Learning Competencies:

1. describe the historical development of theories that explain the origin of the Universe (S11/12ES-Ia-1);
2. compare the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the Solar System (S11/12ES-Ia-2);
3. describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support life (S11/12ES-Ia-b-3);
4. explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries matter and energy flow (S11/12ES-Ib-4)

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

RELIGIOUS COSMOLOGY
- The Hebrew bible explains how God created the universe in the book of Genesis.
- The Hindu text Rigveda describes an oscillating universe in which a “cosmic egg” or Brahmanda expands out of a single
concentrated point called Bindu which will eventually collapse again.
- Anaxagoras explained that the cosmos originated from a primordial mixture of all ingredients which existed in infinitesimally
small fragments of themselves and was set in motion by the action of the “nous” or mind (primordial universe).
- Leucippus and Democritus believed in an atomic universe which was composed of very small, indivisible and indestructible
atoms.
- Stoic philosophers believed that the universe is a giant living body wherein everything else was interconnected with the sun
and the stars.
- Aristotle and Ptolemy proposed a geocentric universe where Earth is the center of the universe. It was contradicted by
Nicolaus Copernicus with his theory of heliocentrism where Earth is not at the center. However, Giordano Bruno suggested
that even the Solar System is not in the center of the universe.
- Sir Isaac Newton described the universe as a static, steady-state, infinite universe.
- Rene Descartes described that the vacuum of space was not empty at all but was filled with matter that swirled around in large
and small vortices producing the gravitational effects.
- Albert Einstein’s model of the universe was a static, dynamically-stable universe which was neither expanding nor contracting.
Later on, Edwin Hubble showed that the universe was not static.

MODERN THEORIES

Big Bang Theory

- It is the current accepted model in the formation of the universe.
- It described that the universe is expanding, and originated in an
infinitely tiny, infinitely dense point around 14 billion years ago
- According to this theory, matter was not present at the beginning of time,
there was only pure energy compressed in a single point called
singularity.
- The fundamental statement of this theory is attributed to Edouard Lemaitre
in 1927 and was later supported by Edwin Hubble’s demonstration of the
continuously expanding universe in 1929 and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation by Arno Penzias
and Robert Wilson in 1965.
- It was a violent explosion which caused an inflation and expansion of the universe.
- Four fundamental forces were formed: gravity (attraction between bodies), electromagnetic force (binds atoms into
molecules), strong nuclear force (binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus), and weak nuclear force (breaks
down an atom’s nucleus and produce radioactive decay).
- The expanding universe begins to cool down allowing the protons and neutrons to fuse and about 300,000 years photons
escaped and light existed. After 300 million years, the universe was now composed of heavier elements from the light
elements of the supernova which formed solid particles known as nebula that later on formed the stars and planets known
today.

Oscillating Universe
- It followed Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity equations of the universe with positive curvature.
- The curvature results in the expansion of the universe for a time and then to its contraction due to the pull of its gravity in a
perpetual cycle of the big bang and the big crunch.
Steady State Theory
- It was proposed by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, and Hermann Bondi.
- It predicted a universe that expanded but did not change its density (matter was inserted to maintain constant density).

Inflationary Universe
- Alan Guth incorporated a short early period of exponential cosmic inflation in order to solve the uncertainties of the big bang
theory, such as horizon and flatness problems
- Another version of the inflationary model was the cyclic model of Paul Steinhardt and Neil Turol in 2002 which incorporated
ideas based on the superstring theory

Multiverse
- Andrei Linde developed the concept of inflationary universe from his chaotic inflation theory in 1983.
 - The universe is just one of the many “bubbles” that grew as a part of a multiverse.
- Hugh Everett III and Bryce DeWitt had initially developed the concept of “many worlds” structure of the universe in the 1960s
and 1970s.

THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Encounter Hypothesis
- About 5 gigayears ago (Gya), a rogue star passed closed to the sun emitting hot
gases that continued to spin in the same direction as the sun and later coalesced into
lumps forming the planets
- It explained the revolution of planets in the same direction as the sun and the greater
density of inner planets than that of the outer ones.
- It cannot explain why hot gases expand but do not contract.

Nebular Hypothesis
- The entire Solar system starts as a large cloud of gas that contracted due to self-
gravity.
- With conservation of angular momentum, a rotating disk form with a large concentration
at the center (protosun) while planets form within it.
- However, it could not account why 99% of the Solar system’s mass is in the sun but 99%
of its angular momentum is in the planets
- It also lacks mechanism to explain why the disk would turn into individual planets.

Protoplanet Hypothesis
- It is the current model for the formation of the Solar system.
- It is based on the main concepts of the nebular hypothesis with new knowledge of fluids
and states of matter.
- The Solar system began with a fragment from an interstellar cloud composed mainly of
hydrogen, helium and traces of light elements.
- The fragments formed the dense central region of the solar nebula which contracted
rapidly than its outer parts and conserving its angular momentum. It grew as materials
falling inward continued to build up then it eventually evolved into the sun.
- As the accretion continued, large asteroid-sized aggregates called planetisimals formed
orbiting the center of the solar nebula and later on grew in size due to gravitational
attraction forming the planets.
- The planetisimals differ in chemical composition depending on their distance from the
sun. The terrestrial planets formed at the central portion where temperatures are more
likely to vaporize some of the compounds in the dust. The gas giants formed on the
outer part which was relatively cooler and rich in volatile, icy and gaseous materials.

LIFE ON EARTH
Liquid Water
- It allowed the first photosynthetic organisms (such as cyanobacteria which used sunlight, CO2 and water to produce biomass
and oxygen) to thrive and evolve into the present living organisms.
- There are two possible sources of water: volcanism and icy meteors of the outer regions of Solar System that hit Earth
- Earth’s distance from a star allows liquid water to exist in its liquid form (habitable zone).

Heat Source
- It comes from two sources: internal heating of Earth and external heating from the sun
- The internal heating of earth is caused by radiogenic heat from radioactive decay of materials in the core and mantle. It is
released through volcanism and plate movement.
- The heat from the sun enters the Earth through radiation. Some of the heat is trapped in the atmosphere.

Atmosphere
- It is responsible for the occurrence of greenhouse phenomenon, a natural process that maintains heat.
- It is vital part of photosynthesis, a process that ensures adequate amount and flow of gases on Earth.
- A planet without atmosphere experiences average surface temperature below freezing, unpredictable and extreme weather
and climates, and extreme ultraviolet radiation.
 EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS
Earth as a Closed System
- The amount of matter in a closed system is fixed.
- The resources can never be regenerated and waste products cannot be disposed but rather transformed into something else
maintaining the amount of matter.
- In an open system like the Earth’s subsystems, matter and energy can freely transfer between them. Changes within one
system eventually cause changes in others. (For instance, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo emitted chemicals in the
atmosphere causing the global temperature to drop, changed the topography of central Luzon and affected the lives and
health of the people.)

