2.303 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 0.693 nuclei
T= = 1 ••••
𝜆 𝜆
2
N0 ••••
0.693
T= 1
𝜆 N0
4 ••••
The following table and graph shows the number 1
N0 ••
8
of radioactive nuclei ‘N’ of the substance at time ‘t’ T 3T 4T
O 2T
Time (t) 0 T 2T 3T ∞
Number of Nuclei N0 N0/2 N0/4 N0/8 0
present (N)

The half life period depends upon the disintegration constant of substance and is different for
different substances.

For Ex:

(i) Uranium 92U238 has half life of 4.47 x 109 years

(ii) Krypton [36K89 ]has a half life of 3.16 minutes

Note: When a radioactive substance of mass M0 reduces to ‘M’ in a time ‘t’ equal to ‘x’ times the
𝑀0
half life (T) then = 2x
𝑀

Average life period or mean life: It is the ratio of the total life of all the atoms present in the
sample to the total number of atoms present in the sample.

Let N0 be the ratio active nuclei that are present at t = 0 in the radioactive sample.

The number of nuclei which decay between t and (t + dt) is dN i.e the life time of these nuclei is ‘t’

 The total life time of these dN nuclei is (t dN)

𝑡=𝛼
 The total life time of all the nuclei present initially in the sample = ∫𝑡=0 𝑡𝑑𝑁 [∵ 𝑁 =
0 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦]
∫ 𝑡𝑑𝑁
Average life time 𝜏 = 𝑁0

−𝑑𝑁
But = 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

dN = - 𝜆𝑁𝑑𝑡

= - 𝜆N0𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (∵N = N0𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 )

𝛼 𝜆No 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝜏 = ∫0 𝑡 dt
No

Hint : ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫[𝑓 −1 (𝑥) ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥]𝑑𝑥 on integrating we get

1 0.693 𝑇
𝜏 = 𝜆 but T = 𝜏 = = 1.44𝑇
𝜆 0.693

−𝑑𝑁
Note: The absolute value of the quantity ( ) gives the number of nuclei that decays in unit time.
𝑑𝑡
This is called activity of the sample

 Activity of radioactive sample = 𝜆𝑁

The S.I unit for activity of a radioactive substance is becquerel
1 becquerel = 1 disintegration / second
The popular unit of activity is curie (Ci) = activity of 1 gm of pure radium
1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/ sec = 3.7 Bq
Nuclear forces:
Definition: The strong attractive force between the nucleons inside the nucleus is called the nuclear
force.

Properties of nuclear force:

1. Nuclear forces are attractive forces between proton and neutron (p-n), proton and proton (p-
p) and neutron and neutron (n-n). The relative strengths of gravitational, coulomb and
nuclear forces are in the ratio Fg : Fe : Fn = 1: 1036: 1038
2. Nuclear forces are charge independent. It was found that nuclear force between two protons
is same as that between a proton and a neutron or between two neutrons.
3. Nuclear forces are the strongest in nature.
4. Nuclear forces are short range forces. Short range means, they are applicable within the
distances of the order of 10-15. At greater distances more than 2fm these forces are
negligible.
5. Nuclear forces are spin dependent. That is they depend upon the orientation of the spin of
nucleons. Forces between nucleons are strong when spins are parallel and weak spins are
anti-parallel.
6. Nuclear forces are non-central forces which implies that they do not act along the line
joining the two nucleons.
7. Nuclear forces are saturated forces. It means that each nucleon attracts only those nucleons
which are its immediate neighbours. It does not interact with all the nucleons of the
nucleons.
8. Nuclear forces are exchange forces. The nuclear forces between the two nucleons is the
result of the exchange of 𝜋 mesons (𝜋0 , 𝜋+ , 𝜋-) between them.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Nuclear fission: The process of splitting of an atomic nucleus into two parts of comparable mass,
with liberation of energy is called fission. Otto Hahn and Strassmann recognised nuclear fission for
the first time.

Explanation: As heavy nuclei such as uranium, plutonium and thorium etc have lower values of
binding energy per nucleon than nuclei of intermediate masses such as barium, krypton, lanthanum,
bromine and iron etc. Thus splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of comparable mass
will result in release of energy. One such fission reaction may be represented by the equation.

92U
235 + 0n1 → [92U236] → 56U
141 + 36Kr
92 + 30n1 + 200 Mev
energy

The energy released in such a nuclear fission reaction comes out to be 200 MeV. Neils Bohr and
J.A Wheeler explained the nuclear fission on the basis of liquid drop model of nucleus. The 92U235
nucleus behaves like a liquid drop. The liquid drop is spherical in shape due to its surface tension.
Similarly the nucleus is in spherical shape due to nuclear force. When the neutron strikes the
nucleus, some energy called the excitation energy is imparted to the nucleus. This energy tries to
deform the shape of compound nucleus and strong oscillations are set up in it. If the excitation
energy is sufficiently large the nucleus gets ellipsoidal shape and then dumb bell. Then the nuclear
attractive force decreases between the two parts of dumb-bell, as the distance between them
increases and the coulomb repulsice force dominates the nuclear attractive force and breaks the
nucleus into two fragments as ‘Ba’ and ‘Kr’ and 3 neutrons.
1
141 n 92
Ba Kr
56 0 34

1
0n 235
92U
1 1
n n (c) Fission fragments and neutrons
(a) Nucleus in (b) Exited Nucleus (c) Nucleus 0 0
spherical shape in ellipsoidal shape in dumb-bell shape

The neutrons which are liberated immediately after fission are called prompt neutrons (99%)

The neutrons which are liberated few seconds after the fission are called decayed neutrons (1%).
They play an important role in the running of nuclear reactor.

Fission of different elements:

1. U238 undergoes fission with fast neutrons whose kinetic energies are greater than 1 MeV.
2. U235 undergoes fission with slow neutrons or thermal neutrons whose KE are nearly 0.025
eV.
3. Th232 undergoes fission with fast neutrons.
4. Pu239 undergoes fission with fast as well as slow neutrons.
5. U235 and Pu239 are used as fuels in nuclear reactor.

Fission with different Projectiles:

Fission can be produced not only with neutrons but also with proton or a deuteron or an 𝛼 particles.

Ex: 1. Fission of U and Th is possible with high speed protons with energy 6.9 MeV, or with
deuterons of energy greater than 8 MeV or by 𝛼 particles of energy 32 MeV.
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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Note: When U235 is bombarded with thermal neutrons causing fission may take place in 30 or more
different ways. More than 20 elements have been found among the fission products. 2 of 3 neutrons
are released in each fission.

On an average 2.5 neutrons are released per fission.

Chain reaction: In each fission nearly 3 neutrons are released. They cause further fission in three
more U235 nuclie and 9 neutrons are released. These nine neutrons split nine more nuclei and release
27 neutrons. As this process continues, the number of neutrons released increases in G.P and this
process is called chain reaction.

If this process is allowed to continue, within a short time infinite amount of energy will be released
and will cause disaster. If the number of neutrons can be controlled at every stage of the chain
reaction it is called controlled chain reaction.

92 141
36Kr 92U
235 56Kr

n n n Energy

Energy

235
Ba Ba
Kr 92U 235 92U
235 Ba
Kr 92U Kr
Energy
n n n Energy
n n n n n n

Neutron multiplication factor ‘K’ and conditions for sustained chain reaction:

1. Fast neutrons should be converted into slow neutrons by passing them through moderators.
2. At least one thermal neutron should be available to start the fission reaction.
3. The state of the chain reaction depends on the neutron multiplication factor ‘K’. It is defined
as
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐾=
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
If K < 1, the number of neutrons in successive generation decreases. The chain reaction
cannot continue. It is called sub-critical state.
If K = 1, the chain reaction continues at a steady rate and the chain reaction can be
controlled. This condition is used in nuclear reactor. It is called critical state.
If K>1, the number of neutrons increases and the nuclear reaction is said to be uncontrolled.
This is used in atom bomb.
4. A critical mass of uranium is required. If the mass of uranium is too small, the neutron may
escape without participating further fission. So to start the fission reaction mass of the
material should be more than the critical mass or critical size.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Nuclear Reactor:

Principle: A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission can be carried out through a
sustained and a controlled chain reaction. It is also called an atomic pile. By making use of uranium
as fuel, the products such as neutrons (useful for causing fission of uranium), radio isotopes and
heat energy (to run turbines) are produced.

Construction: A nuclear reactor consists of thick blocks of carbon surrounded by thick absorbing
walls of concrete as shown in fig. The other parts of the nuclear reactor are as follows.

