CHAPTER 14: CONTENT AND Services

PROCESS THEORIES OF
- How hard people try to achieve
MOTIVATION
their targets.
WORK MOTIVATION FOR - Intensity=effort.
PERFORMANCE
4 factors How to Determine Whether a
CONTENT THEORIES OF
Person Will Perform a Task Well
MOTIVATION
1. Ability - knowledge skills and
1. NEED
receptiveness to learning that a
- First, when a need has been
person brings to a task or job.
energized, we are motivated to
2. Role Perception - how well an
satisfy it. We strive to make the
individual understand their
need disappear.
organizational role.
2. HEDONISM
3. Performance environment - refers
- one of the first motivation theories,
to the factors that impact
assumes that people are motivated
employee’s performance but are
to satisfy mainly their own needs
essentially out of their control.
(seek pleasure, avoid pain). them.
a. “canon event”
3. MANIFEST NEED
4. Motivation - a force within or
- is whatever need is motivating us at
outside of the body that energizes.
a given time. Manifest needs
a. “movere” latin word=to
dominate our other needs.
move
4. INSTINCTS
b. Motivation arises as a
- are our natural, fundamental needs,
consequence of a person’s
basic to our survival. Our needs for
desire to:
food and water are instinctive.
i. Fulfill unmet needs
Many needs are learned. We are not
ii. Resolve conflicting
born with a high (or low) need for
thoughts that
achievement—we learn to need
produce anxiety.
success (or failure). MANIFEST
WORK MOTIVATION
MANIFEST NEEDS THEORY
- Amount of effort a person exerts to
Henry A. Murray recognized this problem
achieve a certain level of job
and condensed the list into a few
performance.
instinctive and learned needs.
- Go an “extra mile”
2 TYPES OF NEEDS by Henry A. Murray
2 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
MOTIVATION 1. Primary needs
- include physiological needs for
Direction
food, water, sex (procreation),
- What a person wants to achieve, urination, and so on.
what they intend to do. 2. Secondary Needs
- Target “hit”
 - are learned throughout one’s life positive or negative, to
and are basicaly psychological in assess their achievement.
nature. They include such needs as
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
the need for achievement, for love,
and for affiliation. - reflects a desire to establish and
o Latent needs - cannot be maintain warm and friendly
inferred from a person’s relationships with other people.
behavior at a given time, - Why is it important to
yet the person may stil organizations?
possess that need. o good for maintaining good
relationships with their
LEARNER NEED THEORY
coworkers.
McClelland’s research differs from o people with high nAff
Murray’s in that McClelland studied three perform better in jobs that
needs in-depth: require teamwork
1. the need for achievement (nAch) Need for Power (nPow)
2. the need for affiliation (nAff)
- is the need to control things,
3. the need for (nPow)
especialy other people.
Need for Achievement (nAch) - Why is it important to
organizations?
- How much people are motivated to
o have effective employee
excel at the tasks they are
behaviors, but at times
performing, especialy tasks that are
they’re disruptive.
difficult.
o 2 faces of power
- McCleland identifies three key
traits of individuals with a high  Personal Power
need for achievement (high-nAch): Seeker - endeavors
o Personal Responsibility. to control
hey take ownership of othersmostly for the
tasks, accepting credit for sake of dominating
successes and responsibility them. They “build
for failures. empires,” and they
o Preference for Moderate protect them. Social
 Power Seeker -
Challenges. They are
satisfies needs for
motivated by tasks with a
power by
moderate chance of success,
influencing others.
avoiding tasks that are too
Concerned with
easy or impossibly difficult.
goals that a work
o Desire for Feedback. They
group has set for
strongly seek performance
itself, and they are
feedback, valuing insights
motivated to
on their progress, whether
influence others to
 achieve the goal. 3. Social needs. These needs reflect
This need is human desires to be the target of
oriented toward affection and love from others.
fulfiling They are especially satisfied by the
responsibilities to presence of spouses, children,
the employer, not to parents, friends, relatives, and
the self. others to whom we feel close.
Feelings of loneliness and rejection
are symptoms that this need has not
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS been satisfied.