Earth’s Subsystems
- Earth is composed of four basic subsystems – geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.
- They are closely linked to biological, geochemical, and chemical factors (biogeochemical cycles) which serve as pathways by
which chemical substances move through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere)
components of Earth (e.g. carbon cycle).

• Geosphere refers to the solid Earth which is composed of naturally-occurring solid aggregate of minerals, organic
materials or natural glass called rocks, loose particles of rocks that blanket the Earth’s surface called regolith and
geologic landforms like mountains and hills.

• Hydrosphere is the totality of Earth’s waters including the permanently frozen parts called cryosphere. (Water in the
atmosphere is considered separate but is ultimately connected).

• Atmosphere is the mixture of gases that surround the planet. The air is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, 0.9%
of argon and the remaining 0.10% is made up of different traces of gases.

• Biosphere includes all life forms and organic matters that had not decomposed yet. Most life forms exist within a zone
less than 20 km wide where the interactions between the abiotic components create a habitable and dynamic
environment.
Learning Competencies:
1. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties (S11/12ES-Ib-5);
2. classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic (S11/12ES-Ic-6);
3. identify the minerals important to society (S11/12ES-Ic-7);
4. describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use (S11/12ES-Ic-d-8);
5. cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the exploitation, extraction, and use of mineral
resources (S11/12ES-Id-9);
6. describe how fossil fuels are formed (S11/12ES-Id-10);
7. explain how heat from inside the Earth is tapped as a source of energy (geothermal) for human use (S11/12ES-Ie-11);
8. cite ways to address the different environmental concerns related to the use of fossil fuels, geothermal energy, and
hydroelectric energy (S11/12ES-Ie-f-13);
9. recognize how water is distributed on Earth (S11/12ES-If-14);
10. identify the various water resources on Earth (S11/12ES-If-g-15);
11. explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for human use (S11/12ES-Ig-16);
12. suggest ways of conserving and protecting water resources (S11/12ES-Ig-16);
13. identify human activities, such as farming, construction of structures, and waste disposal, that affect the quality and quantity of
soil (S11/12ES-Ih-17);
14. give ways of conserving and protecting the soil for future generations (S11/12ES-Ih-i-18);
15. describe how people generate different types of waste (solid, liquid, and gaseous) as they make use of various materials and
resources in everyday life (S11/12ES-Ii-19);
16. explain how different types of waste affect people’s health and the environment (S11/12ES-Ii-j-20);
17. cite ways of reducing the production of waste at home, in school, and around the community (S11/12ES-Ij-21)

ROCKS AND THE ROCK CYCLE

Rocks are naturally-occurring, coherent aggregate of minerals such as natural glass or organic matter. It is found in the lithosphere
and is derived from the Greek word lithos which mean “stone”

The Rock Cycle

- It is a model that describes all the processes by which rocks Processes and Products of the Rock Cycle
are formed, modified, transported, decomposed, melted, and Index Mineral Scale
reformed which may occur either at the surface or beneath Common Objects
the surface of the Earth. melting Magma
o The magma cools and solidifies through the
process of crystallization forming igneous rocks.
crystallization Igneous Rocks
o Igneous rocks are brought to the surface through uplift and exposure Sediments
uplift and undergo weathering and erosion. The weathering and erosion Sedimentary rocks
eroded materials are deposited as sediments. transportation Metamorphic rocks
o The sediments undergo transportation until they deposition
settle in an area where they will undertake lithification
deposition. As the materials build up, the sediments metamorphism
at the bottom undergo lithification to become
sedimentary rocks.
o If the sedimentary rocks are buried deep within Earth, they will be subjected to heat and pressure changing them into
metamorphic rocks in a process called metamorphism.
o If the metamorphic rocks are subjected to higher temperature, they will melt, forming magmas. The magma will
solidify into igneous rocks and the cycle stars anew.
- Igneous rocks may form metamorphic rocks without initially becoming sedimentary rocks. Similarly, metamorphic rocks may
lithified into sedimentary rocks without becoming igneous rocks first.

Formation of Igneous Rocks

- It is formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava
- The word “igneous” is derived from the Latin igneus, which means “fiery” or “on fire.”

- Three ways igneous rocks can form:

o Below the surface, from slowly cooling magma – forms visible crystals. These rocks are called intrusive or plutonic
since they cool underneath the surface as plutons. Examples are granite, diorite, and syenite.
o On the surface, from rapidly cooling lava – form very small crystals that are not visible to the naked eye. These rocks
are called extrusive or volcanic since they are usually extruded during volcanic eruptions. Examples are basalt,
andesite, and rhyolite.
o On the surface, from consolidation of particles erupted by explosive volcanic activity – during volcanic eruption, the
lava is ripped apart into smaller pieces and solidifies. The accumulation of the particles through lithification forms
pyroclastic igneous rocks which is a hybrid of igneous and sedimentary rocks. Examples are ignimbrite or adobe, tuff,
and volcanic breccia.
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
- Formed from lithification of particles produced by weathering
- These rocks can have parent material from older igneous, metamorphic, and even sedimentary rocks, as well as mineral
fragments or organic materials.
- The components are collectively called sediments, derived from the Latin sedentarius which means “sitting” as they are
deposited and remain until they form sedimentary rocks.
- These rocks may form on the surface or underneath and not on areas where they undergo igneous processes.
- Sedimentary lithification occurs at much lower temperature than that of igneous rocks.
- Three ways sedimentary rocks can form:
o From the cementation of sediments that have been deposited, buried, and compacted over a long period of time –
this rock is called clastic and differs on the size of sediments or clasts in the rocks.
o From the precipitation of minerals from ions in solution – exposure of rocks to water and oxygen undertake chemical
changes such as oxidation (rusting) and hydrolysis and break down rocks into chemical components or ions forming
chemical sedimentary rocks.
o From the compaction and cementation of plant and/or animal remains – these rocks are called bioclasts.

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

- Formed from pre-existing or parent rocks altered by heat, pressure, and the chemical activity of fluids underneath the surface.
The collective process is called metamorphism meaning “change in form.”
- Two major types of metamorphism depending on the dominant factor of alteration:
o Regional metamorphism – the flat and/or elongated mineral components of the parent rocks align perpendicular to
the axis of the pressure resulting in foliation (layered or banded appearance in rocks) and forming metamorphic
rocks. The term is derived from the Latin folium which means “leaf.” The tectonic processes are regional in scale that
produces mountain chains and the dominant factor of alteration is pressure.
o Contact metamorphism – the parent rocks may undergo fundamental change in texture (recrystallization) or in
mineralogy (involvement of chemical fluids) and results in nonfoliated metamorphic rocks. Heat is the dominant factor
usually from direct contact between older rock material and an intruding body of magma.