1. Nuclear fuel: The fissionable material used in the reactor is called nuclear fuel. It generally
consists of natural uranium. Enriched uranium, plutonium and U233 in the form of rods
sealed in aluminium cylinders. These cylinders are inserted in the holes drilled in the carbon
blocks.
2. Moderators: The purpose of the moderator is to show down the fast moving neutrons
produced as a result of nuclear fission (from 2 MeV to 0.025 ev). Some of the suitable
materials used as moderators are heavy water, carbon in the form of pure graphite, ordinary
water, Hydrocarbon plastics etc.
3. Control Rods: These are the material used in the nuclear reactors that can absorb the
neutrons and control the nuclear chain reaction. when the control rods are completely
inserted into the carbon blocks, they absorb neutrons to such an extent that the chain
reaction completely comes to a halt. Cadmium and Boron rods are generally used for this
purpose.
4. Shielding: Nuclear radiations like 𝛽and 𝛾 rays are emitted in addition to neutrons in fission.
Suitable shielding such as steel, lead and concrete walls are provided around the reactor to
reduce the intensity of radiations to such an extent that they do not harm the operating
personnel near the reactor
5. Coolant: A large amount of heat is developed in the reactor due to the chain reaction. This
must removed. Water or liquid sodium us used to remove heat. These substances which
remove heat from the reactor and keep it at a reasonable low temperature are celled coolants,

Working: A single neutron starts fission of U235 or the nuclear fuel and the controlled chain
reaction takes place because of moderators and control rods. The heat generated here is
absorbed by a suitable coolant and is carried to the boiler which in turn heat the ordinary water

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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

and produce steam. This steam is made to rotate steam turbine and thereby drive a generator for
production of electric power.

Nuclear radiation hazards: Generally 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 and neutron radiations are called nuclear
radiations. If the human body is exposed to such radiation, living cells are damaged. This
damage is classified as somatic and genetic.

1. If the organism is affected dwing its own life time then such damage is called somatic
damage Ex: skin rash, cancer and cataract.
2. The genetic damage causes gene mutations themselves in the organisms. This damage
extends to the future generations. Ex: A person whose genes have undergone mutations by
radiation may have deformed offspring.

Note: The extent of damage to the human beings due to the radiations depends upon

i. The intensity
ii. Nature of the exposed part
iii. Duration of the exposure.

Protective shielding: Leakage of radioactive radiations from nuclear ractor leads to radiation
hazards. The mechanism by which any living organism is protected from these harmful radiations is
called protective shielding

i. Thick rubber covers are used to shield from 𝛼- rays

ii. Aluminium sheets are used to shield from 𝛽- rays
iii. Lead and cadmium blocks and concrete wall of thickness 10m are used to shield from
𝛾 rays and neutrons.

Types of reactors: Main types of Nuclear reactors are two types

1. Breeder reactor
2. Power reactor
1. Breeder reactor: It converts non fissionable 92U238 into fissionable 94Pu239. This reactor
produces or “breeds” more fuel than it consumes.
When U238 is bombarded with fast neutrons, Pu239 is produced by the following nuclear reaction.
92U
238
+ 0n
1
→ 92U
239

92U
239
→ 92Np
239
+ -1e
0

92Np
239
→ 94Pu
239
+ -1e
0

A typical breeder reactor consists of a small core of natural uranium U238 enriched with U235. It is
surrounded by a shell containing of natural uranium U238. If the enrichment of U235 is sufficiently
large, a chain reaction can be sustained by fast neutrons without the need for a moderator. When
U235 undergoes intial fission the number of fast neutrons available for further fission on an
average is 2.5, out of which one neutron will be used for sustaining the chain reaction and the
remaining more than 1.5 neutrons will be allowed to escape from the core to the shell. The
natural uranium in the shell captures these neutrons and finally produces plutonium as shown in
the above reactions.
Thus the breeder reactor produces more fissionable material in the shell than it consumes in the
core.

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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

2. Power reactor: In this nuclear reactor large amount of heat will be generated in the core.
Coolent absorbs this heat and produces steam. This steam in turn run the steam turbines and
generated electric power. So it is called power reactor.
The power generated by nuclear reactor with U235 as fuel is P = rate of fission x energy released
per fission.
P = n/t × 200 MeV = n/t × 200 × 1.6 × 10-13 J

Uses of nuclear reactors:

1. To generate electric power

2. To produce nuclear fuel plutonium Pu239 and other radio isotopes which have many
applications in the fields of medicine, industry and research.

Nuclear fission: The process of the formation of a single stable nucleus by fusing (combining) two
or more lighter nuclei is called nuclear fission

Some energy is released in this process which is called fusion energy.

Eg: Fusion reaction for the formation of Helium nucleus by fusing four hydrogen nuclei and
releasing 25.71 MeV of energy

41H1 → 2He
4
+ 2+1e0 + 25.71 MeV

In the above reaction the mass of the helium nucleus is smaller than the sum of the masses of the
four protons. This difference in the masses appears as liberation of energy in the fusion process.

Note:

1. In fission of U235, 0.1% mass of uranium is converted into energy i.e 0.85 Mev energy is
released per nucleon.
2. In the fusion of four protons, 0.7% of mass of Hydrogen is converted into energy i.e 6 Mev
energy is released per nucleon.

So fusion energy per nucleon is about 7 times the fission energy per nucleon. To carryout
fusion of two nuclei, they must be brought very close (1 fermi) to each other so that they
overcome the repulsive force. This is only possible at very high temperatures nearly equal to
107 K that is why nuclear fusion reaction are called thermo nuclear reactions.

Nuclear fusion takes place in sun and stars. It is used in the preparation of Hydrogen bomb.

Energy from SUN and STARS: Sun and stars have bee radiating huge amounts of energy by
nuclear fusion reactions taking place in their core. Where the temperature is of the order 107 K or
more.

Scientists proposed two types of cyclic process for the source of energy in the sun and stars. They
are

1. Carbon- Nitrogen cycle

2. Proton – proton cycle

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Carbon – Nitrogen cycle: Bothe suggested the following Carbon-Nitrogen cycle as one of the most
important nuclear reactions for the production of solar energy by fusion. This cycle consists of
nuclear reactions in which hydrogen is converted into Helium, with the help of carbon and nitrogen
as catalysts. These are as given below.

1H
1
+ 6C
12
→ 7N
13
+ 𝛾ray
7N
13
→ 6C
13
+ 1e
0
+ 𝜐 (neutrino)
1H
1
+ 6C
13
→ 7N
13
+ 𝛾ray
1H
1
+ 7N
14
→ 8O
15
+ 𝛾ray
8O
15
→ 7N
15
+ 1e
0
+ 𝜐 (neutrino)
1H
1
+ 7N
15
→ 6C
12
+ 2He
4

The entire cycle can be summed up as

41H1 → 2He
4
+ 21e0 + 3𝛾 + 2 v
The energy released during this process is 25.71 Mev
Proton – Proton cycle:
1H
1
+ 1H
1
→ 1H
2
+ 1e
0
+v ...... (a)
1 H1
+ 1 H2
→ 2 He 3
+ 𝛾 ...... (b)
The above fusion reactions (a) and (b) must occur twice to yield two 2He3 nuclei. Therefore next
reaction can be written as
2He
3
+ 2He
3
→ 2He
4
+ 21H1 + energy

The net result of the above reactions is that 4 protons are fused to produce as 𝛼 particle and a few
other particles and release of a total energy 25.71 Mev
41H1 → 2He
4
+ 21e0 + 2𝛾 + 2v ......... (10,13)
This type of proton-proton cycle takes place in stars called red-dwarfs.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

125
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

126
SEMICONDUCTORS

14.SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Any device whose action is based on the controlled flow of electrons through it is called an
electronic device.

The branch of physics that deals with the study of these electronic devices is called
electronics. Electronic devices are the basic building blocks of all the electronic circuits.

Electronic devices are of two types:

a. Vacuum tubes: Vacuum tubes like vacuum diode with two electrodes, triodes with
three electrodes etc are bulky, consume high power and operate at high voltages.
They have limited life and low reliability. As the electron can flow only in one
direction, vacuum tubes are also known as vacuum valves.
b. Semiconductor devices: Semiconductor devices like junction diode, transistor,
integrated circuits etc are small in size, consume low power and operate at low
voltages. They have long life and high reliability. It does not require any heating and
it starts operating as soon as it is switched on and they are cheaper than vacuum
tubes.

Classification of solids on the basis of their electrical properties:

On the basis of relative values of electrical resistivity and conductivity solids are classified
into three types

1. Metals: These are solids which have low resistivity. The resistivity of metals is in
the range of 10-2 to 10-8 ΩSm-1 and conductivity of metals is in the range 102 to 108
Sm-1 Eg: Silver, copper, aluminium etc.
2. Semiconductor: These are solids which have electrical resistivity or conductivity
intermediate to metals and insulators. Their resistivity is in the range 10-5 to 106
Ωm and conductivity is in the range 105 to10-6 Sm-1. On the basis of their chemical
composition the semiconductors can be divided into elemental and compound
semiconductors. Elemental semiconductors: These are the semiconductors
consisting of a single element. Eg: Germanium, Silicon
Compound semiconductors: These are the
semiconductors consisting of two or more elements.
Inorganic: Cadmium sulphate, Indium phosphate, Gallium arsenide etc
Organic: Anthracene, doped pthalocyanines etc
Organic polymers: Polypyrrole, polyaniline etc
3. Insulators: These are the solids which have high electrical resistivity or low
conductivity. Their resistivity is in the range 1011 to 1019 Ωm and conductivity is in
the range 10-11 to 1019 Sm-1. Eg: Rubber, plastic, glass etc.

Classification of solids on the basis of energy bonds: The electrons have well defined
energy levels for a free atom as shown in figure. Due to the interaction of electrons of one
atom with the electrons of neighbouring atoms in a solid, there is a change in the energy
levels. The sharp energy levels are broadening into energy bands as shown in figure:

The range of energies the electrons of the particular orbit is atom of a solid can possess is
called an energy band.

