Definition of Occupational Safety and Health 1.

Chemical Hazards: Exposure to toxic

(OSH) substances such as fumes, dust, and chemicals.
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) refers to • Example: Inhalation of hazardous fumes in a
the practices, policies, and programs aimed at chemical plant.
protecting the safety, health, and welfare of 2. Ergonomic Hazards: Result from repetitive
employees at the workplace. It involves ensuring motions, poor posture, and awkward working
that the work environment is free from hazards positions.
that could harm workers, including both physical • Example: Repetitive strain injuries (RSI) from
and mental health risks. prolonged desk work or drafting.
Importance of OSH at the Workplace 3. Physical Hazards: Exposure to extreme
• Worker Protection: OSH practices safeguard temperatures, noise, machinery, or
employees from workplace injuries, diseases, electrical hazards.
and accidents, promoting overall well-being. • Example: Injuries caused by moving parts of
• Cost Reduction: Good safety and health machinery on a construction site.
practices reduce costs related to medical care, Preventing Workplace Injuries and Illnesses
sick leave, and disability benefits by • Risk Assessment: Regular identification and
preventing accidents and illnesses. evaluation of workplace hazards to implement
• Enhanced Productivity: Healthy workers are control measures.
more productive, contributing to a positive • Preventive Measures: Ensure the proper use of
work environment and better organizational Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), safety
performance. procedures, and regular equipment
• Legal Compliance: Following OSH maintenance.
regulations helps companies comply with Key Principles of OSH
workplace safety laws, avoiding penalties and • Prevention is Better than Cure: Preventing
lawsuits. workplace accidents and health hazards is far
Roles in OSH Programs more effective and cost-efficient than dealing
1. Employer’s Role: with their consequences.
• Legal Duty: Employers must provide a safe • Collective Responsibility: Ensuring a safe
and healthy working environment and ensure workplace is a collective effort that involves
compliance with safety regulations. employers, employees, and unions.
• Safety Training & Equipment: Employers • Continuous Improvement: Safety measures
must provide necessary training, protective should be regularly reviewed, updated, and
equipment, and maintain a safe working communicated to all workers.
environment. Health and Safety Programs
• Risk Assessment: Regular assessments should 1. Workplace Hazards Control: Employers
be conducted to identify and mitigate risks in should ensure that hazards are controlled at
the workplace. the source, whenever possible.
• Employee’s Role: 2. Record Keeping: Accurate records of
• Following Safety Protocols: Employees must workplace hazards, exposures, and incidents
adhere to safety practices, use protective gear, should be maintained.
and report unsafe conditions. 3. Health and Safety Committee: An active
• Active Participation: Employees should committee that includes both workers and
participate in safety training programs and management should be established to monitor
contribute to the identification of hazards. and improve safety standards.
• Trade Union’s Role: 4. Training and Awareness: Employers should
• Advocacy: Trade unions advocate for workers' provide adequate training and supervision to
safety and health rights, ensuring that ensure employees understand safety risks and
employers follow safety protocols. how to mitigate them.
• Collaboration: Unions collaborate with Benefits of Effective OSH Programs
management to improve workplace safety • Reduced Risk: Effective OSH programs
standards. reduce workplace injuries, occupational
Types of Workplace Hazards diseases, and fatalities.
 • Improved Morale: A safe workplace 3. Biological Hazards
improves worker morale and job Risks from working with living organisms
satisfaction. such as:
• Increased Productivity: Safe working • Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
conditions lead to fewer disruptions, • Examples include exposure to blood, bodily
enhancing productivity. fluids, or infectious plant material.
• Financial Savings: Reduces costs related to • Workers in healthcare, laboratories, and
medical claims, workers' compensation, agriculture are particularly at risk.
and lawsuits. 4. Ergonomic Hazards
Occupational Hazard Occur when the design of the work
Objectives environment or tasks places strain on the body.
• Explain various occupational hazards. Examples include:
• State occupational hygiene. • Poor workstation setup, repetitive movements,
• Describe occupational disease disorders heavy lifting, and awkward postures.
and their prevention. • Can lead to musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs)
affecting muscles, tendons, and joints.
Introduction to Occupational Hazards: 5. Mechanical Hazards
Occupational hazards refer to potential dangers or Related to machinery and equipment in
risks present in the workplace that can harm workplaces.
workers' health and safety. These hazards can lead • Risks include injuries like amputations,
to accidents, injuries, or long-term health fractures, or crushing from improperly
conditions if not managed properly. Employers operated machines.
are responsible for protecting workers from these • Safety measures like lockout-tagout
risks, while workers have the right to know about procedures help reduce these hazards.
potential hazards and refuse unsafe work. 6. Psychosocial Hazards
Associated with the work environment and
Types of Occupational Hazards: organization, leading to mental health issues.
1. Physical Hazards • Work stress, long hours, harassment, and
These are the most common hazards in the workplace violence are common examples.
workplace. Examples include:
• Can result in burnout, depression, and other
• Electrical hazards (live wires, ungrounded psychological disorders.
equipment).
