Lesson 1: Microscope Return the microscope:

o Simple – one lens system. o LPO in position; one cm above stage.

o Compound – series of lenses; higher magnification, o Mirror in vertical position
microscopic anatomical studies. o Vertical body tube
o Stage clips are parallel to each other.

Parts of a Microscope:
Lesson 2: Magnification
A. Mechanical
a. Base – horseshoe-shape; supports the weight. Magnification – number of times the length and width or
b. Pillar – short column between base and arm. diameter of the specimen is enlarged or reduced.
c. Arm – for holding.
o Macroscopic – can with unaided eye.
d. Tube – hollow cylinder between eyepiece and
o Microscopic – can’t with unaided eye.
objectives.
e. Inclination joint – permits tilting of the A. Macroscopic Specimen:
microscope.
f. Revolving nosepiece – objectives are attached. 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑋) =
g. Dust shield – above nosepiece; protects 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
objectives from dust. B. Microscopic Specimen
h. Stage – specimen is placed.
i. Stage aperture – opening in stage where light 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑋) = 𝑒𝑦𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒 × 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
passes through.
j. Spring/stage clips – hold slide.
k. Diaphragm – regulate light, beneath the aperture.
i. Iris – lever regulates opening/closing.
ii. Disc – plate with several circular
openings.
l. Attachment screws – raises or lowers.
i. Coarse – approximate focus; LPO.
ii. Fine – sharper focus; HPO.
B. Optical
a. Mirror – two-faced; plane and concave.
b. Condenser – maybe absent; secondary lens.
c. Ocular/eyepiece – where one looks through.
d. Objectives
i. LPO – larger field; outline.
ii. HPO – greater magnification; details.
iii. Oil immersion – power of 97x or 100x.
iv. Scanning/scanner – larger field; full
outline; 3x, 4x or 5x.
Use of the Microscope
Always locate using LPO first!
o Mirror should be directed towards the light.
o Mostly, LPO and HPO are parfocal (if already focused in
LPO, can also be seen under HPO)
o If unclear specimen: turn fine adjustment.
o If more light is needed: adjust diaphragm or mirror.
Lower the LPO first close to the slide, then slowly move it
backward to see the outline. After, you can switch to HPO
(make sure the lens do not touch the slide)
Lesson 3: The Cell
Cell – unit of biological structure and function; self-existent and
self-reproducing.
Ciliated Columnar Cells – secretion, excretion, absorption,
Cells undergo specialization. and movement through the cilia; lung bronchi, uterine tubes,
uterus.
A. Parts of the Cell
o Cell Membrane – outer limits; semi-permeable
membrane.
o Cytoplasm – metabolic and synthetic activities; contains
organelles and inclusions.
o Organelles – small internal cellular organs.
o Inclusions – lifeless accumulations of
metabolites or cell products; temporary.
o Nucleus – center; essential for growth, development, and Smooth Muscle Cells –digestion and nutrient collection, get
continued existence of the cell; center of DNA and RNA rid of toxins; stomach, intestines, urinary system
synthesis.
o Nuclear Membrane – double-layered porous
limiting membrane; continuous with ER.
o Nucleoplasm – contains chromatin granules and
nucleoli.
o Chromatin granules – dispersed state of
chromosomes (genetic material)
o Nucleolus – contains RNA; center of protein and
RNA synthesis; one or more in a nucleus.
Organelles: Squamous Cells – promote diffusion in tissues in the lungs
and blood capillaries.
o Mitochondria – spherical, rod-shaped; supplies
energy for chemical reactions and active transport.
o Golgi complex – interlacing network of tubules;
concentration and packaging of secretory products;
may participate in synthesis of polysaccharides.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum – double-layered
membrane.
o Rough – protein synthesis.
o Smooth – lipid synthesis.
o Ribosomes – RNA and protein; sites of protein Epithelial Cells – respiratory and digestive tracts; form the
synthesis. covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities, hollow organs,
o Lysosomes – nearly spherical bodies; contains and major tissue in glands; protection, secretion, absorption,
hydrolytic enzymes for catalyzing digestion of foreign excretion, filtration, diffusion, sensory reception.
bodies.
o Lysis – rupturing of lysosomal membrane.
o Centrioles – pair of small granules or short rods;
formation of spindle fibers during cell division.
Exercise 4: The Protoplasm – complex dispersal system of water, salts, and organic substances bounded by membranes; colloidal
system.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑚 = 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 + 𝑐𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑚 (𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠)