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SEMICONDUCTORS

Isolated atom Solid

The highest energy band which in completely or partially filled at ero Kelvin is called
valance band. The next higher energy band which may be partially filled at room
temperature but completely empty at zero Kelvin is called the conduction band. In
between the valance band and conduction band there is another band called forbidden
band or energy gap.

Classification of solids based on band theory

Based on the separation between the valance and conduction bands,solids are classified
as conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
Conductors:Here,the conduction band and valance band are overlapped on each other i.e
the energy gap is zero. Electrons are free to move within the substance from valance band
to conduction band. As a result, a very large number of electrons are available for
conduction and hence these materials possess high electric and thermal conductivities.

Conduction Band

Eg=0
Valence Band

Note: The highest energy level in the conduction band filled up with electrons at absolute
zero is called Fermi level and the energy corresponding to the Fermi level is called Fermi
energy.

Insulators: In insulators the band gap is more than 3eV. No electrons are found in the
conduction band so the electrical conduction is not possible. The valance band is
completely filled while the conduction band is completely empty. A very high electric field
is required to push the valance electrons to the conduction band. Hence the electrical
conductivity of such materials is extremely small and may be regarded as nil under
ordinary condition. Diamond has energy gap of about 6eV.

Conduction band

Eg > 3eV

Valence band

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SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors: The materials in which energy gap is less than 3eV are called
semiconductors. At room temperature some electrons from valance band can acquire
enough energy to cross the energy gap and pass to the conduction band. These electrons
take part in conduction. The electrons leave behind vacancies or holes in the valance band
and both electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valance band contribute for
conduction. Their characteristics lies in between that of conductors and insulators.
Conduction band

Eg < 3eV

Valance band

Types of semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors: A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor.
Si and Ge are widely used in semiconductor technology. This is because both of them are
available in their pure form and can be crystallised easily. Both Si and Ge are tetravalent.
Each of the valance electrons forms a covalent bond with one valance electron of
neighbouring Ge atom as shown in figure. At zero Kelvin Ge crystal has completely filled
valance band and are empty conduction band and hence it behaves like an insulator.

• •

• G • G •
•
e e
• •
• • • • •
•
G G G • G •
• G • • G • • • • • •
e e e e
e e • • •
• • • •
• •

• G • G •
•
e e
• • Free
electron

At 0 K At 0 K

As temperature increases some electrons gain energy and come out of atom by breaking
covalent bond. When an electron jumps from the valance band to the condition band a
vacancy called hole is created. It has an effective charge +e. When an electric field is
applied, electrons move towards positive potential while the holes move towards negative
potential. If Ie is the current due to the electrons and IG is the current due to the holes
then the net current I = Ie + IG. In intrinsic semiconductor the number of free electrons ne
and the number of holes nh are always equal.
ne = nh = ni where ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.
Along with the process of generation of conduction electrons and holes, a simultaneous
process of recombination of electrons and holes occur. At equilibrium, the rate of
generation is equal to the rate of recombination.

129
SEMICONDUCTORS

An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like insulator at 0 k with filled valance band and
empty conduction band. At T>0 k, some electrons are excited to the conduction band
leaving behind equal number of holes in the valance band. As temperature increases,

Eg Conduction • Eg •
band • •

•
• • Valance
•
band
At T = 0 K At T > 0 K

more and more electrons move to the conduction band. As a result conductivity increases
with rise in temperature

Extrinsic semiconductor: When impurities are added to an intrinsic semiconductor, then

it is called as extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding impurities is called doping
and the impurity added is called doping agent of dopant. The dopant has to be such that it
does not distort the original pure semiconductor lattice. Therefore the sizes of the dopant
and the semiconductor atoms should be nearly the same. Doping with impurities alters
the electrical properties of the semiconductor and improves its conductivity drastically.
The dopants are added to molten silicon or germanium during crystal growth in very small
amount i.e, aout 1 in 106.Depending upon the nature of impurities added, the extrinsic
semiconductors are of two types. One type of impurity called doner (pentavalent)
produces excess of electrons and the resulting semiconductor is called n-type
semiconductor. Other type of impurity called acceptor (trivalanet) produces vacant sites
called holes and the resulting semiconductor is called p-type semiconductor.

n-type semiconductor: Silicon or Germanium doped with pentavalent impurities like

phosphorous, antimony, arsenic etc is called n-type semiconductorGe atoms have four
valance electrons, each of which is covalently bonded with one of the four adjacent Ge
atoms. If an atom with five valance electrons is added to the crystal lattice in the place of
Ge atom, then that atom will have four covalent bonds and on unbonded electron as
shown in the figure. This electron will have very less ionisation energy. So that it can be
made easily free. The energy required for the fifth electron to exit from the atom is 0.01eV
in Ge and 0.05eV in silicon which is much less than the forbidden band for pure
semiconductors i.e, about 0.72 eV in Ge and 1.1 eV in Si. The small amount of ionisation
energy is easily provided by thermal agitation of the crystal.

•
• G • C.B • •
e • •
• • •
• • •
G p • • G • 0.01 eV
• • • ED
e e
• • •
•
•
• G • V.B

e
• Electron loosely bound to the atom
130
SEMICONDUCTORS

An additional energy state called donor impurity level exist due to donor impurity. The
donor impurity level ED is slightly below the bottom Ec of the conduction band with very
small supply of energy of about 0.01eV. the number of free electrons in the semiconductor
depends on temperature. Since the excitation of these electrons does not result in the
formation of holes and level of doping. Total number of conducting electrons n e is always
more than holes in the lattice. Thus is n-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority
charge carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers i.e, ne >> nh .

p-type semiconductor: Silicon or Germanium doped with trivalent impurities like

aluminium, boron, indium etc is called p-type semiconductor.

The impurity atoms provide electrons that exists in the fourth band constitutes a hole. The
hole associated with the atom can accept an electron to complete the forth bond. When
sufficiently large number of such impurity atoms are added, the number of holes increases
as compared to the exited electrons. Thus in n-type semiconductors, the holes are the
majority charge carriers while electrons are the minority charge carriers. That is n h>>ne

•
• G •
e C.B
• • •
• • •
G • G •
• • • Eg
e Al e
• • EA
• 0.01eV

•
• G • V.
B
e Hole
•

An additional energy state called acceptor impurity level exists due to acceptor impurity.
The acceptor energy level EA is slightly above the top EV of the valance bond with a small
supply of energy (0.01eV to 0.05eV), electrons from valance band jump to the level EA and
ionise the acceptor atoms negatively leaving holes in the valance band.

The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by

nenh =𝑛𝑖2 where ni is The intrinsic concentration.

Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors:

INTRINSIC EXTRINSIC
1. Pure semiconducting tetravalent 1. Semiconducting tetravalent crystals
crystals doped with impurity
2. Number of electrons = Number of 2. Number of electrons ≠ Number of
holes holes
3. Conductivity is due to equal number 3. Conductivity id due to unequal
of electrons and holes number of electrons and hols
4. Electrical conductivity depends on 4. Electric conductivity depends on
temperature temperature as well as on dopant
conductivity
5. Their electrical conductivity is low 5. Electrical conductivity is high
6. There is no permitted energy level 6. There will be a donor/acceptor energy
between valance band and level between valance band and
conduction band conduction band

131
SEMICONDUCTORS

Distinguish between n-type and p-type semiconductors:

n-type p-type
1. Obtained by adding pentavalent 1. Obtained by adding trivalent
impurities to pure semiconductors. impurities to pure semiconductors.
2. Impurity atoms added provide free 2. Impurity atoms added create
electrons and are called donors vacancies of electrons and are called
acceptors
3. Electrons are majority carriers 3. Holes are majority carriers
4. Holes are minority carriers 4. Electrons are minority carriers
5. The donor impurity level lies just 5. The acceptor impurity level lies just
below the conduction band above the valance band.
6. The free electrons density is much 6. The hole density is much greater
greater than hole density i.e ne>>nh than free electron density i.e nh>>ne
7. Majority carriers moves in 7. Majority carriers move in valance
conduction band band
8. Minority carriers moves in valance 8. Minority carriers moves in
band conduction band.

p-n junction: when an acceptor impurity is added to one side and a donor impurity is
added to other side of an intrinsic semiconductor, first side becomes p-type and second
side becomes n-type. The surface region is called the p-n junction.

When p-n junction is formed, both diffusion and drift are observed. In n region
concentration of electrons are more where as in p-region concentration of holes is more.
Due to the concentration gradient holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p→n) and electrons
diffuse from n-side to p-side (n→p). This motion of charge carriers gives rise to diffusion
current across the junction.

When an electron diffuses from n→p, it leaves behind an ionised donor (+ve charge) on n-
side. This ionised donor is immobile as it is bounded to the surrounding atoms. As the
electrons continue to diffuse from n→p, a large number of positive charge on n-side of the
junction is developed on p-side of the junction due to the diffusion of holes from p→n. this
Electron drift ⃗𝐸 Electron diffusion

⎯ ⎯ + +
⎯ ⎯ + + Vo
p n
⎯ ⎯+ +
⎯ ⎯+ +
Barrier potential under
Depletion region
no bias
Hole diffusion Hole drift

space charge region on either side of the junction together is called depletion region. The
thickness of this region is of the order of one tenth of a micrometer.