• Noise and vibration (prolonged exposure to Occupational Hygiene:
high noise levels). Occupational hygiene involves the science of
• Temperature extremes (heat stress, cold recognizing, evaluating, and controlling health
environments). risks in the workplace. The goal is to protect
• Poor ventilation (confined spaces, lack of workers' health and ensure a safe work
airflow). environment. Occupational hygiene addresses
• Falls (slippery surfaces, unsafe staircases). issues like air quality, noise, and exposure to
• Radiation (exposure to ionizing radiation). chemicals to minimize health risks.
2. Chemical Hazards
Involve exposure to hazardous chemicals such Occupational Diseases & Disorders:
as: Occupational diseases are illnesses caused by
• Cleaning products, solvents, and industrial factors in the work environment, which may take
gases. time to manifest. Examples include:
• Accidental spills, inhalation, or direct contact • Heat Stress & Heat Stroke: Caused by
can cause burns, respiratory issues, and excessive heat exposure, leading to symptoms
poisoning. like dizziness, nausea, and confusion.
• Chemical poisoning occurs when harmful • Respiratory Disorders: Diseases like
substances are ingested, inhaled, or absorbed pneumoconiosis or asbestosis caused by
through the skin. exposure to dust, fumes, and chemicals.
• Hearing Loss: Prolonged exposure to loud • Class B Fire:
noise in industries like manufacturing or • Materials: Flammable liquids like oil, gasoline,
construction. paints, and grease.
• Cancer: Occupational exposure to • Extinguishing Agent: Dry chemical or foam.
carcinogenic substances like asbestos, benzene, • Example: A grease fire in a kitchen or a
and certain chemicals. gasoline fire.
• Infectious Diseases: Workers in healthcare or • Class C Fire:
agriculture may be at risk of diseases like • Materials: Electrical fires caused by
tuberculosis or anthrax. appliances, tools, or electrical systems.
• Extinguishing Agent: Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
Prevention of Occupational Hazards: or halon.
To prevent occupational diseases and accidents, it • Example: An electrical fire in a household
is essential to: appliance or electrical panel.
• Implement regular workplace inspections. • Class D Fire:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE). • Materials: Combustible metals like
• Provide proper training to workers. magnesium, titanium, sodium, etc.
• Maintain safe work procedures and • Extinguishing Agent: Dry powder (specific to
equipment. metal type).
• Ensure proper ventilation and lighting. • Example: A fire caused by burning magnesium
• Implement ergonomic measures to reduce in an industrial setting.
strain. • Class K Fire:
• Address psychosocial issues by promoting a
• Materials: Fires caused by cooking oils and
healthy work environment.
fats, particularly in deep fryers.
Fire Safety
• Extinguishing Agent: Special wet chemical
Objectives:
agents.
• Understand the different types of fire.
• Example: A grease fire in a commercial
• Identify different types of fire extinguishers
kitchen.
and their basic functions.

Types of Fire Extinguishers and Their Functions:

Introduction to Fire Safety:
1. Stored Pressure Fire Extinguishers:
Fire is a significant hazard in many workplaces,
o Description: These extinguishers have the
including laboratories and industrial facilities.
propellant stored in the same chamber as the
While the likelihood of a fire can be minimized
firefighting agent.
with proper procedures and training, it is essential
o Types of Agents: Dry chemical, water, foam.
to be prepared to respond in case of an emergency.
o Common Use: Most commonly used in homes
Fire safety includes understanding fire types,
and businesses.
using appropriate fire extinguishers, and knowing
2. Cartridge-operated Fire Extinguishers:
firefighting techniques.
o Description: The propellant is stored in a
A fire extinguisher is a portable device that
separate cartridge that is punctured before
contains an extinguishing agent, which can be
discharge.
discharged to put out a fire. Fire extinguishers
o Types of Agents: Carbon dioxide, dry
come in different types, based on the type of fire
chemical, or foam.
they are designed to handle.
o Common Use: Typically found in industrial
settings or places with high fire risk.
Types of Fire:
Class A Fire:
Classifications of Fire Extinguishers:
• Materials: Ordinary combustibles like wood,
1. Class A Fire Extinguishers:
paper, rubber, plastics, etc.
o Suitable for: Combustibles like paper, wood,
• Extinguishing Agent: Water (often used with
rubber, and plastics.
pressurized water extinguishers).
o Agent: Water (often pressurized).
• Example: A paper or wood fire that leaves ash
o Example: A fire started by paper or furniture.
behind.
2. Class B Fire Extinguishers: • PPE must be well-designed, comfortable, and
o Suitable for: Flammable liquids like gasoline, properly maintained.
oil, paints, or grease. • Workers should be trained on when, why, and
• Agent: Dry chemical, foam, or CO₂. how to use PPE effectively.