System Definition Experiment Observations

1. Solution A homogenous mixture where Add NaCl to 𝐻2 𝑂 NaCl dissolved; only water is
the solute completely seen.
dissolves in the solvent.
2. Suspension A heterogeneous mixture Add flour to 𝐻2 𝑂; let it stand The water became turbid. After
whose particles initially undisturbed. a while, top became clear
disperse but settle at the while flour settled at bottom.
bottom with time.
3. Emulsion Immiscible colloidal Add oil to alcohol then mix. Alcohol and oil mixed. When
suspension of one liquid in Pour mixture to water. poured to water, (oil) globules
another, forming distinct floated on top and in the water.
phases.
4. Colloid A homogenous mixture where Gelatin in water. Warm until From gelatin, it became sol,
particles of one substance are gelatin dissolves (Sol state). then gel, then sol again.
dispersed through another, but
do not settle; lies between a Cool with water. (Gel state)
solution and suspension.

Semi-liquid: Sol
Semi-solid: Gel
Test for Presence of Organic Compounds

Macromolecule Test Reagents Positive Test Procedure/Observations

Benedict’s Red/green/yellow precipitate Add glucose to Benedict’s
(Monosaccharides) solution. Boil.

When cooled, light blue

turned to dark bluish
green.

Glucose: Dark bluish green No changes in starch.

Starch: NEGATIVE
Carbohydrates Benedict’s Reagent
Iodine Test Add potassium iodide
(Polysaccharide) each to glycogen and
starch.

Both have different

Glycogen: Reddish brown results.
Starch: Yellowish black/blue
Potassium Iodide
(𝐼2 𝐾𝐼)
Dye Test Add dye to water (dye
doesn’t dissolve).

Add oil. Dye dissolved to

red in oil.
Sudan IV dye
Fats and Lipids

Red color
Grease-Spot Test Concentrated oil Translucent spot on paper. Drop oil to newspaper.

A translucent spot is left.

Biuret Test Egg Albumin (protein): Purple Egg added to NaOH, then
Polypeptide: Pink 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 is dropped.

Purple color is formed.

10% 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻

Proteins
1% 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4
Coagulation HCl Egg + 𝐻2 𝑂
NaOH Egg + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
𝐻2 𝑂 𝐸𝑔𝑔 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
Egg albumin
Heat.

Appearance of white strands; All had white strands.

denaturation is the first step of
coagulation.
Exercise 5: Passive Cellular Transport Experiment:

• Passively, cells obtain nutrients and release waste 1. Starch inside cellophane is immersed inside the iodine
through the semi-permeable membrane. solution.
2. After immersing, the starch turned blue.
A. Diffusion – movement of molecules from a region of high
Remember: 𝐼𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ = 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟
concentration to lower concentration.
When immersing the “packaged starch” in the iodine solution,
there is a high concentration of IODINE outside the
cellophane.
Iodine molecules then diffused to the lower concentration
environment (starch) through the membrane (cellophane),
Experiment: The dye/powder is the “high concentrated” region hence explaining the blue color.
while the water is the “low concentrated region.”
Through diffusion, the dye/powder moved to the parts of “low
concentration” explaining why the color scattered throughout C. Osmosis – the net movement of water through a semi-
the water. permeable membrane from a region of low concentration
to high concentration.

Factors affecting rate of diffusion:

• Concentration gradient (or mass)

o The more concentrated the substance (in this
case, the dye/powder, the slower it will diffuse)
• Temperature
o The hotter the medium (water), the faster the dye
will diffuse.