Rock Cycle as a Biogeochemical Cycle

Humans primarily used rocks in building and communities but it is also important to Earth as a system. Although rock cycle
mainly occurs in the geosphere, it interacts with the other subsystems when it appears on the surface and undergoes weathering. It will
then form sediments essential for plant growth and soil formation.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
Igneous Rocks
- These are either crystalline when they form from cooled magma or lava, or pyroclastic when
made of consolidated eruption products.
o Crystalline textures – differ on how fast and where cooling took place
§ Intrusive or plutonic rocks – form visible crystals from slowly cooled
magma and results in a phaneritic texture, from Greek phaneros meaning
“visible.” Very slow crystallization of minerals at depth results in pegmatitic
texture composed of very large crystals (larger than 2 to 3 cm).
§ Extrusive or volcanic rocks – form crystals from rapidly cooled magma that are only visible with magnifying
lens and results in aphanitic texture. When rocks cool rapidly without producing mineral crystals, it appears
glassy. When gases escape during the formation of volcanic rock, vesicular texture is produced.
§ Porphyritic texture – it is a product of the rapid cooling of crystallized magma on the surface as a result of
volcanic activity that extrudes it into the surface from a shallow depth underneath.
o Pyroclastic – derived from the Greek word pyro meaning “fire” and klastos meaning “shattered.” It is a result of
lithification and is distinguished by the size of its particles.

- These are composed of felsic minerals (quartz, muscovite, potassium feldspar, and plagioclase) and mafic minerals (biotite,
amphibolem pyroxene, and olivine).
- Color can indicate rock and mineral composition (color index) but not in all rocks.
- Felsic composition is light in color (white, light gray, tan, and pink) and rich in silica. Mafic or ultramafic composition is dark in
color (black and brown) and poor in silica but rich in iron and magnesium. Intermediate compositions have intermediate color
(gray or equal parts of light and dark mineral).

Identification of Igneous Rocks based on Texture and Composition

Composition
Texture
Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic
Pegmatitic Granite permatic Diorite Gabbro pegmatite
Phaneritic Granite Diorite Gabbro Dunite
Aphanitic Rhyolite Andesite Basalt
 Porphyritic Rhyolite Andesite Basalt
Glassy Obsidian Basaltic Glass
Vesicular Pumice Scoria
Pyroclastic Volcanic tuff

Sedimentary Rocks
- These are clastic when they form from lithification of rock and mineral
fragments. They are crystalline when they precipitate out of solution. It can
also be bioclastic when it is formed from the accumulation of organic material
or biologic activity.
- Three types of clasts according to sizes:
o Clay or silt – less than 1/16 mm and not visible to naked eye
o Sand grains – between 1/16 and 2 mm
o Gravel – greater than 2 mm

Sedimentary Rock Identification

Texture Grain size Composition Rock Name
> 2 mm Rounded quarts, feldspar, and rock Conglomerate
fragments
> 2 mm Angular quartz, feldspar, and rock Breccia
fragments
Clastic
1/16 – 2 mm Quartz, feldspar Sandstone
> 1/16 mm Feldspar, quartz Arkose
< 1/16 mm Quartz, clay minerals Siltstone (mudstone, shale)
<1/256 mm Quartz, clay minerals Claystone
Silica (quartz) Chert
Dolomite Dolostone
Crystalline Calcite Limestone
Halite Rock salt
Gypsum Rock gypsum
Silica (quartz) Chert
Loosely compacted organic material and
Peat
plant fragments
Bioclastic
Densely compacted organic material and
plant fragments Bituminous coal
Calcite Limestone
Calcite, microskeletal fragments Chalk
Calcite, almost entirely shell and skeletal
Coquina
fragments
Bioclastic Calcite with some shell and skeletal
Fossiliferous limestone
fragments
Dolomite with some shell and skeletal
fragments Fossiliferous dolostone

Metamorphic Rocks
- These rocks may be foliated when the dominant agent of metamorphism is pressure
or crystalline when the dominant agent is heat.
o Foliated – when platy or elongated minerals align themselves parallel to
the axis of pressure, resulting in a layered appearance or foliation. Types of
foliation based on composition:
§ Slaty texture – rocks may not appear foliated to the naked eye
because the minerals are microscopic. However, the foliation will
manifest physically in the rock’s tendency to separate along
parallel lines.
§ Phyllitic texture – the foliation is visible but not well-defined because minerals are barely visible to the naked
eye.
§ Schistose texture – layering is more distinct because the minerals are visible. It is usually composed of platy
minerals like chlorite, graphite, biotite, and muscovite.
§ Gneissic texture – rock exhibits a coarsely branded appearance because minerals are visible and elongated
(e.g. amphibole, feldspar, and quartz).
 o Crystalline textures – parent rock is exposed with enough heat and induces recrystallization of existing minerals. It
is composed of only one type of mineral.

- Minerals in these rocks form at high temperature and pressure associated with the process of metamorphism (also known as
index minerals).

Metamorphic Rock Identification

Texture Foliation Composition Type Parent rock Rock name
Slaty Mica Regional Mudstone Slate
Phyllitic Quartz, mica, chlorite Regional Mudstone Phyllite
Foliated Schistose Mica, quartz Regional Slate Schist
Schistose Amphibole, plagioclase Regional Basalt or gabbro Amphibolite
Gneissic Feldspar, mica, quartz Regional Schist Gneiss
- Carbon Contact or regional Bituminous coal Angthracite coal
- Quartz, rock fragments Contact or regional Conglomerate Metaconglomerate
Nonfoliated
- Calcite Contact or regional Limestone Marble
- Quartz Contact or regional Sandstone Quartzite

ORES AND MINERALS

Ores
Ores are naturally-occurring materials that can be profitably mined. It can be mineral or rock or metallic or non-metallic.
A deposit is considered a potential ore body if its localized abundance is greater than its average abundance on Earth’s crust.
A rock or mineral is considered an ore based on:
1. overall chemical composition
2. percentage of extractable resource with respect to its total volume
3. market value of the resource

Locating Ores
Locating ore bodies requires recognizing that geologic processes can produce a localized enrichment of one or more minerals
in particular types of environments.
1. Hydrothermal fluid circulation – most common type of mineral deposition process. It is when groundwater or seawater is
heated and aqueous solutions are expelled from a cooling plutonic body producing veins that host gold, silver, and
copper.
2. Metamorphic processes – leads to alteration and recrystallization of minerals that forms graphite, marble, and asbestos
3. Magmatic processes – create ore minerals from which are concentrated due to their premature recrystallization and
separation from magma.
4. Kimberlite magma originates deep within the mantle and is the source of diamonds which only crystallizes at depths
greater than 150 km.
5. Chemical sedimentary processes – form evaporate deposits from the precipitation of saltwater minerals (halite, gypsum,
limestone) and evaporation of lake water (anhydrite).
6. The action of ocean waves or currents in flowing surface water tend to take sediments along. If the wave action and
strength is constant, it causes selective sifting that removes sediments and leaves placer deposits (heavier materials such
as gold, platinum, zircon, and diamonds).
7. Chemical weathering is a change in the chemical components that alter into other minerals forming residual ore deposits.
These ores are common in tropical areas where the climate is conducive to the formation. Example is laterite,an ore of
iron, nickel, and/or aluminium.