4. Ego and esteem. Esteem needs go
Maslow was a psychologist who, based on
beyond social needs. They reflect
his early research with primates
our need to be respected by others,
(monkeys), observations of patients, and
and to have esteem for ourselves. It
discussions with employees in
is one thing to be liked by others. It
organizations, theorized that human needs
is another thing to be respected for
are arranged hierarchically.
our talents and abilities. Ego and
Maslow went on to propose five basic esteem needs have internal (self)
types of human needs. This is in contrast and external (others) focuses. An
to the thousands of needs that earlier internal focus includes desires for
researchers had identified, and also fewer achievement, strength, competence,
than Murray identified in his theory. confidence, and independence. An
Maslow condensed human needs into a external focus includes desires to
manageable set. Those five human needs, have prestige, recognition,
in the order of prepotency in which they appreciation, attention, and respect
direct human behavior, are: from others. Satisfaction of
external esteem needs can lead to
1. Physiological and survival needs.
satisfaction of internal esteem
These are the most basic of human
needs.
needs, and include the needs for
5. Self-actualization. Self-
water, food, sex, sleep, activity,
actualization needs are the most
stimulation, and oxygen.
difficult to describe. Unlike the
2. Safety and security needs. These
other needs, the need for self-
needs invoke behaviors that assure
actualization is never completely
freedom from danger. This set of
satisfied. Self-actualization
needs involves meeting threats to
involves a desire for self
our existence, including extremes
fulfillment, “to become more and
in environmental conditions (heat,
more what one is, to become
dust, and so on), assault from other
everything that one is capable of
humans, tyranny, and murder. In
becoming.”10 Because people are
other words, satisfaction of these
so different in their strengths and
needs prevents fear and anxiety
weaknesses, in capacities and
while adding stability and
limitations, the meaning of self-
predictability to life.
actualization varies greatly.
 Satisfying self-actualization needs interpersonal relations or personal
means developing all of our special involvement in the work setting.
abilities to their fullest degree.  Relatedness needs include all of
Maslow’s social needs, plus social
The implications of Maslow’s theory for
safety and social esteem needs.
organizational behavior are as much
These needs are satisfied through
conceptual as they are practical. The
the exchange of thoughts and
theory posits that to maximize employee
feelings with other people.
motivation, employers must try to guide
 Growth needs include self-esteem
workers to the upper parts of the hierarchy.
and self-actualization needs. These
That means that the employer should help
needs tend to be satisfied through
employees satisfy lower-order needs like
one’s full involvement in work and
safety and security and social needs. Once
the work setting.
satisfied, employees will be motivated to
build esteem and respect through their
work achievements.

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

- This refers to the details the
dynamics of an individual’s
movement between the needs
categories in a somewhat more
detailed fashion than typicaly
characterizes interpretations of
Maslow’s work.

Four components—satisfaction
progression, frustration, frustration
regression, and aspiration—are key to
understanding Alderfer’s ERG theory.
1. Satisfaction progression, is in basic
agreement with Maslow’s process
of moving through the needs.
2. Frustration occurs when we attempt
but fail to satisfy a particular need.
3. Frustration regression, can cause us
to shift our attention to a
 Existence needs include previously satisfied, more concrete,
physiological and material safety and verifiable need.
needs. These needs are satisfied by 4. Aspiration component of the ERG
material conditions and not through model notes that, by its very nature,
growth is intrinsically satisfying.
HERZBERG’S MOTIVATIR- Motivator factors involve our long-term
HYGIENE THEORY need to pursue psychological growth
(much like Maslow’s esteem and self-
This theory is a further refinement of
actualization needs). Motivators relate to
Maslow’s theory. Herzberg argued that
job content. Job content is what we
there are two sets of needs, instead of the
actually do when we perform our job
five sets theorized by Maslow. He called
duties. Herzberg considered job duties that
the first set “motivators” (or growth
lead to feelings of achievement and
needs).
recognition to be motivators. He refers to
Motivators, which relate to the jobs we these factors as “satisfiers” to reflect their
perform and our ability to feel a sense of ability to provide satisfying experiences.
achievement as a result of performing When these needs are met, we experience
them, are rooted in our need to experience satisfaction. Because meeting these needs
growth and self actualization. provides satisfaction, they motivate
workers. More specifically, Herzberg
The second set of needs he termed
believes these motivators lead to high
“hygienes.” Hygienes relate to the work
performance (achievement), and the high
environment and are based in the basic
performance itself leads to satisfaction.