B. Diffusion through a membrane

Experiment: The sugar solution inside the tube is the “high

concentration” region, while the water in the beaker is the “low
concentration” region. (Low concentration of sugar)
When the tube is immersed in the water, the level of the sugar
solution inside the tube rose because water entered through
the cellophane (semipermeable membrane), via osmosis.
Exercise 6: Cell Reproduction
Double function of a cell: • Multi-celled: Development by addition of cells
1. Maintain itself. Reproduction:
2. Participate in the organism’s entire life.
✓ Perpetuation (main purpose)
Cell division: ✓ Repair of worn-out tissues
✓ Growth and development
• Single-celled: Reproduction

Somatic Cell Division:

No. of
Details Occurs in: Example
chromosomes
Division without spindle fiber formation Unequal ✓ Protozoans: ciliates, Paramecium sp.
Amitosis
suctorians
(direct)
✓ Unicellular
Equal division of nuclear materials Equal Nucleus (structural and Whitefish blastula
Mitosis
(karyokinesis) and division of cell body physiological changes)
(indirect)
(cytokinesis).

AMITOSIS (in paramecium)

1. Elongation of macro and micro-nuclei. (only
macronucleus can be seen)
2. Transverse fission: appearance of indentation and
constriction around the middle of the individual plane
at right angles to the animal’s longitudinal axis.
3. Constrictions deepen and pinching off.

MITOSIS (in whitefish blastula)

1. Interphase or Resting Cell Stage
a. Cell is active metabolically.
b. Enlargement of nucleus
i. Synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins
ii. Duplication of chromosomes.
2. Prophase
a. Coiling, shortening, thickening of chromosomes into threads as two chromatids.
b. Nucleus disappears; disintegration of nuclear membrane.
3. Metaphase
a. Chromosomes align along equatorial plane
b. Spindle fibers attach to chromosome centromeres.
4. Anaphase
a. Sister chromatids move apart to opposite poles.
5. Telophase
a. Chromosomes are at the poles, uncoiling.
b. Formation of new nuclear region.
c. Cleavage furrow and constriction appears.
d. Deepening of cleave furrow and cytokinesis occurs.
Exercise 7: Embryology • Notochord – small mass of cells beneath the
median of the plate.
Stages of Embryonic Development:
B. Neural Groove
1. Fertilized Egg • Neural groove – depressions.
• Gray crescent – opposite the site of penetration. • Neural folds – elevations.
• Yolk – nonliving material; provides nutrients. C. Neural Tube – folding.
• Animal pole – divide more frequently. • Neural tube
• Vegetal pole • Neurocoele – space inside the neural tube.
2. Cleavage • Notochord
• First – meridional, • Archenteron
single. • Somatic layer – near ectoderm.
• Second – meridional, i. Somatopleure – somatic + ecto.
single • Splanchnic layer – near endoderm.
• Third – equatorial, i. Splanchnopleure – splanchnic +
single endo.
• Fourth– meridional, • Coelom – space between the “pleures”.
double. • Neural crest cells – cells that separate from the
• Fifth – equatorial, neural tube after complete closure; PNS.
single

3. Blastula Stage
• Blastula – hollow ball of cells after cleavage.
• Blastomeres – cells undergoing cleavage.
o Micromeres – small, dark, animal.
o Macromeres – bigger, lighter, vegetal.
• Blastocoele – cavity inside the blastula.