• Example: A kitchen fire caused by cooking oils. • Employers must ensure the availability, proper
3. Class C Fire Extinguishers: fitting, and maintenance of PPE and provide
• Suitable for: Electrical fires. adequate training.
• Agent: CO₂ or halon. A PPE program should address hazard
o Example: A fire in an electrical identification, selection, maintenance, and
appliance or electrical wiring. monitoring to ensure the ongoing effectiveness of
4.Class D Fire Extinguishers: safety measures.
o Suitable for: Metal fires (e.g., magnesium,
titanium). Accident Prevention Techniques:
o Agent: Dry powder. Accidents are unplanned events that can cause
o Example: Fires in industries using metals that harm or property damage. Preventing accidents
burn at high temperatures. involves:
5.Class K Fire Extinguishers: • Training: Teaching employees the correct
o Suitable for: Fires caused by cooking oils, fats, procedures to follow and the importance of
or grease in kitchens. safety.
o Agent: Wet chemical. • Awareness: Ensuring workers are attentive
o Example: A grease fire in a deep fryer. and follow safety rules.
• Overexertion Prevention: Training employees
Fire Fighting Methods: to prevent strain injuries by following proper
1. Starvation (Blanketing): techniques.
o Method: Eliminate the fuel source or cover the • Safe Work Environment: Promoting a safe,
fire to prevent it from getting oxygen. clean, and organized workspace reduces the
o Example: Smothering a fire with a blanket or risk of accidents.
fireproof cover.
2. Smothering: Control of Accidents & Safety Measures:
o Method: Limiting the oxygen supply to the fire Accidents can be controlled by reducing exposure
to prevent it from spreading or continuing. to hazards through various methods:
o Example: Using a CO₂ extinguisher to displace 1. Engineering Controls: Eliminate or isolate
oxygen. hazards (e.g., ventilation, machine enclosures).
3. Cooling: 2. Work Practice Controls: Change how tasks are
o Method: Lowering the temperature of the fire performed (e.g., proper procedures, good
to extinguish it. housekeeping).
o Example: Applying water to reduce the heat of 3. Administrative Controls: Schedule tasks to
the fire. minimize exposure (e.g., limit work during
Accident & Safety high-risk times).
Objectives: When controls are insufficient, PPE should be
• Understand the base principles for protective used. PPE must be properly fitted, maintained,
equipment (PPE). and replaced as needed.
• Identify accident prevention techniques.
• Learn about accident control and safety measures. Responsibilities:
• Supervisors: Ensure compliance with safety
Basic Principles for Protective Equipment (PPE): programs, inspect equipment, investigate
PPE is essential for minimizing workplace injuries accidents, and enforce safety procedures.
and illnesses caused by chemical, physical, • Employees: Follow safety rules, report unsafe
electrical, mechanical, or other hazards. Common conditions or incidents, and seek prompt
PPE includes gloves, safety glasses, helmets, ear medical attention if needed. Employees should
protection, and respirators. use PPE and report unsafe equipment or
Key Principles: practices.
 • Circulation: If there is no pulse, initiate CPR
Recognizing & Controlling Hazards: (Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation)
• Engineering Controls: Isolate or eliminate immediately.
hazards (e.g., proper ventilation, toxic
chemical substitution). First Aid Guidelines:
• Work Practice Controls: Modify work habits • Stay Calm: Panic can worsen the situation.
to minimize risk (e.g., regular equipment Stay focused and act decisively.
maintenance, no eating in hazardous areas). • Call Emergency Services: Contact emergency
• Administrative Controls: Adjust work help when necessary.
schedules to reduce exposure risks. • Assess the Situation: Be aware of your
Effective safety relies on a combination of surroundings and potential hazards to avoid
engineering controls, work practices, and PPE. injury.
Employees must adhere to these measures to • Do No Harm: Avoid actions that could worsen
ensure a safe work environment. the injury, such as administering food or
First Aid moving the person unless absolutely
Objectives: necessary.
• Understand how to care for injured and sick
individuals in the workplace. Handling Specific Conditions:
• Provide first aid and assist in the safe • Unconsciousness: Ensure the person is
transportation of sick individuals. breathing, place them in the recovery position,
• Familiarize with the ABC of first aid (Airway, and avoid giving anything by mouth.
Breathing, Circulation). • Shock: Keep the victim warm and calm. Treat
• Learn how to report an emergency. for blood loss and ensure that circulation is
maintained.
First Aid Kit: • Choking: Perform Heimlich maneuver or back
• Every workplace must have a fully stocked slaps to clear the airway.
first aid kit, regularly inspected.
• Temporary worksites should store first aid kits First Aid Treatment:
in accessible locations like vehicles or gang 1. Bleeding: Apply direct pressure to control
boxes. bleeding. For heavy bleeding, use dressings
• In case of severe injuries, medical treatment and bandages.
should follow workplace health protocols, and 2. Burns: Flush with cool water, cover with a
emergency services should be contacted clean cloth, and avoid using creams or
immediately. ointments.