Mining Ores
Mining refers to a set of processes through which useful resources are withdrawn from a stock of any non-renewable resource
or simply the extraction of mineral resources
Mining ores is an intensive and sophisticated process that varies how minerals are extracted (whether excavated, stripped or
brought via tunnels and shafts).
Steps in mining:
1. Prospecting or exploration – looking for the ore body – a deposit that can yield a large amount of the required ore
mineral
2. Drilling – a small part of the ore is extracted to determine the resulting ore, ore’s quality, and the amount of ore
minerals (grade)
3. Modeling – determining the ore’s size, shape, and grade distribution throughout the deposit to apply appropriate
mining methods, blast, and dig pattern designs, safety precautions, and efficiency and processing methods
4. Identifying and assessing the potential impacts – consideration of social and environmental aspects to mitigate
mining impacts and bring back the area close to its original state as possible.
5. Designing and constructing the mine – create appropriate mine and operational design and construct it with all
necessary permits from the government and local communities
6. Ore extraction – high grade ores are separated from the rest of the deposit
7. Milling – the ore is crushed and concentrated; waste materials (tailings) are released
 8. Mine site decommissioning – the mine site is closed, cleaned up and reclaimed or rehabilitated for other purposes
The nature of a mineral or metal determines that type of mining operation and amount of waste produces in extraction,
separation, and concentration of the ore. Three possible extraction methods may be used:
1. Sand and gravel extraction – very little rock is left behind the milling process
2. Extraction from buried ore bodies – huge quantities of rock often needs to be removed and discarded so that a
relatively small amount of ore can be recovered
3. Ore processing – producing ore minerals from ores through crushing, separating, and purifying

Local Ore and Minerals and Their Uses

- The tectonic setting of the Philippines have resulted in the deposition of both metallic and non-metallic mineral making it the
fifth most mineralized country in the world, third in gold reserves, fourth in copper, and fifth in nickel.
- Important metallic minerals – found in around nine million hectares or 30% of the country’s total land area with estimated total
of 14.5 billion metric tons which include gold, copper, iron, chromite, nickel, cobalt, and platinum.
- Nonmetallic minerals – found in five million hectares of land with estimated total of 67.66 billion metric tons which include
gravel, limestone, marble, clay, and other quarry materials.
- Offshore areas of around 2.2 million square kilometres contain placer minerals like gold, magnetite- and chromite-bearing
sands, aggregate resources, decorative stones and polymetallic sulfide deposits.

Natural Resources Management

- Finding environmental-friendly alternatives for mineral resources can prevent or lessen environmental impacts from use,
extraction, and exploitation of minerals (e.g. recycling and minimization of acquiring unnecessary commodities).
- Conservation, protection, and rehabilitation of ecosystems can also mitigate harmful effects of mineral resource extraction as it
allows recovery and restoration of affected ecosystems to its original state.
- Natural resource management is an interdisciplinary approach which would require all stakeholders to actively participate in
the management of natural resources with a particular focus on how it affects the quality of life for present and future
generations.

ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that, “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it is only transformed from one
form to another.”
Energy is the capacity to do work. It is derived from nuclear, fossil fuels, geothermal, hydro, wind, solar, and biomass.
Resource refers to any item which is used for a specific purpose.

Renewable and Nonrenewables Resources

- Renewable resources can be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale (e.g. geothermal, hydro, wind, solar, and
biomass).
- Nonrenewable resources cannot be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale (nuclear and fossil fuels).
- Humans have mostly relied on nonrenewable resources but it needs to be lessened as it causes to global warming and
climate change. Energy resources are also declining due to increasing population and demands.

FOSSIL FUELS
Fossil fuels
- It includes coal, oil or petroleum, and gas, which are non-renewable resources of energy derived from the remains of
prehistoric pants and animals that died and were buried millions of years ago resulting to fossils.
- It provides most of the energy that supports human transportation, electricity production, heating and cooling buildings and
various industrial activities.
Coal
- It is a black combustible rock made up of elemental carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and varying amounts of sulfur.
- It is formed from the remains of plants that once grew in swamps and
adjacent forests millions of years ago.
- The most extensive coal deposits date back to the Carboniferous period
between 290 and 360 Mya where the continuous burial and compaction of
organisms under oxygen-poor or anoxic conditions form peat, a precursor of coal containing 50% carbon.
- It is classified according to carbon content which increases along with temperature during formation.
- The amount of energy released when coal is buried is directly proportional to the amount of carbon within it.

Petroleum and Natural Gas

- Petroleum comes from the Latin words petra which means “rock,” and oleum
which means “oil.”
- It is a naturally-occurring liquid composed of complex hydrocarbons, and is
found in geologic formations underneath Earth’s surface.
 - It is a fossil fuel derived from large quantities of microscopic aquatic organisms such as algae and planktons.
- The remains of these organisms settled at sea or lake bottoms Mya and continuously buried producing kerogen from organic
matter and transformed it into hydrocarbons through the process of catagenesis.
- Petroleum forms within the “oil window” or the specific depth, pressure, and temperature range.
- Below this temperature range, kerogen is not transformed into hydrocarbons while above the temperature range oil is
converted into natural gas through thermal cracking.
- Natural gas is a hydrocarbon mostly made up of methane (CH4). Gas is lighter than air and highly flammable.
- Petroleum and natural gas rise up and are sometimes stored within porous reservoir rocks until they are trapped by an
impermeable layer and are extracted.

Fossil Fuels and the Carbon Cycle

- Deposits of fossil fuels are carbon storage areas. This carbon does not cycle
through the Earth unless released into the atmosphere during the burning of
fossil fuels and affects natural carbon balance and its associating processes.
- Increase in carbon concentration in the atmosphere results to increase in
global temperature that could lead to global warming and subsequent climate
changes.

NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclear reactions
- It occurs when atoms of one species of chemical element are transformed into atoms of another species by nuclear change.
This could occur in two ways in which both create nuclear energy:
o Fission – the splitting of heavy atoms into lighter atoms
- It occurs when an atom is hit by a neutron releasing heat and fragments that form new lighter elements and
ejects neutron from the nucleus.
- If the reaction is controlled, it could provide useable energy. If not, it could cause atomic explosion.
o Fusion – the combination of two light atoms to form heavier atoms.