Due to the positive space charge region on n side and negative space charge region on p
side there is a electric field directed from positive charge towards negative charge. Due to
this field, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to n side and a hole on n side moves
to p side. The current due to this is called drift current. The direction of this current is
opposite to the direction of diffusion current.
132
 SEMICONDUCTORS

The diffusion current is large initially than drift current. As the diffusion continues, the
space charge regions and electric field strength increases until the diffusion current
equals the drift current. Thus a p-n junction is formed and under equilibrium there is no
net current.

The loss of current form the n region and the gain of electrons by the p region causes a
potential difference across the junction of the two regions. The polarity of this potential so
that a condition of equilibrium exists. Since this potential tends to prevent the movement
of electrons from the n region into the p region, it is also called a barrier potential.

Semiconductor diode: It is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the
ends for the application of an external voltage. It is a two terminal device. It is symbolically
represented as shown in the figure (b). The direction of arrow indicated the direction of
conventional current. − +
V0

⎯ ⎯ + +
Metallic
⎯ ⎯ + + Metallic contact
contact p n
⎯ ⎯ + +
⎯ ⎯ + + + −
Anode cathode
Depletion layer
(a) (b)

p-n junction diode under forward bias: “When positive V

terminal of battery is connected to p side and negative
terminal to n side then pn junction is said to V0
be forward biased”. The direction of the applied voltage V-V0
V is opposite to the barrier potential Vo.

As a result the width of depletion layer decreases and

the barrier height is replaced. The effective barrier height under forward
bias is (V-V0). When the applied potential is greater than barrier potential
thEn the resistance offered by diode is small and current will flow through
the diode.
v

W ⎯ ⎯ + +
⎯ ⎯ + +
⎯ + p n
⎯ ⎯+ +
p ⎯ + n ⎯ ⎯+ +
⎯ +
⎯ +
v Injected Injected holes
V0 electrons

Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n side crosses the depetion region and reach p
side, similarly holes from p side cross the junction and reach n side. This process under
forward bias is known as minority carrier concentration increases. Due to the
concentration gradient, the injected electrons on p-side diffuse from the junction edge of n
side to the other end of n-side. This motion of charged carriers on either side gives rise to

133
SEMICONDUCTORS

current. The total diode forward current is the sum of hole diffusion current and
conventional current due to the electron diffusion and its magnitude is of the order of mA.

p-n junction diode under reverse bias: When the positive terminal of battery is
connected to n-side and negative terminal to p-side then p-n junction is said to be under
reverse bias.

The direction of applied voltage is same as the direction of barrier potential. As a result,
the barrier height increases and the width of depletion region increases. The effective
barrier height under reverse bias is (V0+V). This suppresses the flow of electrons from n→p
and holes from p→n. thus diffusion current is much less compared to forward bias.

V
⎯ ⎯ ⎯ + + +
p ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ + + + n V0

V+V0
⎯ ⎯ ⎯+ + +
⎯ ⎯ ⎯ + + +
W
Injected electrons Injected holes
There is a small current observed even in reverse bias due to the minority charge carries.
This reverse saturation current depends only on thermal energy and not on the applied
minority charge carriers. The current in the reverse bias i.e, due to the minority charge
carriers is of the order of μA. The resistance offered by the junction is very high. The
current reverse voltage Vbr. When V=Vbr, the reverse current through the diode increases
sharply. Even a slight increase in bias voltage causes large increase in current as a result
of which p-n junction will get destroyed due to overheating.

I-V characteristics of a Diode: The circuit arrangement for studying the variation of
current as a function of the applied voltage of a diode is as shown in the figure:

In forward bias the voltage V across the diode is increased from zero in small steps and
the current in millimetre in noted in each step. The graph of V versus I is drawn. It is
observed that the current first increases very slowly, almost negligibly. But beyond
threshold voltage or cut in voltage the current sharply rises with increase in voltage and
the graph becomes almost linear. The threshold voltage is about 0.2volt for germanium
diode and 0.7 volt for silicon diode.

In reverse bias the current is very small (in μA) and almost remains constant with increase
in voltage. It is called reverse saturation current. Beyond a certain voltage called
breakdown voltage the current suddenly increases. Commonly diodes are well used below
the breakdown voltage.

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SEMICONDUCTORS

Diode primarily allows the flow of current only in one direction (forward bias). This
property is used in rectification of AC to DC. Diode dynamic resistance i.e, the ratio of
small change in voltage V to a small change in current I is given by rd =V/ I.

Application of junction diode as a rectifier: The process of converting AC into pulsating

DC is called rectification. The device which brings about the rectification is called a
rectifier. There are two types of rectifiers.
1. Half wave rectifier: A rectifier which rectifies only one half cycle of input AC is
called half wave rectifier. The AC voltage to be rectified is applied to the primary of
step down transformer. A diode and load resistance are connected in series to the
free ends A and B of the secondary of the transformer.

O/P

During positive half cycle of input AC, end A becomes positive and end B becomes
negative. This makes diode D forward biased and hence it conducts. During
negative half cycle of input AC, end A becomes negative and end B becomes
positiveThis makes diode d reverse biased and hence it does not conduct. Thus
diode conducts only during one half cycle of input AC. Current flows through the
load rlesistance
in one direction.

2. Full wave rectifier: A rectifier

which rectifies both the half cycles
of input as is called a full wave
rectifier. The ac voltage to be
rectified is applied to the primary
of a centre tapped transformer.
The free ends A and B of the
secondary of the transformer are
connected to p regions of the
diodes and n regions are
connected to centre tap through
the load resistance.

During positive half cycle end A

becomes positive and end B
becomes negative. This makes
135
SEMICONDUCTORS

diode D, forward biased anddiode D2 reverse biased. As a result D2 conducts while

D2 does not. Current flowsfrom X and Y through the load resistance.During
negative half cycle, end B becomes positive. This makes D1 reverse biased and D2
forward biased. As a result, D2 conducts and D1 does not. One again current flows
from X and Y through the load resistance. Current through the load resistance is
insame direction during both the cycles. This ac is rectified in both half cycles.
Note: Maximum efficiency of a half wave rectifier is 40.5% and that of a full wave
rectifier is 81%.
Capacitor filter: In case of a half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier the output
voltage is not steady, such voltages are often not useful for same applications where
constant dc is required. It is thus necessary to remove the pulsation. This can be
achieved by using an additional circuit called a filter.

Consider a filter circuit consisting of a capacitor C placed parallel with the load RL.
The output voltage of the rectifier is the input voltage for the filter. During the
quarter cycle represented by OA. The capacitor is getting charged and voltage
across it keeps increasing. The same voltage also appears across RL since RL and C
are in parallel. When the input voltage corresponds to the point A i.e, the peak
value, the capacitor is fully charged.

During the next quarter of the cycle the input for the filter falls, since the capacitor
is at a higher voltage it starts discharging and reduces the rate of fall. Thus the
voltage may fall by a smaller value to the point X and load voltage fluctuation is
reduced as indicated by AX instead of AB. By the time this happens, the third
quarter of the cycle will be appear and the capacitor gets again charged and this
process repeats. The output will be less fluctuative and it is smoothened. The
product RLC is called the time constant of the filter circuit. Larger the value of RLC,
higher is the filtering action. Generally a capacitor of large capacitance is used. The
output voltage is higher as it remains substantially near the peak value of rectifier
output voltage.

Speacial purpose p-n junction diodes: A number of special types of junction

diodes are manufactured for specific applications. Some of the more common
special purpose junction diodes are:

1. Zener diode
2. Photo diode
3. Light emitting diode [LED]
4. Solar cell

136
SEMICONDUCTORS

Zener diode: It is a pn junction diode specially designed to work only in the reverse
broken down voltage region.

Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both p and n sides of the junction. So the
depletion region becomes very thin (< 10-6 m) and the electric field of the junction will be
very high ( 5 x 106 Vm-1) even for a small reverse bias voltage about 5 volt. The I-V
characteristics of a Zener diode is as shown in the figure. When the applied reverse voltage
reached the breakdown voltage (Vz) of the Zener diode there is a large change in the
current. After the breakdown voltage, a large change in reverse bias voltage. Zener voltage
remains constant even when the current through the Zener diode varies over a wide range.
This property of Zener diode is used for regulating supply voltages.

Symbol of Zener diode

The reverse current is due to the flow of electrons (minority carriers) from p→n and
holes from n→p. When the reverse bias voltage is increased the electric field at the
junction becomes considerable. When the reverse bias voltage V is equal to break down
voltage Vz then electric field strength is large enough to pull the valance electrons from the
host atoms on the p side which are accelerated to n side. These electrons are responsible
for high current observed at breakdown. This emission of electrons from the host due to
electric field is called internal field emission or field ionisation. The electric field required
for this is of the order of 106 Vm-1.

Zener diode as a voltage regulator: To get a constant dc voltage from the dc voltage from
the dc unregulated output of a rectifier we use a Zener diode. The circuit diagram of a
voltage regulator using a Zener diode is as shown in the figure:

The unregulated dc voltage is connected to the Zener diode through a series resistance Rs
such that the Zener diode is reverse biased. When we increase the input voltage, the
current through Rs and Zener diode increases. This increases the voltage drop across Rs
without any change in voltage across the Zener diode. This is because in the break down
region, Zener voltage remains constant.