Key Principles of First Aid: 3. Concussions: Look for symptoms like
• Preserve Life: Maintain the person’s airway, dizziness, confusion, and unconsciousness. Do
ensure breathing, and circulate blood. not move the head or neck unless necessary.
• Prevent Further Harm: Stop the condition 4. Spinal Injuries: Avoid moving the victim
from worsening, e.g., applying pressure to unless they are in immediate danger to prevent
stop bleeding. further damage.
• Promote Recovery: Provide comfort and
support, and assist in recovery until Golden Hour:
professional help arrives. • The first 30 minutes after a severe injury are
critical. Immediate first aid can save lives by
The ABCs of First Aid: preventing complications.
• Airway: Ensure the airway is clear to prevent
choking. Use methods like 'back slaps' or How to Report an Emergency:
'abdominal thrusts.' • Assess Urgency: Determine if the situation is
• Breathing: Check for breathing and assist if life-threatening.
necessary through techniques like rescue • Call Emergency Services: Report details like
breathing. location, nature of the emergency (fire, crime,
accident), and any immediate symptoms.
• Provide Your Details: Share your contact employed to work in any factory, mine, or
number for follow-up communication. engaged in hazardous employment.
• Article 39 (e & f):
Basic First Aid Procedures: • (e): The State shall direct its policy to ensure
1. Check Airway, Breathing, and Circulation that the health and strength of workers,
(ABCs). especially women and children, are not
2. Don’t move victims unnecessarily, especially abused, and citizens are not forced to engage
if spinal injury is suspected. in vocations unsuited to their age and strength.
3. Use CPR if breathing or pulse is absent. • (f): Ensures that children are provided with
4. Treat for shock, stop bleeding, and clear the opportunities for healthy development in a
airway if necessary. safe, free, and dignified environment, and are
5. Monitor and comfort the victim until protected against exploitation.
professional help arrives. • Article 42:
The State shall make provisions to secure just
Common First Aid Equipment: and humane conditions of work and maternity
• Dressings & Bandages: For covering wounds relief for workers.
and controlling bleeding.
• Adhesive Bandages: For minor cuts and National Policy on Occupational Health and
abrasions. Safety:
• Gauze Swabs: To clean wounds. India's national policy emphasizes the significance
• Disposable Gloves & Scissors: For hygiene of occupational safety and health. The policy
and wound management. focuses on:
• Protecting the health and strength of workers.
Important Notes: • Preventing the employment of individuals in
• Hygiene: Wash hands or wear gloves before occupations unsuitable for their age and
administering first aid. strength.
• Do Not Move: Avoid moving injured persons • Ensuring just and humane conditions of work.
unless there is an immediate danger. • Protecting children and ensuring their
• Stay With Victim: Provide comfort and development in a safe and dignified manner.
reassurance until medical help arrives. National Legislation on OSH:
The following legislation forms the backbone of
CPR (Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation): occupational health, safety, and welfare in India.
• Essential for victims of cardiac arrest or These laws cover various sectors and are
choking. periodically updated to address new challenges:
• Involves chest compressions and rescue 1. The Factories Act, 1948 (Amended in 1954,
breathing (if trained). 1970, 1976, 1987)
• Chest compressions alone are sometimes Governs the health, safety, and welfare of
enough to keep oxygen flowing until workers in factories.
medical help arrives. 2. The Mines Act, 1952
Basic Provisions for Occupational Safety and Provides provisions for the safety and
Health (OSH) in India health of workers in the mining sector.
Objective: 3. The Dock Workers (Safety, Health and
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to: Welfare) Act, 1986
• State the basic provisions of safety, health, Focuses on the safety, health, and welfare
and welfare under Indian legislation. of dock workers.
4. The Plantation Labour Act, 1951
Constitutional Provisions: Regulates the conditions of work for
India's Constitution provides fundamental plantation workers.
provisions for the safety, health, and welfare of 5. The Explosives Act, 1984
workers. These provisions are mainly found in: Deals with the safety aspects related to the
• Article 24: manufacture, storage, and handling of
No child below the age of 14 years shall be explosives.
 6. The Petroleum Act, 1934 (both biotic and abiotic) that influence
Governs the safety standards for human and animal life."
petroleum operations and installations.