4. Gastrula (Yolk Plug) Stage – cells are given new

positions; generally forming the mesoderm.
• Epiboly – animal over vegetal. (ectoderm)
• Involution – animal outer to inner. (mesoderm)
• Invagination – vegetal inward; bottle cells move
in. (endoderm)
A. Early Gastrula – formation of the archenteron.
a. Archenteron – cavity opening to the outside
through the blastopore, bordered by the
dorsal lip.
B. Late Gastrula – vegetal completely covered by
animal; obliteration of blastocoele.
a. Yolk Plug – protrudes out the blastopore.
b. Endoderm
c. Ectoderm
5. Neural/Medullary Stage – formation of nervous system.
A. Neural Plate – closure of yolk plug; ectoderm at the
dorsal side flattens into a medullary plate.
6. Gill Stages
A. External Gill
a. Myotomes
b. Ventral Suckers – suckers at the ventral
side.
B. Internal Gill
a. Operculum – thin layer of skin.
b. Opercular aperture – exit of water.
Exercise 8: Histology B. Connective Tissues
A. Epithelial Tissues Main components:
- Protection: arranged into sheets or layers covering
✓ Cells – reside within the ground substance.
exposed surface.
o Fibroblasts – synthesis of fibers and ground
- Glands - secrete and absorb substances.
substances.
✓ Cells are extremely close to each other with very small
✓ Protein fibers – give structure and mechanical
intercellular substances between them.
properties.
✓ Has a basement membrane.
o Collagen – resistance from tensile force.
✓ Avascular (no blood supply); capillaries beneath
basement membrane. o Reticular
o Elastin
Typical organization: (starting from the lumen – the side facing ✓ Ground substance – liquid noncellular material
the “hollow tube” like a blood vessel) acting as the environment of the cells.
1. Lumen – space Functions:
2. Cilia (if present)
✓ Protection
3. Epithelial cells
✓ Structural support
4. Basement membrane – where the cells “seem to
✓ Connection and binding
grow out of.”
✓ Storage of nutrients (calcium, phosphorus)
5. Lamina propria – layer of connective tissues with
blood vessels. ✓ Transportation (like blood)
✓ Immune function
Connective Tissue Fibers:

Type Color Description Fibrils? Fiber

Collagenous White Long, wavy, Yes Collagen
branching
Elastic Yellow Thin, None Elastin
straight,
branching
Reticular Fine, wavy,
Nomenclature: 𝐿𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑦𝑙𝑒 + 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒 +
branching,
𝒆𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒖𝒎 network

Identifying Epithelial Tissues: Supporting Tissues:

1. Find the basement membrane. a. Cartilage – avascular; contains chondrocytes within

2. Find the apical side (edge of tissue closest to empty a spacious lacuna.
space). a. Hyaline – has glass-like opalescent ground
substance.
i. Perichondrium – blood vessel-
containing connective tissue
enveloping the cartilage.
b. Elastic – has a dense “dark” ground
substance.
b. Bones – rigid, hard due to deposition of inorganic
salts, brittle; vascularized with nerves and lymphatics.
✓ Supporting structures
✓ Storage depot of minerals
✓ Site of RBC formation.

c. Blood – transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones;

collecting waste CO2.
 a. Plasma – fluid matrix.
b. Erythrocytes – in humans, they are
nonnucleated, hence not real cells.
c. Leucocytes – nucleated, true cells.
i. Agranulocytes
1. Lymphocytes – big
nucleus surrounded by
small cytoplasm; immunity.
2. Monocytes – horseshoe-
shaped nucleus; ingest
bacteria and debris.
ii. Granulocytes
1. Eosinophils – bright red
stain; spherical; absorb
histamine.
2. Basophils – dark blue
granules; secrete
histamine and heparin.
3. Neutrophils – light pink
granules; kill and digest
bacteria.

C. Muscle Tissues
✓ Perform mechanical work through contraction.
✓ Motion (movement of body parts) and locomotion
(movement from one place to another)
Myofibrils – contractile fibrillar components.
a. Skeletal – striated, voluntary.
a. Fibrillae – contained by each fiber.
b. Sarcolemma – membrane.
c. Sarcoplasm – liquid cytoplasm.
b. Cardiac – striated, involuntary.
a. Intercalated discs – perpendicular to the
direction of fibers.
c. Smooth – non-striated, involuntary.
Exercise 9: External Anatomy of Toad or Frog iv. Pes/foot
v. Web – membranous extension of skin
Frog has no neck and tail (only present during larval/tadpole).
connecting one toe to another. (Longer
Male vs Female frog/toads: and slimmer in frogs for swimming)