If the input voltage decreases, the current through Rs and Zener diode also decreases. The
voltage drop across Rs decreases without any change in voltage across the Zener diode. So
any increase of decrease of The voltage drop across RS will not affect the voltage across
Zener diode. Hence Zener diode acts as voltage regulator.

If Vi<Vz the Zener voltage then V0 =Vi

If Vi > Vz then V0 =Vz for any value of Vi

137
SEMICONDUCTORS

Optoelectric function devices: The semiconductor diodes in which charge carriers are
generated by photons are called optoelectronic devices. They are

1. Photo diodes for detecting light signal

2. Light emitting diodes(LED) which convert electric energy into light.
3. Photovoltaic devices (solar cells) which convert light energy into electric energy.

Photodiode: A pn junction diode made of photosensitive semiconductor is called

photodiode. The reverse current in a photodiode is directly proportional to the intensity of
light falling on its pn junction.

p
Symbol of a photodiode

Photodiode is constructed in such a way that when it is illuminated with light photons
having energy greater than the energy gap (h > Eg) then electron holes pairs are generated.
It is fabricated such that the generating of electron hole pairs takes place near the
depletion region of the diode. Due to the electric field of the junction the electrons reach
the n side and holes reach the p-side giving rise to an emf. When an external load is
connected, current flows. The magnitude of the photocurrent depends on intensity of
incident radiation. There is a change in current with the change in the intensity of light in
reverse bias. Thus photo diode can be used as a photo elector to detect optical signals

Photo diodes are used in

1. Detection of optical signals

2. In switching the light on and off
3. In electronic counters
4. In camera light meters etc

Note: When no light is incident on the pn junction of the photodiode. The reverse current
is extremely small and it is called dark current.

Light emitting diode: It is a heavily doped p-n junction diode which emits visible light
under forward bias.

When the junction is forward biased, electrons moves form n-side to p-side through the
junction and holes in opposite direction. So the concentration of minority carriers on
either side of the junction boundary as compared to the equilibrium concentration. Hence
large amount of minority carriers on either side of the junction boundary will recombine

138
SEMICONDUCTORS

with majority carriers on either side of the junction boundary will recombine with majority
carriers near the junction. During recombination energy is given out in the form of heat
and light. Photons with energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap are emitted. As
the forward current increases intensity of light increases in the forward current results in
decrease of light intensity. The reverse breakdown voltages of LED’s are very low i.e, about
5 volt.

p R
n
Ba symbol

For Si or Ge semiconductor diodes energy is emitted in the form of heat. For gallium
arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP) and gallium arsenide phosphide(GaAsP)energy is
emitted light depends on the material used in diode. The advantages of LED are they
consume less power, fast in action, small in size, light weight, long life etc.

Uses:

1. In seven segment displays in clocks, calculators etc

2. As indicated for power on, over load etc
3. In burglar alarms, TV remote control etc
4. To illuminte the traffic lights

Solar cells: Solar cell is basically a pn junction which generates emf when solar radiation
falls on pn junction. It is a device which converts solar energy into electrical energy.

Solar cell does not require any connection with battery and junction area is kept much
larger for solar radiation to be incident. When light of suitable frequency is incident on an
open circuited solar cell, an emf is produced across its terminals. Either p or n region is
made very thin so that light energy is not greatly absorbed before reaching the junction.
The thin region is called emitter and other region is called base.

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SEMICONDUCTORS

The p-Si side is coated with a metal known as back contact. On the top of n-Si layer, metal
finger electrode is deposited. This acts as front contact and occupies a very small area of
the cell so that light can be incident on the cell from the top.

The generation of emf by a solar cell is due to three basic processes. Generation
separation and collection. Electron hole pairs are generated due to light with photons of
energy greater than energy gap. Electrons are swept to n side and holes to p side due to
electric field of depletion region. Finally electrons reaching n side are collected by the front
contact and holes reaching p side are collected by the back contact. Thus p side becomes
+ve and n side becomes –ve. This gives photo voltage.

Solar cells are made with materials like Si(1.1eV)GaAs (1.43eV), CaTe(1.45eV), CuInSe 2
(1.04eV) etc.

Materials for fabrication of solar cell should have

1. Proper band gap (1 to 1.8 eV)

2. High optical absorption
3. Electrical conductivity
4. Easily and economically availability of raw material
5. Low cost

Uses:

1. In satellites and spaces vehicles

2. In watches and calculators
3. Power supply to homes
4. Power supply to traffic signals
5. In light meters in photography

Junction transistor: Transistor is a semiconducting device with two p-n junctions and
three terminals. It is also called bipolar junction transistor. The first transistor was
designed by Bardeen, Brattin and Schokley. A transistor consists of two p-n junctions
back to back. It is obtained by sand witching wither p type or n type semiconductor
between a pair of opposite type of semiconductors. There are two types of transistors.

1. n-p-n transistor: In this transistor p type semiconductor is sand witched between

two n type semiconductors. Conventional current flows from collector to base and
to emitter.
2. P-n-p transistor: In this transistor n type semiconductor is sand witched between
two p type semiconductors. Conventional current flows from emitter to base and to
collector.

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SEMICONDUCTORS

Emitter: It is of moderate size and heavily doped . the main function of this region is to
supply large number of majority carriers for the current flow through the transistor.

Base: This is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped.

Collector : The collector is very large and it is of moderately doped. It collects major
portions of charge carriers emitted by the emitter.

Note:

1. Junction transistor is a bipolar device because both electrons and holes take part
in conduction.
2. Though both emitter and collector are of same type, they are not interchangeable
because of different doping levels and physical sizes.

Transistor action or working of transistor: IN a transistor the power supply VEE and VCE
are connected such that base junction is forward biased and base collector junction is
reverse biased. The voltage between emitter and base is VER and that between collector
and base is VCB. The heavily doped emitter has a high concentration of majority carriers
which are holes in p-n-p transistor and electrons in n-p-n transistor. These majority
carriers enter the base region in large numbers. Since base is thin and lightly doped the
majority carriers are very less.

In a p-n-p transistor, the majority carriers in the base are electrons. When large number
of holes from the emitter enter the base, only few holes get neutralised by the electron hole
combination. This results in a small base current IB. The remaining large number of holes
enter the collector region on account of high negative potential of collector. This results in
a collector current IC. The base is made very thin so that most of the holes find themselves
near the reverse biased collector base junction. So they cross the junction instead of
moving to the base terminal.

In npn transistor the majority carriers in the base are holes. When large number of
electrons from the emitter enter the base, a few of them get neutralised by the holes in the
base. This results in a collector current IC .

If IE and IG are teh electron current and hole current then total current IE = IG + IC . If IC is
the current from the collector terminal and IB is the base current then from Kirchhoff’s law
emitter current IE = IB+ IC

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SEMICONDUCTORS

Since teh base current is very small the collector current is nearly equal to emitter
current. So by controlling base current, collector current can be controlled. Thus
transistor is a current controlled device. The emitter current is transferred from a low
resistance emitter base circuit to a high resistance collector base circuit. By this transfer it
is possible to get voltage amplification.

Note:

In a transistor, the majority charge carriers are transferred from low resistance emitter
base junction to high resistance collector base junction. Because of this reason the device
is called transfer resistor or transistor

Transistor configuration or modes of operation of a transistor: When transistors are

used in practical circuits, four terminals are required i.e., two for input and two for
output. But transistor has only three terminals. Hence one terminal is made common for
both input and output. The resulting configurations are:

1. Common emitter configuration (CE mode)

2. Common base configuration (CB mode)
3. Common collector configuration (CC mode)

Among these three configurations, CE configuration is widely used. The commonly used
transistors are npn silicon transistors. For pnp transistors, the polarities of external power
supplies have to be reversed.

Transistor characteristics: Curves that relate transistor voltages with currents are called
transistor characteristic curves.

Common Emitter transistor characteristics: When a transistor is used in CE

configuration , the input is between the base and the emitter where as the output is
between hte collector and the emitter. The variation of base current IB with base emitter
voltage VBE at constant collector emitter voltage VCE is called the input characteristics. The
variation of collector current IC with collector emitter voltage VCE keeping the base current
IB fixed is called output characteristic.

The collector emitter voltage VCE is kept fixed at a

suitable value and the base current IB is noted for
various values of base emitter voltage VBE. A graph
is plotted between IB and VBE. The curve obtained
is as shown in figure. The input characteristics for
different values of VCE give almost identical curves.

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SEMICONDUCTORS

The base current IB is kept constant at a suitable value and the collector current IC is
noted for various values of collector emitter voltage VCE, for different fixed values of IB. The
different output characteristics for different values of IB is as shown in the figure

The linear segment of both the input and output characteristics, can be used to calculate
some important parameters of transistors.