7. The Insecticide Act, 1968 2. Components of the Environment:
Addresses safety standards for handling The environment is made up of several
insecticides. interconnected components, which can be broadly
8. The Indian Boilers Act, 1923 classified into two categories:
Regulates the safety standards for boilers 1. Biotic Components (Living Components):
in industrial settings. • Plants: Trees, grass, algae, etc., that
9. The Indian Electricity Act, 1910 contribute to oxygen production and
Focuses on safety and regulations provide food and shelter for various
concerning electrical installations and organisms.
usage. • Animals: All species of animals, including
10. The Dangerous Machines (Regulations) humans, that interact with other
Act, 1983 components of the environment for food,
Provides regulations for the safe operation shelter, and reproduction.
of dangerous machines. • Microorganisms: Bacteria, fungi, viruses,
11. The Indian Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and other microscopic organisms that help
Ensures the safety of workers involved in in processes like decomposition, nutrient
atomic energy operations. cycling, and maintaining ecological
12. The Radiological Protection Rules, 1971 balance.
Provides rules for radiation safety and 2. Abiotic Components (Non-Living
protection. Components):
13. The Manufacture, Storage and Import of • Air: The atmosphere which provides
Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases essential
Governs the safety of workers handling for life.
hazardous chemicals. • Water: Rivers, lakes, oceans, and
Environment: underground water sources that support
Objectives: aquatic life and provide drinking water for
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to: land animals and humans.
1. State the meaning and definition of the • Land: The soil, rocks, and landforms that
environment. support plant life and provide habitats for
2. List and explain the components of the animals.
environment. • Sunlight: A key source of energy for all life
3. Explain the atmosphere and its forms, driving processes like
composition. photosynthesis.
4. State the relationship between society and • Temperature: Climate conditions that
the environment. impact the growth and survival of species.
5. State the factors responsible for
environmental destruction and natural 3. The Atmosphere and Its Composition:
disasters. • Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the layer
of gases surrounding Earth, which is held
1. Meaning and Definition of Environment: in place by gravity. It is crucial for
• Meaning: The environment refers to the supporting life by providing oxygen and
surroundings or conditions in which a protecting the Earth from harmful solar
person, animal, or plant lives or operates. It radiation.
includes both natural and artificial factors • Composition of the Atmosphere:
that influence life. o Nitrogen (N₂): About 78% of the Earth's
• Definition: The environment can be atmosphere is nitrogen. It is inert and does not
defined as "the totality of all living and readily react with other elements.
non-living things occurring naturally,
meaning that it includes all the factors
 o Oxygen (O₂): About 21% of the atmosphere is • Over-exploitation of Resources: Overuse of
oxygen, essential for respiration in most natural resources like water, minerals, and
organisms. fossil fuels leads to resource depletion.
o Argon (Ar): A noble gas that makes up about • Industrialization and Urbanization: These
0.9% of the atmosphere. processes often involve construction, excessive
o Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Approximately 0.04% waste generation, and unsustainable land use,
of the atmosphere, vital for photosynthesis and leading to environmental degradation.
regulating Earth’s temperature. Natural Causes:
o Other Gases: Includes trace gases like neon, • Natural Disasters: Earthquakes, floods,
helium, methane, and ozone. droughts, hurricanes, and wildfires are part of
o Water Vapor: Varies from 0 to 4% of the Earth's natural cycles. While they are not
atmosphere depending on weather conditions. caused directly by human activities, human
It plays a key role in weather and climate vulnerability can increase due to
patterns. environmental destruction, poor
infrastructure, or climate change.
4. The Relationship Between Society and • Climate Change: Human-induced global
Environment: warming leads to altered weather patterns,
• Interdependence: Society and the environment causing more frequent and intense storms,
are closely linked. Humans rely on the droughts, and heatwaves.
environment for basic resources like air, water, • Soil Erosion: Natural events like storms or
food, and materials for shelter, energy, and floods can lead to soil erosion, but
technology. deforestation and poor land management
• Impact of Society on Environment: practices worsen the situation.
o Human activities such as deforestation, Climate Change: A major contributing factor to
pollution, industrialization, and agriculture environmental destruction, where human
have altered natural ecosystems and have led activities like burning fossil fuels release
to environmental degradation. greenhouse gases (especially carbon dioxide),
o Urbanization and overpopulation increase leading to global warming and disruptive
demand for resources and contribute to weather patterns.
environmental stresses like habitat loss, Ecosystem:
climate change, and resource depletion. Objectives:
• Sustainability: The relationship between society By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
and the environment can be balanced through 1. State the concept of the ecosystem.
sustainable practices like renewable energy use, 2. State the components of an ecosystem.
waste reduction, conservation, and environmental 3. State the factors responsible for
protection policies. environmental degradation.
• Ecological Footprint: The amount of land and 4. State the meaning of environmental
resources a society consumes in order to maintain hazards, disasters, and their types.
its lifestyle. Reducing ecological footprints is
crucial for preserving the environment for future 1. Concept of Ecosystem:
generations. • Ecosystem refers to a community of living
organisms interacting with each other and
5. Factors Responsible for Environmental their physical environment (abiotic
Destruction and Natural Disasters: components such as air, water, soil, and
Human Activities: climate) in a particular area.
• Deforestation: Large-scale removal of forests • It is a functional unit of nature where biotic
for agriculture, urban development, and (living) and abiotic (non-living)
industrialization contributes to habitat loss, components interact with each other
soil erosion, and climate change. through energy flow and nutrient cycling.