1. First finger of male; very swollen during breeding season. Exercise 10: The Integumentary System
2. Male: dark pigmented areas at the angles of the lower jaws
• Functions:
on the ventral surface.
o Protection
3. Female is generally bigger.
o Sensation, excretion, respiration
• Layers of the Skin:
o Epidermis – outermost.
A. Axial Region ▪ Stratum corneum – a very thin layer of
a. Head – flattened. squamous cells.
i. Snout – triangular. • Desquamation – periodic casting
ii. External Nares – small openings near
off.
the snout on the nostrils.
• Molting/ecdysis – massive
iii. Eye
desquamation.
1. Nictating membrane – lower
▪ Transition layer – thickest layer; undergoes
lid.
keratinization.
iv. Tympanic Membrane – ear.
▪ Stratum germinativum – layer of actively
1. Columella – a small bone.
dividing tall columnar cells; attached to
v. Browspot – tiny white spot between the
basement membrane.
eyes; very distinct in frogs.
o Dermis – thickest layer.
1. Pineal body – third eye;
▪ Stratum spongiosum/laxum – looks loose
remnant is browspot.
because of cutaneous glands.
b. Trunk – elongated, slightly cylindrical.
▪ Stratum compactum – wavy muscle fibers;
i. Thoracic/chest – anterior half.
collagenous.
1. Parotid glands – elevated
• Subcutaneous connective tissue
structures behind the
– below the stratum compactum.
tympanum.
a. Absent in frogs. Exercise 11: The Skeletal System
ii. Abdominal/lumbar – posterior half.
1. Lumbar – dorsal. • Functions:
2. Abdominal – ventral. o Physical support and protection.
3. Anus o Surfaces for attachment of muscles.
4. Sacral hump – protrusion of • Two types:
pelvic girdle. o Exoskeleton – cuticle, shells, slimy exoskeleton,
B. Appendicular Region etc.
a. Forelimbs – anterior. o Endoskeleton – cartilage or bone.
i. Upper arm – first segment; attached to • Two Divisions:
trunk. o Axial – skull, visceral apparatus, vertebral
ii. Middle forearm column, ribs, sternum.
iii. Carpus/wrist o Appendicular – pectoral girdles, forelimbs, pelvic
iv. Manus/hand girdles, hindlimbs.
v. Fingers
vi. Pre-pollux – rudimentary first finger;
short stump.
b. Hindlimbs – posterior.
i. Thigh – first segment attached to body
mass.
ii. Shank
iii. Tarsus/ankle
The Skeletal System

Pectoral Girdle (11) – supports forelimbs; not attached to

vertebral column except through muscles and ligaments.
Suprascapula – very large bones; cartilage.
Scapula – connected to suprascapular.
Glenoid Fossa – depression between scapula and coracoid;
receives head of humerus.
Coracoid – connected to scapula.
Fenestra – space/cavity.
Clavicle – straight bone near coracoid.
Epicoracoid – connects both coracoids.
Episternum – near clavicle; tall, long bone.
Omosternum – connected episternum; inverted Y-shaped.
Xiphisternum – another bone opposite episternum.
Mesosternum – connected xiphisternum.

Pelvic Girdle: Innominate Bone (6) – connected to vertebra.

Ilium – long bone.
Acetabulum – depression.
Ischium – larger curved bulge.
Ischiac symphysis – curve.
Pubis – smaller curved bulge; triangular.
Pubic symphysis – curve.