Nuclear power plant

- It is a highly contained structure where radioactive materials are present.
- Disadvantages of nuclear power plant include:
o The fuel rod should maintain a certain temperature, if not; it will
generate temperature high enough to cause melt down or
explosion of radioactive materials. There should be a cooling
system in the power plant.
o The generation of radioactive wastes that are needed to be stored
deep underground chambers for very long period of time.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal Energy
- It is Earth’s internal heat as a source of energy.
- Geothermal gradient is the rate of change in temperature with depth.
- The internal heat is either leftover energy from its formation, a product of friction during collision of particles or a result of the
conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy as materials sunk to the interior.
- The decay of radioactive elements on the Earth’s surface also generates heat and forms a thermal blanket that traps internal
heat and allow mantle convection.
- The heat of the Earth is manifested at the surface as volcanic eruption, geysers, and hot springs.
- There are several ways of harnessing geothermal energy:
o Water heated by hot volcanic rocks is used for heating household interiors, growing vegetables during winter,
aquaculture, and heating humanmade pools.
o In ancient times, Romans used hot springs for heating and treating skin diseases.
o Geothermal energy is also utilized on a smaller household scale using ambient geothermal system wherein heat is
used to regulate the temperature inside the house using a system of pipes, heating fluid, and pumps buried
underground.
o Another way is by utilizing active geothermal system in volcanic areas where magmas heat up groundwater and
creates an underground system of hot water or steam that circulates in fractured or porous rocks (geothermal
reservoir). When the hot groundwater pumps out, it generates steam that is used to run turbines and generate
electricity.
- Philippines is second to California as the highest producer of geothermal power in which it contributes to about 27% in the
electricity generated in the country.
- Geothermal power plants have little environmental impacts and lesser production of carbon dioxide and sulfur compounds as
they do not burn fuel to create electricity.

HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
Hydroelectric energy
- It is essentially due to gravity.
- Hydropower is the power generated by the energy from falling water or fast running water.
- In the ancient times, hydropower was harnessed using water wheels for operation of mills, lifts, and provision of water.
- In the 19th century, hydropower was used to generate electricity called hydroelectricity.

Hydroelectric dams
- In large rivers, dams were built to allow water to move from higher to lower elevations.
- The potential of conventional hydroelectric dam depends on the volume of stored water and height difference or head between
the source and the water’s outflow.
- Water enters the intake at the bottom of the reservoir and flows through a tunnel called penstock to reach the turbine which
then rotates because of the water pressure and generate electricity.
- Excess water in the reservoir is allowed to flow through the spillway to prevent overflow or dam breach.
- It can generate hundred megawatts (MW) of electricity.
- However, reservoirs have limited lifetime and there are also environmental effects such as altering the river ecosystem and
displacing communities living in the area that will be converted into reservoir.

Small scale hydropower

- It is also called run-of-the-river power and has become more common.
- It generates electricity from 10 MW to 30 MW and is subdivided into mini hydro (<500 kW) and microhydro (<100kW).

WIND AND SOLAR ENERGY

Wind Energy
- Wind is the movement of air caused by differences in atmospheric pressure.
- Air moves from higher to lower pressure as a result of uneven heating of the Earth’s surface by the sun.
- Wind currents are formed when hot air rises and cool air moves down.
- Gust is a short-duration, high-speed wind.
- Breeze, gale, storm, and hurricane are the classifications of long-duration wind with various strengths.

Wind power
- Wind flows or air current can produce mechanical power like that in windmills and wind pumps and in sailing large ships.
- Wind power is harnessed using mounted turbines attached to towers with height ranging from 30 to 10000 m. A collection of
individual wind turbines is called wind farm which is connected to an electric-power transmission network or power grid.
- Wind farms are built onshore in flat areas, usually near coastlines.

Wind resources
- In the Philippines, wind resources are strongly dependent on latitude, elevation, and proximity to the coastline. Best locations
for these are hilltops, mountain ridges, and coastlines.
- Wind speeds ranging from 6.4 m/s to 10 m/s are considered good to excellent.
- The first wind farm in the Philippines is located in Bangui, Ilocos Norte with a total capacity of 33 MW.
- Wind is a clean energy source which does not produce air or water pollution because no fuel burning is involved in the
generation of electricity. However, it has serious impacts on bird and bat mortality which is why wind turbines are improved.

Solar Energy
- It is the energy coming from the sun.
- Plants are directly using this energy for photosynthesis while animals and
humans use the energy by consuming plants and absorbing vitamin D.
- It is directly used in greenhouses to allow plant growth and household heating.
- Converting solar energy into electricity requires solar collector like the
concentrated solar power which involves mirrors, lenses, and tracking system
that focuses light into a receiver and generates heat. The heat is used to
generate electricity from conventional steam-driven turbines.
- Another solar collector is the photovoltaic or solar cell. Photovoltaic refers to
the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level.
- A solar cell consists of semiconductor materials made into thin sheets called wafer that are treated to form electric field. The
solar energy releases electrons from atoms of the semiconductors when exposed to the sun and then the electrical conductors
capture the electrons and generate electric currents.
- A module is composed of individual solar cells that are connected together. An array is formed from interconnected modules.
The larger the array, the more electricity will be produced.
- Electricity produced by solar cells can be stored in batteries and can be used anytime; however it adds significant cost to the
solar power setup.
- Solar power setup makes homes independent of the power grid. Solar cells are very efficient devices that require low power
input that are very useful in remote areas or disaster-stricken places.
- Solar energy produces no air or water pollution. However, the manufacturing of photovoltaic cells (PV) produces toxic
materials and chemicals. It also affects ecosystems as it requires a large area for solar panels.
 BIOMASS
Biomass
- It is the oldest source of energy ever since prehistoric man discovered fire.
- It is a renewable energy source.
- Biomass is defined as the biological material derived from living or recently decreased organisms which may include both
plant life, including fuel, wood, animal dung, and agricultural wastes (e.g. dendrothermal, alcogas, biogas).
- Unlike fossil fuels, biomass takes carbon out of the atmosphere while it is growing and returns it as it is burned maintaining a
closed carbon cycle.
- However, improper management of biomass may lead to soil degradation, erosion, and desertification. Irresponsible
application of fertilizers may lead to nutrient loading in receiving water bodies causing eutrophication and fish kills.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Hydrologic cycle
- It is also known as the water cycle.
- It is the movement of water around the Earth’s surface and its subsystems.
- Reservoirs are places where water resides for varying amount of time.
Pathways are the processes that allow water to move between each
reservoir and subsystems.
- The total amount of water in the cycle is maintained although there are
some fluctuation like flood and drought that are balanced out on a global
scale.
- Heat from the sun provides energy for the movement of water.
- It causes evaporation, the process in which liquid water changes into vapor that occurs in ocean, surface water bodies,
vegetation, and soil. Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the leaves and stems of plants. Sublimation is the process
in which ice can directly transform into water vapor.
- Water vapor enters the atmosphere and moves with the flowing air. Condensation, the change from vapor into liquid or solid,
occurs as air rises and slows down the movement of water molecules.
- Precipitation occurs when water droplets or ice crystals gathered in the clouds become large and heavy. It transfers water
from the atmosphere into the Earth’s surface in liquid or solid form as rain, snow, or hail.
- Infiltration is the process in which falling rain penetrates the soil. When the soil is saturated, rainwater may flow over the land
as surface runoff and will join other bodies of water while the water that infiltrates the ground will be stored as groundwater or
absorbed by plants or directly evaporate.
- Snow usually remains on the ground for one or more season and eventually melts contributing to the water in streams.