human need to “avoid pain.” According to
Herzberg, growth needs motivate us to Herzberg’s work suggests a two-stage
perform well and, when these needs are process for managing employee motivation
met, lead to the experience of satisfaction. and satisfaction. First, managers should
Hygiene needs, on the other hand, must be address the hygiene factors. Intense forms
met to avoid dissatisfaction (but do not of dissatisfaction distract employees from
necessarily provide satisfaction or important work-related activities and tend
motivation). to be demotivating.16 Thus, managers
should make sure that such basic needs as
Hygiene factors are not directly related to
adequate pay, safe and clean working
the work itself (job content). Rather,
conditions, and opportunities for social
hygienes refer to job context factors (pay,
interaction are met. They should then
working conditions, supervision, and
address the much more powerful motivator
security). Herzberg also refers to these
needs, in which workers experience
factors as “dissatisfiers” because they are
recognition, responsibility, achievement,
frequently associated with dissatisfied
and growth. If motivator needs are
employees. These factors are so frequently
ignored, neither long-term satisfaction nor
associated with dissatisfaction that
high motivation is likely. When motivator
Herzberg claims they never really provide
needs are met, however, employees feel
satisfaction. When they’re present in
satisfied and are motivated to perform
sufficient quantities, we avoid
well.
dissatisfaction, but they do not contribute
to satisfaction. Furthermore, since meeting SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
these needs does not provide satisfaction,
Factors “inside” the person that cause
Herzberg concludes that they do not
people to perform tasks, intrinsic
motivate workers.
motivation, arise out of performing a task
in and of itself, because it is interesting or knit, others like to carve wood. They do it
“fun” to do. The task is enjoyable, so we because it is intrinsically motivating; the
continue to do it even in the absence of hobby satisfies needs for competence,
extrinsic rewards. That is, we are autonomy, and relatedness. But what
motivated by intrinsic rewards, rewards happens if these hobbyists start getting
that we more or less give ourselves. paid well for their sweaters and carvings?
Intrinsic rewards satisfy higher-order Over time the hobby becomes less fun and
needs like relatedness and growth in ERG is done in order to receive extrinsic
theory. When we sense that we are rewards (money). Extrinsic motivation
valuable contributors, are achieving increases as intrinsic motivation decreases!
something important, or are getting better When extrinsic rewards are present, people
at some skill, we like this feeling and do not feel like what they do builds
strive to maintain it. competence, is self-determined, or
enhances relationships with others.
Self-determination theory (SDT) seeks
to explain not only what causes SDT theory has interesting implications
motivation, but also how extrinsic rewards for the management of organizational
affect intrinsic motivation. In SDT, behavior. Some jobs are by their very
extrinsic motivation refers to the nature uninteresting and unlikely to be
performance of an activity in order to made interesting. Automation has
attain some valued outcome, while eliminated many such jobs, but they are
intrinsic motivation refers to performing still numerous. SDT would suggest that the
an activity for the inherent satisfaction of primary way to motivate high performance
the activity itself. SDT specifies when an for such jobs is to make performance
activity will be intrinsically motivating and contingent on extrinsic rewards. Relatively
when it will not. Considerable numbers of high pay is necessary to sustain
studies have demonstrated that tasks are performance on certain low-skill jobs. On
intrinsically motivating when they satisfy the other hand, SDT would suggest that to
at least one of three higher-order needs: enhance intrinsic motivation on jobs that
competence, autonomy, and relatedness. are interesting, don’t focus only on
These precepts from SDT are entirely increasing extrinsic rewards (like large pay
consistent with earlier discussions of bonuses). Instead, create even more
theories by McClelland, Maslow, Alderfer, opportunities for employees to satisfy their
and Herzberg. needs for competence, autonomy, and
relatedness. That means giving them
SDT takes the concepts of extrinsic
opportunities to learn new skills, to
rewards and intrinsic motivation further
perform their jobs without interference,
than the other need theories. SDT
and to develop meaningful relationships
researchers have consistently found that as
with other customers and employees in
the level of extrinsic rewards increases, the
other departments. Such actions enhance
amount of intrinsic motivation decreases.
intrinsic rewards.
That is, SDT posits that extrinsic rewards
not only do not provide intrinsic You may have noticed that content theories
motivation, they diminish it. Think of this are somewhat quiet about what determines
in terms of hobbies. Some people like to the intensity of motivation. For example,
some people steal to satisfy their lower- environment” (that is, behave in a certain
order needs (they have high intensity). But fashion), consequences result. These
most of us don’t steal. Why is this? consequences determine the likelihood of
Process theories of motivation attempt to similar behavior in the future. Learning
explain this aspect of motivation by occurs because we do something to the
focusing on the intensity of motivation as environment. The environment then reacts
well as its direction. According to self- to our action, and our subsequent behavior
determination theory, skilled workers who is influenced by this reaction.
are given a chance to hone their skills and
THE BASIC OPERANT MODEL
the freedom to practice their craft will be
intrinsically motivated. According to operant conditioning theory,
we learn to behave in a particular fashion
14.3 PROCESS THEORIES OF
because of consequences that resulted
MOTIVATION
from our past behaviors.The learning
Process theories of motivation try to process involves three distinct steps.
explain why behaviors are initiated. These
1. The first step involves a stimulus
theories focus on the mechanism by which
(S). The stimulus is any situation or
we choose a target, and the effort that we
event we perceive that we then
exert to “hit” the target. There are four
respond to.
major process theories: (1) operant
2. The second step involves a
conditioning, (2) equity, (3) goal, and (4)
response (R), that is, any behavior
expectancy.
or action we take in reaction to the
OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY stimulus.