• Pollution: Air, water, and soil pollution from Key Features of an Ecosystem:
industries, vehicles, and waste disposal harms • Dynamic Nature: Ecosystems are not
ecosystems and human health. static; they are constantly changing and
 evolving due to environmental changes, • Temperature: Affects metabolic processes and
species interactions, and human activities. determines the types of species that can live in
• Self-sustaining: Ecosystems maintain their an area.
structure and function over time through • Climate: Includes long-term weather patterns
energy flow and nutrient cycling. (rainfall, temperature, humidity) that influence
• Balance: Healthy ecosystems maintain a the types of organisms found in an ecosystem.
balance between their components, which
allows for sustainability. 3. Factors Responsible for Environmental
Degradation:
2. Components of Ecosystem: Environmental degradation refers to the
The components of an ecosystem are broadly deterioration of the environment through the
classified into two categories: depletion of resources, destruction of ecosystems,
1. Biotic Components (Living Components): and loss of biodiversity. Key factors responsible
These are the living organisms within the include:
ecosystem, which interact with one another in 1. Human Activities:
various ways (predation, symbiosis, competition, • Deforestation: The clearing of forests for
etc.). They can be further classified into: agriculture, urbanization, and logging
• Producers (Autotrophs): destroys habitats, reduces biodiversity,
These are plants, algae, and some bacteria that and disrupts carbon and water cycles.
produce their own food through • Pollution: Industrial, agricultural, and
photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. They form household waste pollutes the air, water,
the base of the food chain. and soil, harming both ecosystems and
• Consumers (Heterotrophs): human health.
Organisms that depend on other organisms for • Over-exploitation of Resources: Overuse
food. They are classified into: of natural resources like water, minerals,
• Primary Consumers: Herbivores that feed on and fossil fuels leads to resource depletion
producers (e.g., deer, rabbits). and environmental imbalance.
• Secondary Consumers: Carnivores or • Climate Change: Human activities, such as
omnivores that feed on primary consumers burning fossil fuels and deforestation,
(e.g., foxes, wolves). increase greenhouse gases in the
• Tertiary Consumers: Top predators in the atmosphere, leading to global warming
food chain (e.g., eagles, tigers). and disruption of weather patterns.
• Decomposers (Detritivores): • Urbanization: Rapid expansion of cities
Organisms like fungi, bacteria, and leads to loss of natural habitats, increased
earthworms that break down dead organisms, pollution, and strain on local resources.
recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem. • Industrialization: Industrial activities
2. Abiotic Components (Non-living contribute to air, water, and land pollution,
Components): and lead to the consumption of large
These are the physical and chemical elements that amounts of natural resources.
support life. Key abiotic components include: 2. Natural Causes:
• Air: Provides gases like oxygen and carbon • Natural Disasters: Events like
dioxide for respiration and photosynthesis. earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions,
• Water: Essential for all living organisms, and landslides can degrade ecosystems
regulates temperature, and supports aquatic and cause irreversible damage to natural
ecosystems. resources.
• Soil: Contains nutrients and minerals required • Climate Variability: Changes in
by plants, and is home to many organisms. temperature and precipitation patterns
• Sunlight: The primary source of energy for due to natural processes can alter
most ecosystems, driving photosynthesis in ecosystems and affect biodiversity.
producers.
4. Meaning of Environmental Hazards, Disasters,
and Their Types:
1. Environmental Hazards: By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Environmental hazards refer to natural or human- 1. Define the meaning of pollution.
made events that have the potential to harm the 2. List out various kinds of environmental
environment or human health. They include: pollution.
• Pollution: Contamination of air, water, 3. Define the meaning of pollutants.
and soil by harmful substances. 4. State various types of hazardous waste
• Chemical Spills: Release of toxic chemicals management.
into the environment, potentially harming 5. List out the causes of indoor environmental
ecosystems and human health. pollution and suggestions to keep the
• Radiation: Exposure to harmful levels of environment safe.
radiation due to industrial accidents or
nuclear fallout. 1. Meaning of Pollution:
2. Environmental Disasters: • Pollution refers to the introduction of harmful
Environmental disasters are catastrophic events substances or contaminants into the natural
that cause significant harm to the environment and environment, resulting in adverse effects on
human populations. They often result in long-term ecosystems, human health, and the overall
ecological damage. Examples include: balance of nature.