EARTH’S WATERS
Earth’s water budget
- It is the total amount of water in the planet that generally remains constant.
- The United Nations World Water Development 2005 Report characterized the amount of
water in the different reservoir with ocean as the largest (97.5%) of the Earth’s total water)
and is mostly saline water.
- Residence time is the average length of time spent by water molecule in a reservoir.
- Although the total amount of water in the planet remains constant, the volume of water
present in each reservoir varies and affects other reservoirs (e.g. melting of glaciers
reduces the amount of water in that area and increases that in the ocean).

Saltwater Reservoir
- The world ocean covers 71% of Earth with a total volume of 1340 million km3 and is geographically divided into five distinct
regions and numerous seas, gulfs, bays, and straits.
- Historically there are four recognized oceans – the Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Arctic Ocean – until the
Southern Ocean is introduced in the year 2000.
- Salinity refers to the saltiness of saltwater because of the presence of major chemicals like sodium and chloride ions. It varies
from 33 to 37 parts per thousand.
- Other natural elements are also present in low concentration coming from the products of weathering and volcanic eruptions.
- Saltwater salinity is maintained within a narrow range by the processes in the hydrologic cycle. Evaporation removes water
making the remaining solution saltier. Precipitation adds water and cause dilution. Inflow from river and groundwater lessens
the salinity but the freezing of sea water excludes the salt leaving the unfrozen water saltier.
- There are three major zones in the ocean:
o Surface layer – consists of relatively warm, low-density water and extends from the ocean surface to a depth of 100
m. It is only about 2% of the ocean water but inhabited with most marine organisms.
o Thermocline – the second layer where water temperature decreases rapidly with depth. At high latitude, it reaches
the surface and extends up to 1500 m.
 o Deep zone – it is below the thermocline where the temperature is uniformly low. It consists 80% of the ocean water.
- The waters in these layers are constantly moving. At the surface, currents are caused by prevailing winds. Currents flow
clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. In the thermocline, there is a
thermocline circulation driven by density differences, which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline).
- Oceans are important in providing marine food sources, transportation, recreation, climate regulation, and circulation of heat,
water, and carbon dioxide which are vital in many chemical cycles on Earth.

Freshwater Reservoirs
Glaciers and Ice Sheets
- 68.7% of freshwater on Earth is stored in glaciers with estimated volume exceeding 24 million km2.
- A glacier is a permanent body of ice which consists largely of recrystallized snow.
- An ice sheet is a mass of glacial land ice extending more than 50 000 km2 caused by the accumulation and
compaction of snow.
- 90% of ice is concentrated in Antarctica and when melted causes the global sea level to rise by 60 meters while the
rest are found in Greenland and mountain glaciers that could cause global sea level to rise 6 meters.
- Glaciation decreases the volume of water as it freezes while deglaciation increases water volume.
Permafrost
- It is a soil, rock, or sediment frozen for more than two consecutive years.
- It varies in thickness from a few meters to about 150 meters.
- It comprises about 0.8% of the total freshwater resource and the estimated total water stored as underground ice is
300 000 km3.
Surface Water Reservoirs
- They represent 0.3% of Earth’s total water resource and are harnessed for irrigation, recreation, transport, fishing, drinking,
and hydropower.
Stream
- It is a moving body of surface water that flows downslope toward sea level because of gravity.
- It has clearly-defined passageway called channels where particles and dissolve substances are transported.
- A river is a stream with considerable volume and a well-defined channel constituting about 1.6% of the total surface
and atmospheric water.
- Streams are a network of small streams called tribularies connected to a main stream or river.
- A drainage basin or watershed is a land area where water flow into a particular stream.
- A drainage divide is a line that separates individual drainage basin. It is a topographically high landform usually
represented by mountain ridges or hills in smaller basins.
- The interfluve is the narrow, elongated landform separating individual streams within a basin.
- During heavy rain, water moves downhill in a process called overland flow and enters the channels and becomes
streamflow.
- These processes contribute to surface runoff and initiate the transport of sediments along their courses, carving
complex patterns in landscape.
- The total volume of water stored in streams is estimated at about 2 120 km3.
- The largest drainage basin in the Philippines is the Cagayan River Basin.
Lakes
- These are large inland bodies of fresh or saline water.
- Ponds are small and shallow lakes.
- Dams are barriers constructed along streams to contain the flow of water.
- Water in lakes came from streams, overland flow, and groundwater through outlet streams or by evaporation and
infiltration into the ground.
- Geologic processes form natural lakes like crates from volcanic eruptions that are eventually filled with water.
- Lakes stores 67% of the total surface and atmospheric water.
- They provide for irrigation, industrial, municipal, residential, and recreational purposes.
Wetlands
- These are land areas where water covers the surface for significant periods which vary in size.
- It constitutes about 8.5% of the total land surface and atmospheric water.
- The largest wetland in the Philippines is the Ligawasan Marsh.
- There are three types of wetlands:
o Marsh – a shallow wetland around lakes, streams, and oceans where grasses and reeds are the dominant
vegetation.
o Swamp – a wetland with lush trees and vegetation found in low-lying areas beside slow-moving rivers where
oxygen in the water is typically low (e.g. Mangrove forests).
o Estuary – a partly enclosed coastal body of water where freshwater from stream meets the saltwater from
the sea and is inhabited by organisms that can tolerate sharp changes in salinity.
- Wetlands are important breeding ground for fish and invertebrates. It also slows down stream flow by trapping the
water thus preventing floods, erosion and sedimentation. It is also able to seep into the ground and replenish
groundwater and it traps water pollutants.
Floods
- A flood is a natural event wherein an area that is usually dry is submerged under water.
 - It usually occurs when the rate of precipitation is higher than the rate of absorption by the ground or carried by the
streams. It also occurs when natural or humanmade reservoirs collapse.
- Fluvial or riverine flood occurs when a stream’s discharge is greater than the capacity of the channel causing it to
overflow.
- Flashfloods are characterized by intense, high-velocity torrent of water that occurs in an existing river channel with
little to no notice.
- Coastal flooding occurs when water overwhelms in low-lying areas along coasts usually due to severe weather
conditions.
- Pluvial or surface water flood occurs when heavy rainfall creates a flood event usually due to clogged drainage.
- Vegetation is vital in reducing flood intensity as it slows down overland flow, giving it enough time to infiltrate the
ground and lessens erosion.
Groundwater
- It is fresh water found in the rock and soil layers beneath the surface.
- It is the largest reservoir of liquid fresh water on Earth constituting about 30.1% of the total freshwater.
- Aquifers are water-bearing rock layers similar to a sponge that holds groundwater in tiny cracks, cavities, and pores
between mineral grains.
- Porosity is the total amount of empty pore spaces in the rock. It determines the amount of groundwater that an
aquifer can hold.
- Permeability is the ability of the rock or sediments to allow water to pass through it.