Forelimb – front limb; connected to pectoral girdle. (9)

Head of humerus – round.
Deltoid ridge – protruding bulge near head; muscle attachment.
Humerus – long bone.
Condyle – vertex of humerus and radio-ulna.
Radio-ulna – bone of forearm; two bones fused (separated in
other vertebrates)
• Radius – inner.
• Ulna – outer.
Longitudinal groove – middle of radio-ulna.
Carpals – wrist; 6.
Metacarpals – palms.
Phalanges

Hindlimb – connected to pelvic girdle. (10)

Head of femur
Femur – long bone.
Tibio-fibula – next long bone.
• Fibula – outer.
• Tibia – inner
Tarsus – two bones with cavity in between; ankle.
• Calcaneum – fibulare; bigger, longer.
• Astragalus – tibiale; slender, shorter.
Calcar – extra toe connected to astragalus.
Ordinary Tarsals
Metatarsals – sole; 5.
Phalanges
Skull (Dorsal View) (10)
Pre-maxilla – two small holes. Teeth-bearing in frogs.
Maxillary – long side.
Nasal bones – triangular.
Sphenethmoid – center of nasal bones; diamond-shaped.
Fronto-parietal – long flat bone.
Squamosal – thin bone.

Prootic – holds the squamosal; goes towards the tympanic

membrane.
Quadratojugal – hammer-shaped.

No teeth in both frogs and toads.

Foramen magnum – hole; passage of spinal cord.
Occipital condyle – two circular bones near foramen magnum.

Skull (Ventral View)

Vomer, Vomerine teeth Parasphenoid Palatine – slender rod Pterygoid – surrounds the
connecting to maxillary. tympanic membrane.

Lower Jaw (Mandible)

Mento-meckelian
Dentary
Angulo-Splenial
Hyoid Cartilage
Anterior Cornua – often destroyed during preparation.
Alary process – bulges.
Body
Posterior cornua
Thyroid process – extensions.

Vertebral Column (7) – has 10 vertebrae.

Atlas – 1st; only cervical vertebra; no processes.
Typical Vertebrae – 2nd to 8th
Sacral Vertebra – 9th; only prezygapophysis
• Acoelus – biconvex centrum in frogs.
Urostyle – tail; caudal vertebrae of other vertebrates.
Transverse processes – protrusions.
Centrum – solid mass of bone at the base of vertebra.
• Procoelus – concave anteriorly; convex posteriorly.
• Amphicoelus – 8th vertebra of frog is biconcave.
Neural spine – straight line running to the bottom.
Neural canal – opening above the centrum; where spinal cord
passes.
Neural arch – surrounds the neural canal.
Prezygapophysis – anterior to neural arch on the concave side
of centrum; facing upward.
Postzygapophysis – posterior on the convex side of centrum;
facing downward.

Atlas Sacral Vertebra

Urostyle
Neural canal
Keel – standing upright.
Foramen – where the keel sits.
Centrum – joins the keel and foramen.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM:
A. Head Muscles

Part Description Origin Insertion Action

DORSAL Depressor mandibuli Broad muscle. Behind the tympanic Low jaw caudal. Closes mouth.
ring.
Temporalis Suprascapula to Dorsal border of Lower jaw. Opens mouth.
midst of tympanic suprascapula.
ring and eye.
Masseter Small muscle in Tympanic ring and Outer surface of Raises lower jaw.
front of tympanic adjacent bones. lower jaw. Closes mouth.
ring.
VENTRAL Mylohyoid or Very thin; mouth Lower jaw. Medium raphe. Pulls the mouth floor
Submaxillaris floor. downward during
breathing.
Sternohyoid Continuation of Coracoid and Hyoid bone Pulls hyoid
rectus abdominis clavicle. backward; lowers
forward to the head mouth floor during
under episternum. respiration.

B. Back and Gridle Muscles

Part Description Origin Insertion Action
Latissimus dorsi Small; overlapping the Fascia of back Deltoid ridge. Abducts arm; pulls arm up and
caudal portion of behind shoulder backward.
suprascapular. blade.
Dorsalis scapulae Outer surface of Scapula. Tendon joining Raises arms towards body.
(infraspinatus) suprascapula. latissimus dorsi.
Longissimus Long; close and along Anterior third of Vertebrae and skull. Raises head.
dorsi vertebral column. urostyle. Straightens back.
Coccygeo- Narrow; posterior to Urostyle. Transverse process of “Hump” the back when two
sacralis longissimus dorsi, extends sacral vertebra. muscles of the body act
posterior in oblique. together.
Turns back to one side.
Coccygeo-iliacus Diagonal between ilia and Urostyle. Anterior of ilium. Holds urostyle firmly.
urostyle.