• Natural Disasters: • Definition: Pollution can be defined as "the
o Earthquakes: Sudden shaking of the presence or introduction of harmful materials
ground that can cause destruction of (pollutants) into the environment, causing
habitats, landslides, and tsunamis. damage or harm to natural systems and living
o Floods: Overflow of water onto organisms."
normally dry land, leading to property Key Characteristics of Pollution:
damage, loss of life, and contamination • It affects air, water, and soil quality.
of water resources. • It can be caused by both human activities
o Droughts: Extended periods of (industrialization, urbanization) and natural
insufficient rainfall, leading to crop processes (volcanic eruptions, forest fires).
failure, water scarcity, and loss of • It can be either biodegradable (able to be
biodiversity. broken down by natural processes) or non-
o Hurricanes, Cyclones, and Typhoons: biodegradable (cannot be broken down easily
Powerful storms that can cause by nature).
massive destruction to coastal areas
and inland regions, leading to flooding 2. Types of Environmental Pollution:
and habitat loss. There are several types of pollution, each
o Wildfires: Uncontrolled fires that can impacting a different aspect of the environment.
destroy forests, homes, and wildlife The major types include:
habitats. 1. Air Pollution:
• Human-induced Disasters: • Definition: The contamination of the air by
o Oil Spills: Release of oil into the ocean harmful gases, particles, or biological
or land, which harms marine life and materials.
ecosystems. • Sources: Emissions from vehicles,
o Nuclear Accidents: Events like the factories, power plants, burning of fossil
Chernobyl or Fukushima disasters that fuels, agricultural practices, and natural
release harmful radiation into the sources like wildfires and volcanic
environment. eruptions.
o Industrial Accidents: Chemical plant • Impacts: Respiratory diseases, global
explosions, mining accidents, and warming, acid rain, depletion of the ozone
hazardous material leaks that can layer.
result in widespread damage to the 2. Water Pollution:
environment and human health. • Definition: The contamination of water
Pollution and Pollutants: bodies (rivers, lakes, oceans) with harmful
Objectives: substances.
 • Sources: Industrial effluents, sewage, • Secondary Pollutants: These are formed when
agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), primary pollutants interact with other
oil spills, and untreated waste. substances in the environment (e.g., ozone,
• Impacts: Destruction of aquatic life, smog).
waterborne diseases, ecosystem imbalance. Common Pollutants:
3. Soil Pollution: • Air Pollutants: Carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur
• Definition: The presence of harmful dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
chemicals or waste in the soil, affecting its particulate matter (PM), ozone (O₃), volatile
quality and health. organic compounds (VOCs).
• Sources: Pesticides, industrial waste, • Water Pollutants: Heavy metals (mercury,
landfill leachate, deforestation, and lead), pesticides, industrial chemicals, oil,
excessive use of fertilizers. sewage.
• Impacts: Reduced fertility, loss of soil • Soil Pollutants: Pesticides, herbicides,
biodiversity, contamination of food crops. industrial waste, plastic waste, heavy metals.
4. Noise Pollution: • Noise Pollutants: Sounds exceeding
• Definition: The excessive and harmful acceptable noise levels that disturb the
levels of noise that disrupt normal life and environment (e.g., loud machines, vehicles,
harm human health. construction).
• Sources: Traffic, industrial machinery, • Light Pollutants: Excessive artificial lighting
construction activities, loud music, and that interferes with natural light cycles.
urbanization.
• Impacts: Hearing loss, stress, sleep 4. Types of Hazardous Waste Management:
disturbances, cardiovascular diseases. Hazardous waste refers to waste materials that are
5. Light Pollution: dangerous or potentially harmful to human health
• Definition: The excessive or obtrusive or the environment. Proper management of
artificial light that disrupts ecosystems and hazardous waste is crucial to prevent
human health. contamination of air, water, and soil.
• Sources: Street lights, building lighting, and Types of Hazardous Waste Management:
signs. 1. Waste Minimization:
• Impacts: Disruption of nocturnal animal Reducing the amount of hazardous waste
behavior, sleep disorders in humans, generated through changes in production
disturbance in ecosystems. processes, materials used, and better waste
6. Thermal Pollution: management practices.
• Definition: The rise in temperature of natural 2. Recycling and Reuse:
water bodies due to human activities. Many hazardous materials (e.g., lead,
• Sources: Industrial discharges, power plants, mercury) can be recycled and reused,
and deforestation. reducing the need for disposal and
• Impacts: Decreased oxygen levels in water, minimizing environmental harm.
harm to aquatic species, and loss of 3. Incineration:
biodiversity. Burning hazardous waste at high
temperatures in a controlled facility. This
3. Meaning of Pollutant: reduces the volume of waste but can
• Pollutant is any substance that causes release toxic gases, so it must be carefully
pollution. It can be natural or man-made and managed.
adversely affects the environment and living 4. Landfilling:
organisms. Disposal of hazardous waste in specially
Types of Pollutants: designed landfills with proper liners and
• Primary Pollutants: These are directly emitted leachate collection systems to prevent
into the environment from a source (e.g., contamination of soil and groundwater.
carbon monoxide from vehicles, sulfur dioxide 5. Neutralization:
from industrial plants). Chemical processes that alter the harmful
properties of hazardous waste, making it
 less dangerous (e.g., neutralizing acids or supplies that don't release harmful
alkalis). chemicals into the air.