Groundwater Profile
- Zone of aeration or unsaturated zone is the zone beneath the moist soil layer on the
surface in which the spaces between particles are filled mainly with air.
- Zone of saturation is the layer beneath the zone of aeration in which the spaces
between the particles are filled with water.
- Water table is the boundary between the two zones which resembles the topography –
it is high beneath hills and low beneath valleys. During dry season, it is found at
shallow depths and migrates deeper during dry seasons.
- Capillary fringe is a layer directly above the water table wherein groundwater seeps up
to fill the pore spaces in the zone of aeration by capillary action.

Aquifers, Artesian Wells, and Springs

- Unconfined aquifer is an aquifer in which the groundwater is free to rise in its natural level.
- In confined aquifer, water is trapped and held down by pressure between impermeable rocks called aquiclude. The pressure
will cause water to rise in wells drilled through it.
- Artesian well is a well in which water could rise without pumping if it is located at an elevation below the recharge zone of the
confined aquifer.
- Recharge zone is the land area where water enters the ground and replenishes the groundwater. For unconfined aquifers, it is
basically the whole watershed while it is only limited in areas exposed to the surface in confined aquifers.
- Discharge zone is the area where the groundwater flows out of the aquifer and onto land surface even in submarine
environment.
- When groundwater emerges to the ground surface, it creates a spring which usually occurs in places where there is a
decrease in permeability of the underlying material.

Groundwater-Stream Relationship
- Losing or influent stream is a type of stream that when water loses downstream and dries up, it flows underground and
contributes to the groundwater.
- Gaining or effluent streams are streams fed by groundwater.
- Streams can be gaining or losing depending on the amount of available water.

WATER AS A RESOURCE
Activities Affecting the Quality of Water
1. Population growth, particularly in water-short regions
2. Movement of large number of people from the countryside to towns and cities
3. Demands for greater food security and higher living standards
4. Increased competition between different uses of water resources
5. Pollution from factories, cities, and farmlands

Effects of Human Activities to Water Resources

- Deforestation, conversion of natural landscapes into farm or residential areas, urbanization, and surface mining has led to
accumulation of sediments in streams in a process called sedimentation.
- Mining have caused surface water to become acidic producing an acid mine drainage.
 - Improper waste disposal contributes to degradation of streams and lakes in urban areas which led to damages in aquatic
ecosystems, impaired water quality and hinders water transport.
- Waste produced by humans cause pollution that affect rainwater and water resources.
- Emissions from factories pollute atmospheric water producing acid rain.
- Nutrients from sewage and farmland runoff may cause eutrophication in receiving water reservoir.
- Overexploitation of the surface and groundwater resources causes irreversible effects.
- Excessive water withdrawal and improper management have dried up lakes and streams, reduced spring yields, diminished
river flow, poorer water quality, damage to natural habitats, and gradual sinking of land or subsidence.

Water Resource Management and Conservation

- It involves planning, developing, distributing, and managing the optimum use of water resources.
- In response to growing water demands, naturally-produced waters are used for other purposes and technological advances
make wastewater reuseable after extensive treatment. Desalination is also practiced in some areas wherein salt is taken out
of seawater and brackish water to produce freshwater.
- Laws and policies are crafted to protect and manage water resources. There several laws in the Philippines enacted for the
protection, conservation, and management of freshwater resources.
o Presidential Decree (PD) No. 424 of 1974 created the National Water Resources Council (NWRC) to coordinate and
integrate water resources development.
o PD No. 1067 (1976) instituted the Water Code which consolidated the laws governing the ownership, appropriation,
utilization, exploitation, development, conservation, and protection of the water resources subject to regulation by the
NWRC.
o Executive Order (EO) No. 222 of 1995 established the Presidential Committee on Water Conservation and Demand
Management which was tasked to prepare a nationwide Water Conservation Plan.
o Republic Act (RA) No. 8041 or the National Water Crisis Act of 1995 addressed the country’s water problems through
an integrated water management program and development of new water resources and conservation of identified
watersheds, among other provisions.
o The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 also provided a comprehensive water quality management.

THE PEDOSPHERE
Pedosphere
- It is composed of the soil component of Earth which is the foundation of terrestrial life on the planet.
- The term is derived from the Greek words pedon meaning “soil” and sfaira meaning “sphere”.

The Components of Soil

- Soil is made from portions of the four subsystems with 45% mineral (gravel, sand, silt, and clay), 25% air, 25% water, and 5%
organic matter (humus, roots, and dead and decaying organisms).

Soil Formation
- Soil forms when rock weathers or breaks down as a result of physical and chemical change.
- There are five factors that affect soil formation:
o Parent material – its chemistry and type will determine the kind of soil that will be formed along with other factors.
Residual soils are soils that form on site by weathering while other soils are eroded and transported to places.
o Climate – it affects the pattern and intensity of soil-forming processes such as weathering, leaching, transportation,
and distribution and also affects the type of organisms, biological activity, and rates of chemical reactions.
o Topography – slope gradient affects water flow and erosion. Slope aspect or the direction of slope face affects
temperature and moisture as slopes facing the sun are warmer, thus; soil types vary in different landforms.
o Biological factors – animals and microorganism mix the soil through burrowing while plant roods aid in weathering.
They also affect nutrient and chemical exchange between roots and soil.
o Time – soil formation is a long and continuous process which may take hundreds to thousands of years depending
on climate and environment. The rate is faster in tropical climates and much longer in dry and cold climates.

Soil Texture
- It is defined as the relative proportion of the particle sizes in the soil – sand, silt, and clay.
- The smallest particle is clay (<0.002 mm), followed by silt (0.002 – 0.005 mm), and sand of
varying sizes (0.005 – 2.00 mm). Particles larger than coarse-grained sand are called gravel
and rock.
- The proportions of clay, silt, and sand are plotted in the soil textural triangle to determine its
soil type based on particle size.

Soil Profile
- Soil formation is a gradual process which involves the development of a succession of zones or soil
horizons.
 - Soil profile is a sequence of soil horizons from the surface down to the underlying bedrock.
- The capital letters O, A, B, C, and E are used to identify soil horizons. Most soils have three major horizons – A, B, and C
horizons.
o Surface horizon (A) – is composed of mineral matter mixed with some dark organic humus
o Subsoil (B) – is the accumulated clay and other nutrients from the layers above it
o Substratum (C) – is composed of partially altered parent material
- Some soils have organic horizon (O) which is composed of loose or partly decayed organic matter.
- Horizon (E) is characterized by a significant loss of minerals (eluviations) and leaching.
- The hard bedrock, which is not soil, uses the letter (R) while the layer of loose, heterogeneous, superficial material covering
the bedrock is collectively called regolith.