C. Abdomen
Part Description Origin Insertion Action
Rectus Cover ventral side of abdomen. Pubic border. Sternum and Support abdominal
abdominis • Linea alba – mid-ventral line (red due coracoid. viscera.
to ventral abdominal vein)
• Inscriptiones tendinae – crosswise
faint lines.
External oblique Thin; outer layer of body wall of abdomen. Dorsal fascia. Linea alba; dorsal to Support and
Muscles are obliquely caudal and ventral. rectus abdominis. compress abdomen.
Internal oblique Internal oblique muscles directed oppositely Transverse Coracoids, Support and
(transversus with external oblique’s. process of 4th xiphisternum, linea compress abdomen.
abdominis) to 9th vertebra; alba.
ilium.
D. Shoulder and Chest

Part Description Origin Insertion Action

Deltoid Triangular; anterior of shoulder. Clavicle, Deltoid crest of Raises and rotates
suprascapula. humerus. humerus.
Sternoradialis Next to deltoid; arises in midventral line Episternum Radius Raises humerus.
passing outwards, piercing distal of deltoid.
Anterior Anterior of chest; next to sternoradialis. Sternum, Deltoid ridge. Flexes arm.
pectoralis coracoid.
Middle pectoralis Next to anterior pectoralis.
Posterior Paddle-shaped; lateral and posterior to Sternum, Deltoid ridge. Expands abdomen.
pectoralis middle pectoralis. coracoid,
rectus
abdominis.

E. Thigh

Part Description Origin Insertion Action

VENTRAL Triceps extensor Large; covers entire Large tendon over Draws entire
femoris thigh. knee to proximal of hindlimb forward;
tibio-fibula. extends lower leg.
• Vastus Outer head; dorsal Posterior of ilium.
exeternus thigh.
• Rectus femoris Middle head; dorsal Anterior of acetabulum.
anticus and ventral thigh.
• Vastus Inner head; ventral Anterio-ventral of
internus thigh. acetabulum.
Adductor longus Slender; below Ventral of ilium. Distal of femur. Pulls thigh forward
vastus internus, and ventrally.
partly covered by
sartorius.
Sartorius Thin, flat; transverse Ventral of ilium. Proximal of tibio-fibula. Pulls thigh forward
thigh obliquely. and ventral; flexes
shank.
Adductor magnus Stout, triangular; Ischium and pubis. Distal of femur. Adducts thigh.
behind sartorius. Pulls lower leg
forward.
Gracilis major Large; ventral of Posterior of ischium. Proximal of tibio-fibula.
(rectus internus thigh. Extends and flexes
major) leg.
Gracilis minor Most posterior, long Ischiac symphysis. Tendon of gracilis Pulls femur
(rectus internus slender.; inner side major and skin. backward.
minor) of thigh.
Semitendinosus Internal muscle; only Ischium Pre-axial of proximal of Adducts femur.
seen when tibio-fibula. Flexes lower leg.
separating adductor
magnus from gracilis
major.
DORSAL Biceps femoris Long, slender; below Behind posterior of Proximal of tibio-fibula. Adducts thigh.
vastus externus. dorsal crest of ilium. Flexes leg.
Semimembranosus Posterior margin of Posterior of ischium. Proximal of tibio-fibula Adducts thigh.
dorsal thigh; has behind knee. Flexes shank.
oblique markings.
Pyriformis Small, slender; from Posterior tip of Femur; junction of Draws femur
tip of urostyle and urostyle. proximal and middle dorsally.
between origin of third. Pulls urostyle to one
biceps femoris and side.
semimembranosus.
Gluteus Short; between RFA Outer and dorsal of Two heads; proximal Pulls thigh forward
and vastus externus. caudal half of ilium. of femur. and backward.