1. Input resistance (ri): It is defined as the ratio of change in base emitter voltage to
the resulting change in base current at constant collector emitter voltage.
∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑟𝑖 = ( )
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉
𝐶𝐸
ri will be equal to the reciprocal of the shape in the linear part of input
characteristics. It its value can vary from few hundred ohms to thousand ohms.
2. Output resistance (ro): It is defined as the ratio of change in collector emitter voltage
to the change in the collector current at a constant base current.
∆𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑟𝑜 = ( )
∆𝐼𝐶 𝐼
𝐵
ro is equal to the reciprocal to the slope in the linear part of the output
characteristics. Its value is around 100 kΩ.
3. Current amplification factor (): It is defined as the ratio of the change in the base
current at a constant collector emitter voltage when the transistor is in active state.
∆𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝑎𝑐 = ( )
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉
𝐶𝐸

This is also called small signal current gain. Its value is very large. The ratio of I C to
IB is called dc of the transistor

dc = IC / IB  dc and ac are nearly equal. In most calculations dc can be used.

Transistor as a device: Transistor can be used as device application depending on the

configuration, biasing of the E-B and B-C unction and teh operation region namely cutoff,
active region and saturation. When the transistor is used in the cut off or saturation it
acts as a switch. For using the transistor as an amplifier it has to operate in active region.

Transistor as a switch: Switch is a device for the on or off of current in the circuit. To
understand the operation of the transistor as a switch, we use base biased npn transistor
in CE configuration as shown in the figure.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the input and output sides of the circuit we get

VBB = IBRB + VBE and VCC = ICRL + VCE

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SEMICONDUCTORS

 VCE = VCC - ICRL

We shall treat VBB as dc input voltage Vi and VCE as dc output voltage V0

 Vi = IBRB + VBE ------(1)

Vo = VCC – ICRC ------(2)

In case of Si transistor, when Vi < 0.6 V, it is not able to forward bias the transistor and
there is no collector current. Now the transistor will be incut off state. From equation (2)
we have Vo = VCC

When Vi > 0.6 v but less than nearly 1 volt, there will be some collector current IC . From
eqn (2) it is found that as IC increases, the value of Vo decreases. With the increase om Vi ,
Vo is found to decrease towards zero but never becomes zero. In this situation the collector
current IC becomes maximum and transistor is in saturation state.

Transistor as an amplifier: An amplifier is a device used for increasing the amplitude of

variation of alternating voltage or current or power.

For using the transistor as an amplifier, we use the active region of the Vi versus V0 curve.
The voltage VBB has fixed value corresponding to the midpoint of active region. The slope of
the linear part of the curve represents the rate of change of output with the input. It is
negative because the output is VCC - ICRC and not ICRC. That is why as input voltage
decreases and the output is said to be out of phase with the input. If VO and Vi are the
small changes in the output and input voltages respectively. Then the small signal voltage
gain AV of the amplifier is

AV = Vo /Vi

We have Vo = VCC – ICRC

V0 = O – RCIC = – RCIC

Vi = IBRB + VBE

Vi = RBIB

Hence AV = V0 / Vi = - RCIC / RBIB = -  ac (RC / RB)

Where ac = IC / IB

Transistor as an Amplifier in CE configuration: A small change inthe base current

causes a larger change in the collector current. This is the underlying principle of the
transistor amplifier. If the value of VBB is fixed corresponding to a point in the middle of
the linear part of VO versus Vi curve then the base current IB would be constant and the
144
SEMICONDUCTORS

corresponding collector current IC also would be constant. The dc voltage between the
collector and emitter VCE = VCC – ICIR also would remain constant.

A small sinusoidal voltage signal VS to be amplified in fed to the emitter base circuit. It wil
produce a sinusoidal change in the emitter vase voltage. Then base current will have
sinusoidal variations superimposed on the value of IB. This is turn will produce a
sinusoidal variation superimposed on the collector current IC. Due to this the collector
voltage VCE will vary sinusoidally. These variations in the collector voltage appear as
amplified output VO.

Input signal

output signal

During the positive half cycle of input signal, the forward bias of the emitter base junction
increases. Due to this the emitter junction current increase. Therefore the collector voltage
VCE decreases and the output voltage Vo also decreases. The decrease in collector voltage
means the collector becomes less positive and hence during positive half cycle of input
signal, the output signal varies through a negative half cycle.

During the negative half cycle of input signal, the forward bias of emitter base junction
decreases. Due to this the emitter current decreases and hence collector current
decreases. Therefore the collector voltage VCE increases and the collector becomes more
positive. Hence during negative half cycle of input signal, the output signal varies through
positive half cycle. Thus in CE amplifier circuit, the input signal and output signal are
1800 out of phase.

In CE amplifier circuit, the circuit, the collector current is controlled by the base current
and not the emitter current. In a transistor circuit, collector current is large and base
current is small. When the input voltage signal is applied to the base, a very small change
in base current produces a large change in collector current and a current gain is
achieved

AC current gain ac is defined as the ratio of change in base current at constant collector
emitter voltage
∆𝐼
ac = (∆𝐼𝐶 )
𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Dc current gain ac is defined as the ratio of the collector current IC to base current IB at
collect emitter voltage

dc = (IC/ IB)𝑉𝐶𝐸=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Since IC > IB we have dc or ac > 1

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SEMICONDUCTORS

Ac voltage gain of the amplifier is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage to the
change in input voltage.
∆𝑉𝑜 ∆𝐼𝐶 ×𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜
i.e., AV = ∆𝑉𝑖
= ∆𝐼𝐵 ×𝑅𝑖
= ac × 𝑅𝑖

Where Ri is the input resistance and Ro is the output resistance of the circuit.

Ac power gain is defined as the ratio of the change in output power to the change in input
power.

∆𝑃𝑜 (∆𝐼𝐶 )2 ×𝑅𝑜

Ac power gain = ∆𝑃𝑖
= (∆𝐼𝐵 )2 ×𝑅𝑖
= ac × AV

Feedback amplifier and transistor oscillator: An oscillator is a device which can

produce undamped electromagnetic oscillations of desired frequency and amplitude.

Tank circuit consisting of an inductance L and a capacitance C connected in parallel is the

simplest type of electrical oscillating system. In this circuit electrical energy once given to
the circuit oscillates as magnetic energy in the inductance and electrostatic energy in the
capacitance. The frequency of oscillation of the tank circuit is given by f = 1/ 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Due to the presence of electrical resistance the energy gradually decreases and the
oscillation stop. In order to sustain oscillations with constant amplitude a positive
feedback is essential. To compensate for the energy losses in the tank circuit, the feedback
circuit returns a part of the output power of the transistor amplifier to the tank circuit in
phase with the input signal. The feedback may be done through mutual inductance.

In common emitter transistor circuit, a signal applied to the emitter base circuit suffers a
phase change of 1800 in the collector emitter circuit. By coupling L1 with L we bring a
further has change of 1800 due to mutual induction. Hence the energy feed back to the
tank circuit is in phase with the input signal.

Circuit diagram of
transistor as an
oscillator is as shown
in the figure. Here LC
circuit is inserted in
emitter base circuit of
transistor which is
forward biased with
VBB. The collector
emitter circuit is
reverse biased with
battery VCC. A coil L1
is inserted in collector

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SEMICONDUCTORS

emitter circuit. It is coupled with L in such a way that if increasing magnetic flux is linked
with L, it will support the forward bias of emitter base circuit and if decreasing magnetic
flux is linked with L, it will oppose the forward bias of the emitter base circuit.

If we close the key K, there will be a weak collector current which will start rising with
time due to the inductance L1. As a result of it the magnetic flux linked with L1 increases
and hence with L. Due to mutual induction an emf is induced in L which will charge the
upper plate of capacitor with positive charge, consequently there will be support to the
forward biasing of emitter base circuit. This results in an increase in the emitter current
and hence an increase in the collector current. Due to it, more increasing magnetic flux is
linked with L1 and hence with L. As a result more emf is induced in L providing more
support to the forward biasing of emitter base circuit. The process continues till the
collector current becomes maximum or saturated.

Now the mutual induction between coil stops and the capacitor gets discharged through
inductance L. As a result of it, the support to the forward biasing of emitter base circuit is
withdrawn, there by the emitter current decreases and hence collector current also
decreases. Due to it a decreasing magnetic flux is linked with L1 and hence with L. Due to
mutual induction an emf is induced in L which will charge the lower plate of capacitor
with positive charge. Consequently there will be opposition to the forward biasing of
emitter base circuit. This results in further decrease in emitter current and hence in
collector current. This process continues till the collector current becomes zero. Now again
mutual induction between the coils stops and the condenser gets discharge through
inductance L. As a result of it, the opposition to the forward biasing of emitter base circuit
is withdrawn thereby the emitter current increases and hence collector current also
increases and the process repeats. The transistor is driven to saturation, then to cut off
and then back to saturation. The time for change for saturation to cut off and back is
determined by the values of L and C.

In the circuit, the tank circuit is connected in the base side. Hence it is known as turned
base oscillator. If it is connected to the collector side then it is called tuned collector side
then it is called turned collector oscillator. The frequency of oscillation is given by f = 1/
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Note: AN oscillator converts dc into ac.

Digital electronics and Logic gates: In amplifiers, oscillators etc the signal is in the form
of continuous time varying voltage or current. A signal in which current or voltage varies
continuously with time is called analog signal. A signal in which current or voltage can
take only two discrete values is called a digital signal. A digital signal can take only two
values 1 and 0 which are labelled as high and low values. It is convenient to use binary
numbers to represent such signals.

v v
Level 1
5v

t
t

Analogue signal
Digital signal

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SEMICONDUCTORS

Logic gate: A digital circuit which either allows a signal to pass through or stops it is
called a gate. Such gate allows the signal to pass through only when some logical
conditions are satisfied. Hence they are called logic gates.