Soil Orders
The most general level of soil classification is the soil order consisting of 12 types:
1. Gelisols – frozen soils found in the coldest regions on Earth
2. Histosols – high organic content and wet
3. Spondosols – sandy and acidic soils found in moist climates that often support dense forests
4. Andisols – composed of volcanic ash
5. Oxisols – very weathered and common in tropical climates
6. Vertisols – Claylike soils that shrink and swell
7. Aridisols – very dry soils in arid regions
8. Ultisols – weathered soils
9. Mollisols – deep and fertile soils
10. Alfisols – moderately weathered productive soils found in temperate and humid regions
11. Inceptisols – slightly developed, young soils found on steep slopes and mountain ranges
12. Entisols – newly-formed soils found in steep rocky lands

In the Philippines, there are nine recognized soil orders: alfisol, andisol, histosol, inceptisol, mollisol, oxisol, ultisol, and
vertisol.

SOIL AND SOIL QUALITY

Importance of soil
- Soil is a resource that sustains man’s existence and provides the following services:
o Arable land for agriculture – “arable” comes from the Latin arabilis which means “able to be plowed”. Arable lands are
plowable lands used to grow crops. The agricultural land in the Philippines from 2011 – 2015 is 41.7% of its total land
area.
o Regulating water and filtering potential pollutants – water and dissolved solutes also flow over the land or into and
through the soil in which the microbes and minerals present in it is responsible for filtering, degrading, immobilizing,
and detoxifying organic and inorganic materials.
o Nutrient cycling – carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other essential nutrients are stored, transformed, and cycled in
the soil.
o Foundation and support – soil structure provides a base for plant roots and soils along the bedrock also provides
support for human shelter and structures.
o Mineral deposits – soils mined for their mineral content (iron, nickel, or aluminium) are called laterites. They develop
through an intensive and extended chemical weathering of the underlying parent rock.

How Human Activities Degrade Soil Quality

- Soil degradation is a change in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and
services for its beneficiaries.
1. Soil erosion – the absolute soil losses in terms of topsoil and nutrients and the most visible effect of soil degradation.
2. Soil compaction – reduces the amount of air, water, and space available to roots and soil organism.
3. Desertification – the irreversible change of the land to such a state where it can no longer be recovered for its original
use and is characterized by droughts and arid conditions.
4. Intensive agriculture – the use of heavier machinery, deforestation and clearing of land for cultivation has led to loss
of organic matter, soil compaction, and damage to soil physical properties. Overuse of fertilizers and pesticides
contaminated the soils and water supplies leading to loss of soil fauna and flora that maintains soil health.
5. Urbanization – increasing population has led to conversion of land to urban centers wherein the soil is sealed with
concrete hindering its interaction with the subsystems.

Conservation of Soil Resource

- The effects of human activities on soil can be mitigated through the following ways:
o Increasing soil organic matter – it improves soil quality and structure and also enhances water and nutrient-holding
capacity.
o Keeping the soil covered and vegetated – it protects the soil, provides habitats for larger soil organisms and improve
water availability
o Avoiding excessive tillage – tillage is done to loosen surface soil and break up soil structure. Reducing it minimizes
the loss of organic matter and protects soil surface from further erosion.
 o Manage pests and nutrients efficiently – it requires regular testing and monitoring soil conditions and pests along with
the proper application of necessary chemicals
o Promoting crop rotation – it allows the soil to recover as different plants contribute uniquely to soil structure and
composition and increases diversity of plants and organism.
o Reducing erosion and preventing soil compaction – erosion can be prevented by keeping the ground covered and
vegetated by while soil compaction can be prevented by restricting human activities to designated areas and
pathways.

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Ecosystem
- Environment refers to everything that surrounds a living organism which includes physical and biological factors.
- Ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with each other and with the abiotic or nonliving components of the
environment.
- Ecosystem services refer to the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human survival and quality of life. The
categories of ecosystem services are the following:
o Support services – include the cycling of vital nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus for survival. It may also include the decomposition of organic
matter, cycling of water and production of primary materials.
o Provisioning services – provide the basic needs for survival – air, water, shelter,
food, and energy.
o Regulating services – benefits from regulation of climate, hazards, and diseases
through processes such as carbon sequestration or removal of carbon dioxide.
o Cultural services – include nonmaterial benefits such as spiritual enrichment,
cultural heritage, recreation, tourism, and the aesthetic experience in nature.
- Human activities primarily affect ecosystems, biodiversity, and quality of soil, water, and air.

HUMAN ACTIVITIES, WASTE, AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste
- Solid waste is generally made up of objects or particles that accumulate on the site where they are produced.
- Various types of solid wastes are produced through mining, agricultural, industrial, and municipal/domestic activities.
o Municipal wastes – materials that people no longer want because they are broken, spoiled or no longer useful. These
come from household, commercial establishments, institutions, and some industrial sources.
o Agricultural waste – a common waste derived from farming and poultry. Most of these are organic and used to
enhance soil while others are burned as a source of energy.
o Industrial solid waste – comes from industrial sources other than mining which includes demolition waste, scraps
from manufacturing processes, and ash from combustion.
o Mining waste – it is generated in three ways. In most mining, large amounts of rock and soil are removed for ore
extraction leaving waste materials outside. In milling operations, the grinding and sorting of materials produce solid
waste called tailings. Lastly, water that is pumped flows from piles of waste rock or tailings that contain hazardous
materials.

Methods of Waste Disposal

1. Landfill – the cheapest and most convenient method. It is constructed above an impermeable clay layer that is lined with an
impermeable membrane. Fresh garbage deposit is covered with a layer of soil to prevent it from blowing around.
2. Incineration – involves burning in a controlled manner using an incinerator. The waste material is converted into gas, particles,
and heat that are later used to generate electricity.
3. Mulch and compost – one of the simplest methods of disposing at homes. Composting allows natural process of
decomposition to transform organic materials into humuslike material called compost.
4. Source reduction – method of designing, manufacturing, purchasing, using, and reusing materials to reduce amount of waste.
5. Recycling – collecting throwaway materials and turning them into useful products.

The Resource Cycle

- Resource cycle is the process involving the transformation of raw material into a useable or consumable product and its
disposal.
- It starts with extraction of raw materials through mining, cultivating, and/or harvesting then process, transport, and
manufacture them into new products. These stages generate wastes that affect the Earth’s subsystems which provides the
raw materials or resources.
 - Reducing the demand of resources, minimizing waste, and recycling and reusing may balance the production of resources
and waste disposal.

Waste Management
- Waste management can be done using the waste management hierarchy of
options.
- First option is buying durable products other than disposable ones.
- The second is to reuse and recycle solid waste to serve another purpose. Organic
waste can be converted into compost for planting through different biocomposting
techniques.
- The third option is the treatment of waste to minimize its effects on the
environment.