3. Finally, a consequence (C) is any
Operant conditioning theory is the simplest
event that follows our response and
of the motivation theories. It basically
that makes the response more or
states that people will do those things for
less likely to occur in the future.
which they are rewarded and will avoid
doing things for which they are punished.
This premise is sometimes called the “law
of effect.” However, if this were the sum
total of conditioning theory, we would not
be discussing it here. Operant conditioning
theory does offer greater insights than
“reward what you want and punish what
Reinforcement occurs when a consequence
you don’t,” and knowledge of its
makes it more likely the response/behavior
principles can lead to effective
will be repeated in the future
management practices.
MAKING A RESPONSE MORE LIKELY
Operant conditioning focuses on the
learning of voluntary behaviors.18 The There are three ways to make a response
term operant conditioning indicates that more likely to recur:
learning results from our “operating on”
1. A positive reinforcement is a
the environment. After we “operate on the
desirable consequence that satisfies
 an active need or that removes a 2. Variable Ratio. A reward is given
barrier to need satisfaction. after a random number of
2. A negative reinforcement is when actions, but the person doesn’t
a behavior causes something know when it’ll happen.
undesirable to be taken away, the 3. Fixed Interval- A reward is given
behavior is more likely to be after a set amount of time, as long
repeated in the future. as the behavior is performed.
3. Avoidance learning occurs when 4. Variable Interval. A reward is
we learn to behave in a certain way given after a random amount of
to avoid encountering an undesired time, but the behavior must be
or unpleasant consequence. consistent.
MAKING A RESPONSE LESS LIKELY WHICH TYPE OF
REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE IS
Extinction occurs when a consequence
BEST?
makes it less likely the response/behavior
will be repeated in the future. The best type of reinforcement schedule
depends on the situation:
There are two (2) ways to make a response
less likely to recur: 1. Continuous reinforcement is best
when employees are learning
1. Punishment is an aversive
something new, like a job or skill.
consequence that follows a
2. Once they’ve learned the job, a
behavior and makes it less likely to
variable-ratio schedule works
reoccur.
better. Since rewards come
2. Nonreinforcement, in which they
randomly after a number of actions,
provide no consequence at all
it keeps employees motivated.
following a worker’s response.
3. On the other hand, a fixed-interval
Nonreinforcement eventually
schedule (rewards at set times, like
reduces the likelihood of that
paychecks) is the least effective
response reoccurring.
because employees tend to work
hard only right before the reward
and relax afterward.
4. Fixed-ratio and variable-interval
schedules are somewhere in the
middle—better than fixed-interval
but not as motivating as variable-
ratio.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
- the frequency at which effective EQUITY THEORY
employee behaviors should be
states that motivation is affected by the
reinforced
outcomes we receive for our inputs
1. Fixed Ratio. A reward is given
compared to the outcomes and inputs of
after a set number of actions.
other people. This theory is concerned
with the reactions people have to outcomes others because we “refer to” them when
they receive as part of a “social exchange.” we judge equity.
(“Did I get as much out of this as I put into State of equity- our outcome-to-input ratio
it?”) could equal the referent other’s.
(“Did I get as much for my inputs as my Overrated inequity
coworkers got for theirs?”)
- our ratio is greater than the referent
THE BASIC EQUITY MODEL other’s.
- Happens when we feel we’re
The fundamental premise of equity theory
getting more than others for the
is that we continuously monitor the degree
same effort.
to which our work environment is “fair.”
- Key Point: Most people don’t feel
In determining the degree of fairness, we
guilty or take action when
consider two sets of factors, inputs and
overrewarded— it’s a fleeting
outcomes.
feeling. For example, it’s rare for
1. Inputs- are any factors we someone to complain about being
contribute to the organization that overpaid.
we feel have value and are relevant
Underrewarded inequity
to the organization. These include
things like time, effort, skills, - we perceive our ratio to be less
education, and performance. than that of the referent other.