A logic gate is a digital circuit that follows certain logical representation between the input
and output voltages.

Logic gates are used in calculators, digital watches, computers, robots, industrial control
systems and in telecommunications

Truth table: A table which gives output state for all possible input combinations is called
truth table.

The three basic logic gates are AND, OR, NOT gates. These three basic logic gates forms
the building block of the other types of logic gate.

1. NOT gate: Not gate is one whose is complement of input. A NOT gate is also called
an inverter because it inverts the input signal. Since the output is NOT the same as
the input, it is known as NOT gate. A NOT gate has only one input and only one
output. The symbol for a NOT operation or complementation is a bar placed over
the variable. Let A be the input and Y equals complement of A of NOT A. The circuit
symbol of a NOT gate is as shown in the figure:

The bubble appearing on the output is the inversion indicator.

The truth table of a NOT gate is given below

Input Output
A Y
0 1
1 0

In NOT gate the output is 1 if and only if the input is zero and vice versa

Note: OR gate and AND gate are constructed using pn junction diodes. A NOT gate
is constructed using an pnp transistor.

2. OR gate: OR gate is one that gives an high output when either of the inputs or both
the inputs are high.
The OR operation or logical addition is represented by (+). Let A and B be two
inputs and Y be the output. The Boolean equation for OR gate is A+B=Y. This
equation is read as A or B = Y. The circuit symbol of a two input OR gate is as
shown in figure:

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SEMICONDUCTORS

The truth table for a two input OR gate is given below

Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

IN OR gate the output is 1 when at least one input is 1 or when all the inputs are 1.
When all the inputs are zero, the output is also zero
Note: The following figure represents the equivalent of two input OR gate.
A
( )
B
( )

3. AND gate: AND gate is one which gives high output only when all its inputs are
high. It has two or more inputs and one output. The AND operation or logical
multiplication is represented by a dot (.). let A and B be the two inputs and Y be the
output. The Boolean equation for AND gate is A.B = Y. This equation is read as A
and B equals Y
The circuit symbol of a two input AND gate is as shown in the figure.

The truth table for a two input AND gate is given below
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1 A B
( ) ( )
In AND gate the output is 1 only when all
the inputs are 1. When any one of the input
is zero. The output is also zero.
Note: the following figure represents
the equivalent of a two input AND gate.

4. NAND gate: NAND gate is one that gives an high output in all cases except when all
the inputs are high. NAND gate is the combination of AND and NOT gate. Let A and
B be the two inputs and Y be the output. The Boolean equation for NAND gate is Y
= ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴. 𝐵 and is read as Y equals to A and B complement or NOT A and B or A NAND B.
By connecting a NOT gate at the output of an AND gate, a NAND gate is obtained.
The circuit symbol of a NAND gate is as shown in figure

Y

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SEMICONDUCTORS

The truth table for NAND gate is given below

Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
A NAND gate will have an output 1 if either A or B or both are zero. The output is
zero when both the inputs are 1

Note: NOR and NAND gates are the basic building blocks. Any gate can be
constructing using either of these two gates. Hence they are called universal gates .

5. NOR gate: NOR gate is one that gives an high output when all the inputs are at
low.
NOR gate is a combination of OR gate and NOT gate. Let A and B be the two inputs
and Y be the output. The Boolean equation for NOR gate is Y = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 + 𝐵 and is read as
Y equals to A or B complement or NOT A or B or A NOR B. By connecting a NT gate
at the output of an OR gate, a NOR gate is obtained. The circuit symbol of a NOR
gate is shown in the figure

Y

The truth table for a NOR gate is given below

Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

A NOR gate will have an output 1 only when all its inputs are 0 the output i s0
when any one of its input is 1 or when both the inputs are 1.
Integrated circuits:
The conventional circuit formed by connecting resistors, inductors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors etc together is called a discrete circuit. The discrete
circuits are bulky, less reliable and less shockproof.
A miniature electronic circuit consisting of many passive components like R and C
and active devices like diode and transistor fabricated within a single
semiconductor chip is called an integrated circuit.
The most widely used technology is the monolithic integrated circuit, the woed
monolithic is derived from two Greek words; monos means single and lithos means
stone. This means that the entire circuit is formed on a single silicon crystal (or
chip) as small as 1 mm x 1mm or even smaller than this size.
Depending of nature of input signals, iC’s are classified into two types:
1. Linear or analogue IC’: They are used for analog functions. The linear IC’s
process analogue signals which change smoothly and continuously over a range
of values between a maximum and minimum. The output varies linearly with
the input. On eof the most useful linear IC’s is the operational amplifier.

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SEMICONDUCTORS

2. Non linear or digital IC’s: They are used for digital or switching functions. The
digital IC’s process signals that have only two values. They contain circuits such
as logic gates. On the basis of the number of circuit components or logic gates,
digital IC’s are classified into following types:
i. Small scale integration circuits (SSI): Here the number of logic gates
N<=10.
ii. Medium scale logic gates (MSI): Here the number of logic gates N <=100.
iii. Large scale integration circuits (LSI): Here the number of logic gates
N<=1000.
iv. Very large scale integration circuits (VLSI): Here the number of logic gates
N>1000.

The technology used for the fabrication of IC is quite complicated but is becoming cheaper
due to large scale industrial production.

Advantages of integrated circuits over conventional electronic circuits:

1. They require very small space.

2. They are highly reliable.
3. Their cost is low.
4. They have lesser weight.
5. They require low power to operate.

Limitations of IC are over conventional circuits:

1. If any component in IC goes out of order, the whole IC has to replaced by new one
2. It is not possible to produce high powers
3. It is not possible to fabricate inductors and transformers on the surface of single
semiconductor chip.

Uses of IC’s: They are widely used in making the television, computers, radio, video
cassettes, recorders, pocket calculators and electronic watches. Large scale availability of
computers in the market has been made possible by the IC technology.

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SEMICONDUCTORS

152
COMUNICATIONS

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
To understand the basic elements of communication let us know the meaning of the following
terms:

a. Transducer: Any device which converts the form of energy into another form of energy is
called transducer.
Ex: Microphone and speaker
Microphone converts the pressure variations in sound into electrical variations. Speaker
converts the electrical variations into pressure variations and hence into sound.
b. Signal: The information from the source is converted into electrical form suitable for
transmission is called signals or message signal. Signals are of two types “analog” and
“digital”.
Analog signal: If the information is converted into continuous variations of current or voltage,
analogous to the changes of the information is called analog signal.
Digital signal: If the changes in the information are converted into step wise variations of
current and voltages then they are called digital signals. Generally two steps of signals exist
and they are of square wave type signals.
c. Noise: Noise is the unwanted signals that tend to disturb the transmission and processing of the
message signal.
d. Transmitter: A transmitter processes the incoming message signal into a suitable form for
transmission through a channel
e. Receiver: A receiver extracts the desired message signals from the only path of the channel.
f. Attenuation: The loss of strength of message signal during the propogation through a medium
or channel
g. Amplification: It is the process of increasing the amplitude and subsequently the strength of a
signal using an electronic circuit is called amplifier. This process is called amplification.
h. Range: The large distance between a source and a destination up to which the signal is
received with sufficient strength.

Elements of communication system:

a. Communication is the act of transmission of information. Every communication system has

three essential elements, called “transmitter”, “channel ” and “receiver”. The general block
diagram of a communication system is given below.
b. Explanation of communication system:
i. Information source: The transducer converts the information from the source into
electric signals, called message signals.
ii. The transmitter: The transmitter converts the message signal received from the source
into another form suitable for transmission through a channel.
iii. Channel: The medium through which the transmitted signal is propagated is called the
channel. The channel may be a co-axial cable or optical fibre cable or free space. Due to
imperfection of the channel, noise is added to the signal and it is corrupted during the
propagation.
iv. Receiver: The receiver reconstructs the corrupted version of message signal received
from the channel into a recognizable form of original message signal
v. User: User receives the original form of message signal for his use.

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COMUNICATIONS

There are two basic modes of communication:

a. Point to point and

b. Broad casting mode or wireless communication
In point to point communication The transmitter and the receiver are linked by co-axial
cables or optical fibre cables. Telephony is the example for this type of communication
In Broad casting mode: ( wireless mode) there is one transmitter and large number of
receivers. The channel is free space. Radio and TV are the examples for this mode.

Bandwidth of signals: (Analog and Digital) every message signal occupies a range of frequencies.
The band of frequencies which are necessary for satisfactory transmission of the information contained
in the signal is called the band width

The band width refers to the frequency range over which an equipment operates, or the portion of the
frequencies occupied by the signal.

The type of communication system required for a given signal depends on the band width of the signal
to be communicated.