2. Outputs- are anything we perceive - Happens when we feel others are
as getting back from the getting more than us for the same
organization in exchange for our effort.
inputs. Common outcomes include - Key Point: This leads to
pay, working conditions, job status, dissatisfaction and anger. People
and feelings of achievement. Since are more sensitive to underreward
any outcome we consider relevant than overreward and often take
to the exchange influences our steps to fix it (e.g., asking for a
equity perception, we frequently raise, reducing effort, or leaving
include unintended factors (peer the job).
disapproval, family reactions.
IMPLICATIONS OF EQUITY THEORY
Equity theory highlights the importance of
fairness in workplaces. Employees often
feel underrewarded rather than
overrewarded, which can harm motivation
The key feature of equity theory is that it
and performance. Employers address this
predicts that we will compare our ratios
by:
to the ratios of other people. It is this
comparison of the two ratios that has the 1. Fair Pay Allocation: Measuring
strongest effect on our equity perceptions. performance accurately and
These other people are called referent rewarding to performers.
 2. Transparent Pay Policies: Sharing o Specific goals outperform
general pay ranges to help vague goals by providing
employees assess fairness. clarity and direction.
 Acceptance and Commitment
Supervisors play a critical role. They
o Goals must be accepted by
should: Clearly communicate expectations
the individual to be
and acknowledge good performance.
effective.
 Avoid favoritism and reward o Goal commitment
employees based on merit. determines the intensity and
 Be aware that some employees are prioritization of efforts.
more sensitive to perceived  Participation Enhances
inequities. Commitment
 Clearly communicate expectations o Involving individuals in the
and acknowledge good goal-setting process
performance. increases ownership and
These practices promote a fair commitment.
environment, improving employee Goal commitment is the degree to which
satisfaction and organizational success. we dedicate ourselves to achieving a goal.
GOAL THEORY Goal Types
Principles of Goal Theory  Self-set Goals: Goals set by the
 Goals Increase Motivation individual.
o People perform better when  Participative Goals: Goals set
they have specific, difficult, collaboratively with others.
and accepted performance  Assigned Goals: Goals imposed by
goals. others.
o Goals focus efforts and  “Do Your Best” Goals: Vague goals
that are less effective.
enhance motivation.
 Goal Intention Drives Effort Conditions for Success
o Individuals strive to achieve
 Requires ability and minimal
goals they intend to
constraints.
accomplish.
 Achievement leads to satisfaction
o Without clear goals, effort
and rewards.
tends to be lower.
 Failure can decrease future
Characteristics of Effective Goals motivation.

 Difficulty Matters Organizational Application

o Difficult goals lead to better
 Management by Objectives
performance than easy
(MBO): Goal theory-based
goals, even if the goal is not
management tool.
fuly achieved.
 Specificity is Key Cautions in Goal Setting
  Can lead to neglect of other duties.
 May result in unhealthy
competition or unethical behavior.
 Overemphasis on measurable
outcomes can ignore quality.
 Individual goals may conflict with
teamwork
EXPECTANCY THEORY
 Suggests individuals are motivated
to exert effort if they expect valued IMPLICATIONS FOR
outcomes. ORGANIZATIONS
 Most comprehensive motivation
theory in organizational behavior.  Strong Motivation Requires:
Addresses two key questions: o Employees believe effort
o Which alternative will be leads to performance (E1).
chosen? o Performance results in
o How much effort will be desired outcomes (E2).
invested in pursuing it? o Outcomes are valued (high
valence).
Core Components of Expectancy Theory
 Barriers to Motivation:
1. Effort-Performance Expectancy o Lack of resources, unclear
(E1) roles, or weak E1.
a. Belief that effort wil lead to o Perception of equal rewards
performance (E ➔ P). regardless of performance
b. Influenced by past (weak E2).
experiences, self-efficacy, o Misaligned or low-valence
and resources. outcomes.
2. Performance-Outcome Expectancy
Practical Applications
(E2)
a. Belief that performance wil 1. Strengthen E1: Provide training,
lead to outcomes (P ➔ O). clarify job roles, ensure necessary
b. Affected by policies and resources.
perception of reward 2. Strengthen E2: Tie rewards to
fairness. performance, enforce fair policies
3. Valence consistently.
a. Value or desirability of 3. Increase Valence: Understand
outcomes. employee preferences, offer valued
b. Can be positive, neutral, or rewards.
negative, varying by 4. Ensure accurate performance
individual preferences. measurement: Use objective and
fair evaluation methods.
Integration with Other Motivation
Theories
 Need Theory: Valences are shaped
by unmet needs.
 Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement creates
performance-outcome
expectancies.
 Equity Theory: Valence depends on
perceived fairness of outcomes.
 Goal Theory: Similarities in goal
acceptance, effort, and
performance linkage.