A. Analog signals:
i. Speech signals: The frequency range for speech signals is 300 Hz to 3100 Hz. Hence
the band width is (3100 Hz to 300Hz) 2800 Hz. This band width is used for commercial
telephonic communication.
ii. Music signals: The audible frequencies extends from 20 Hz to 20 KHz. As the musical
instruments produce high frequencies, the approximate band width for music signals is
20 KHz.
iii. Video signals: the frequencies of video signals extend to higher frequencies. Hence the
required band width is about 4.2 MHz.
iv. Digital signals: Digital signals are in the form of rectangular wave as shown in the
figure. A rectangular wave can be decomposed into a superposition of sinusoidal waves
of frequencies v0, 2v0, 3v0,....... nvo where n is the fundamental frequency and equal to
1/T0 in the figure

Wave (a) represents the rectangular wave. Wave (b) represents the wave of fundamental
frequency v0

Wave (c) represents the combined wave of fundamental frequency v0 and its second
harmonic 2v0

Wave (d) represents the combined wave of fundamental frequency v0 + its second
harmonic 2v0 + its third harmonic 3v0

Thus it is clean from the figure that the complete rectangular wave can be reproduced
by the super imposition of all harmonics making the band width infinite.

But higher the harmonic, less is its contributing to the wave form. So neglecting the
higher harmonics the band width is longer enough to accommodate a few harmonic, the
rectangular signal is more or less recovered without any loss of information in the
signal

The band width extends to GHz.

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COMUNICATIONS

Voltage (a)

Time

Band width of transmission medium or channel: Channel is the medium through which the message
signal is transmitted. The commonly used transmission media are

1. Wire 2. Free space and 3. Optical fibre medium.

Different media offer different band widths. Now a days the coaxial cables and optical fibre cables are
used for wire medium. The coaxial cable offers a band width of 750 MHz and they are used below 18
GHz.

The optical fibre offers a band width in excess of 100 GHz. In the broad casting method, free space is
used as channel. Free space has s wide range of frequencies from KHz to GHz.

The international telecommunication union administers the present system of frequency

allocations.

Service Frequency band Comments

1. Standard AM broad cast 540 – 1600 KHz Medium wave transmission

2. F.M broad cast 88-108 MHz FM Band

3. Television 54-72 MHz VHF Band I

76-88MHz VHF Band II
174-216MHz UHF Band III
420-890MHz UHF Band IV

4. Cellular mobile (cell 896-901 MHz Mobile to base station

phones) 840-935 MHz Base station to Mobile

5. Satellite communication 5.925-6.425 GHz UP link

3.7-4.2 GHz Down Link

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COMUNICATIONS

A propagation of electromagnetic waves to atmosphere: In wireless communication, radio waves

are radiated from antenna by a transmitter. These waves propagate through space and reach the
reaching antenna at the other end. During propagation, several factors influence them and their path.
The strength of the signal decreases as it is propagated. The atmosphere plays a vital role in the
propagation of em waves. Some useful layers of the atmosphere are given in the following table.

Name of the layer Approximate height over Exists during Frequencies most
earth’s surface affected
Troposphere 10 km Day and night VHF (up to several
GHz)
D (part of 65-75 km Day only Reflects LF, absorbs
statosphere) MF and HF to some
degree
E (part of 100 km Day time merges with
statosphere) F1 at night Helps surface waves
reflects HF
F1(part of 170-190 Day time merges with
mesosphere) F2 at night Partially absorbs HF
waves yet allowing
them to reach F2
F1 (thermosphere) 300 km at night during Day and night
250-400 km during day Efficiently reflects HF
time waves, particularly at
night.

There are three types of propagation of radio waves (em waves)

1. Ground wave propagation

2. Sky wave propagation
3. The space wave propagation

Ground wave propagation: In standard AM (Amplitude Modulation) broad cast, the message signals
in the form of radio waves, are transmitted efficiently by a suitable antenna. “The radio waves from the
antenna glide along the surface of the earth. These radio waves are called ground” . The mode of
propagation is called ground wave propagation.

For efficient transmission, the length of antennas must be equal to 𝜆/4, which has large value. So
ground based vertical towers are used as transmitting antenna. The ground has strong influence on the
propogatoin of the wave radiated from this antenna.

a. The wave glides on the surface of the earth.

b. As the wave glides, it induces some current in the ground. Due to absorption of energy by the
ground the wave loses some energy, which means attenuation.
c. Attenuation increases with frequency of transmitted waves.

The maximum range depends on the transmitted power and frequency (<2MHz) and height of the
tower. As frequency increases, the wave becomes weaker. These waves are used for short distance
transmission. They are used in medium wave transmission of AM radio waves. Ground waves
propagate long distances over sea water due to its high conductivity.

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 COMUNICATIONS

Sky wave propagation:

Sky wave: The radio waves which are received on the earth after reflection from the ionosphere are
called sky waves.

For long distance communication shy wave propagation is used. Radio waves of frequencies from
3MHz to 30MHz pass through ionosphere. Above 200MHz ionosphere is completely transparent.

The ionosphere extends from nearly 65km to 400 km above surface of earth. The degree of ionisation
varies with height. The intensity of ionisation is low at greater heights and as well as in the layers
nearer to earth. At an intermediate height a layer with high intensity of ionisation is maximum. This
layer reflects the radio waves of frequencies 3MHz to 30MHz only. The reflected waves reach the
receiver, thus achieving long distance communication.

This type of communication is used by the short wave broadcasting services. The reflection is similar
to the local internal reflection of light.

Ionisation of air molecules occurs due to the absorption of ultraviolet and other high energetic
radiations from the sun. The intensity of ionisation changes due to the availability of air molecules and
strength of radiations received.

Ionisheric layers

F1
F2
E
D

Space wave propogation: The radio having frequencies greater than 40MHz are called space waves.
The propagation of radio waves using space waves is called space wave propagation.

These waves are not reflected by ionosphere. A space wave travels in a straight line from transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna. This type of communications is used for line-of-sight (LOS)
communication. The antennas used are relatively smaller in size and cane be placed at heights of many
wavelength above the ground. Because of LOS nature of propagation the direct waves get blocked at
some point by the curvature of the earth. Beyond this point the receiving antenna is arranged at a
particular height so that the waves from the transmitting antenna are intercepted. The coverage area
depends on the height of transmitting antenna “hr” and the height of the receiving antennal “hR” the
maximum distance is given by

dm= √2𝑅ℎ𝑟 + √2𝑅ℎ𝑟

R is the radius of the earth

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Television broadcast, microwaves links and satellite communication are some example using the space
wave propagation.
dT = Distance of horizon from transmitting antenna = √2𝑅ℎ𝑇

dR = Distance of receiving antenna from horizon = √2𝑅ℎ𝑟

dm = dT + dR

Modulation and need for modulation: The original message signal spreads over a range of
frequencies called base band signals. These frequencies are of audio frequency (AF) range (20Hz to
20KHz). The radio waves in the AF range cannot be transmitted to long distances, because of three
reasons

1. Effective transmission
2. Effective power radiated and
3. Mixing up of signals
1. For effective transmission: The lengths of the antennas must be at least equal to quarter wave
length (𝜆/4) of the radio wave to the transmitted. The lengths can be calculated using the
formula. Velocity C = v 𝜆 where C = 3 x 108 m/s the velocity of em wave in space, and v is its
frequency. The approximate length for 20 Hz wave is about 𝜆/4 = 4 x 103 km and for 20KHz
wave is about 𝜆/4 = 4km. This makes the length of antenna impracticable. So there is necessity to
use HF waves to reduce the heights of antennas.
2. Effective power radiated: It is observed that the power is radiated effectively by an antenna of
length “L’ is proportional to( 𝐿/𝜆)2. The wave length of base band signals are of longer wave
length. The power radiated becomes less. So for the same length of the antenna. The power
radiated becomes more, if smaller wavelength. High frequencies are used. This indicates the use
of higher frequencies.

Mixing up of signals: Even if the base band signals are transmitted, they mix up with the signals from
different transmitters which are already present in the atmosphere. So it becomes impossible to
distinguish the reaquired signal at the receiver end. This indicates to use a high frequency
transmission and allotting a band of frequencies to each message signal. Hence there is a need for
converting a low frequency audio signal to translate into high frequencies

Modulation: The process of combining audio frequency signal with high frequency radio wave
(called carrier wave) to produce a high frequency message signal is called modulation.

The combined wave is called modulated wave.

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The modulation is of three types

1. Amplitude modulation
2. Frequency modulation and
3. Phase modulation

In general the modulating signal may be represented as:

Ym = Am sin(wmt +𝜙𝑚 )

The modulatind signal is defined by its amolitude Am angular frequency Wm (2𝜋𝑓𝑚 ) and the phase
constant 𝜙𝑚

The high frequency signal is generally called as carrier wave, and it represented by yc = Ac sin(Wct
+𝜙𝑐 )

Yc is the signal strength is either voltage or current where Ac is amplitude, Wc is angular frequency
(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 ) and 𝜙𝑐 is the phase constant

Any of three parameters of the carrier wave Ac Wc and 𝜙𝑐 can be controlled by the message signal.
This results three types of modulation

Amplitude modulation: (AM) In this process the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal, keeping the frequency and phase of carrier wave constant.

Frequency modulation: (FM) In this process the frequency of carrier wave varied in accordance with
the modulation signal keeping the amplitude and phase of carrier wave constant

Phase modulation: (PM) In this process the phase of carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
modulating signal keeping the amplitude and frequency of carrier wave constant.

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