6. Hazardous Waste Treatment: 3. Avoid Smoking Indoors:
Physical, chemical, or biological processes Never smoke inside homes or closed
that treat hazardous waste to reduce its spaces to prevent exposure to harmful
toxicity or to convert it into less harmful tobacco smoke and secondhand smoke.
substances. 4. Control Humidity:
Use dehumidifiers to control moisture
5. Causes of Indoor Environmental Pollution and levels and prevent the growth of mold and
Suggestions to Keep the Environment Safe: mildew.
Causes of Indoor Pollution: 5. Regular Cleaning:
Indoor pollution occurs when harmful pollutants Dust and vacuum regularly to remove
accumulate inside homes, workplaces, and other allergens and prevent their buildup in
enclosed spaces. carpets, upholstery, and other surfaces.
1. Poor Ventilation: 6. Radon Testing:
Insufficient airflow can lead to the buildup Conduct radon testing in homes, especially
of indoor pollutants, such as carbon in areas known for high radon levels, and
dioxide, volatile organic compounds install mitigation systems if necessary.
(VOCs), and moisture. 7. Use Energy-Efficient Appliances:
2. Household Products: Ensure that gas appliances are functioning
Cleaning agents, paints, and personal care properly and install carbon monoxide
products can release harmful chemicals detectors in key areas of the home.
like formaldehyde and VOCs into indoor Conservation of Energy
air. Objectives:
3. Tobacco Smoke: By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Smoking indoors contributes to the release 1. Define energy and the law of conservation
of harmful chemicals, which can lead to of energy.
respiratory problems and increase the risk 2. List out and state the different forms of
of diseases. energy resources.
4. Dust and Allergens: 3. State the importance of energy
Accumulation of dust, mold, and pet conservation.
dander can contribute to allergies, asthma, 4. Explain the three R’s (Reduce, Reuse, and
and other respiratory issues. Recycle).
5. Radon Gas: 5. State the importance of a right attitude
Naturally occurring radioactive gas that towards the environment.
can seep into buildings from the ground
and pose a risk to health, especially in 1. Definition of Energy and the Law of
poorly ventilated areas. Conservation of Energy
6. Carbon Monoxide: Energy:
Incomplete combustion from gas • Energy is the ability or capacity to do work. It
appliances, heating systems, or vehicles is a fundamental property of matter that can be
can produce this colorless, odorless gas, transferred or converted into different forms,
which is harmful when inhaled. but cannot be created or destroyed.
Suggestions to Keep the Indoor Environment • Units: Energy is typically measured in joules
Safe: (J), but can also be expressed in kilowatt-hours
1. Improve Ventilation: (kWh) for electrical energy.
Ensure proper airflow by opening Law of Conservation of Energy:
windows, using exhaust fans, or installing • The Law of Conservation of Energy states that
air purifiers to reduce indoor air energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can
pollutants. only be transformed from one form to another
2. Use Natural Cleaning Products: or transferred between objects. The total
Choose eco-friendly, non-toxic cleaning energy in an isolated system remains constant.
• Mathematically: 1. Environmental Impact:
Energy Initial=Energy Final\text{Energy • Reducing energy consumption, particularly
Initial} = \text{Energy from non-renewable sources, helps to reduce
Final}Energy Initial=Energy Final This means greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to
the sum of all types of energy remains constant climate change.
in a closed system, though energy may change • Conserving energy leads to less pollution (air,
forms (e.g., kinetic energy can turn into water, and soil), which improves overall
thermal energy). environmental quality.
2. Resource Management:
2. Different Forms of Energy Resources • Non-renewable energy resources such as coal,
Energy exists in various forms, each useful in oil, and natural gas are finite. By conserving
different applications. These forms can be energy, we extend the lifespan of these
classified into two categories: resources and reduce our dependence on
1. Renewable Energy Sources: them.
These are energy sources that are replenished 3. Economic Benefits:
naturally and are considered sustainable. • Energy-efficient practices can lead to cost
• Solar Energy: Energy derived from the sun’s savings for individuals, businesses, and
radiation. Solar panels are used to capture and governments by reducing energy bills and the
convert sunlight into electricity. need for expensive infrastructure investments.
• Wind Energy: Kinetic energy from wind, 4. Energy Security:
which is converted into electricity using wind • By reducing demand, energy conservation
turbines. helps to reduce the need for importing energy,
• Hydropower: Energy from flowing water, thus enhancing national energy security.
typically used to generate electricity in
hydroelectric dams. 4. The Three R’s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)
• Geothermal Energy: Heat energy from The three Rs represent a waste management
beneath the Earth's surface, used for heating hierarchy that emphasizes the importance of
and electricity generation. minimizing waste and conserving resources. They
• Biomass: Organic materials (wood, are essential for energy conservation and
agricultural residues, etc.) used for energy environmental protection.
production through combustion or other 1. Reduce:
processes. • Reduce refers to minimizing the amount of
2. Non-Renewable Energy Sources: waste produced in the first place. This can be
These energy sources are finite and take millions done by:
of years to form. Their depletion is a concern for o Using less energy (e.g., turning off
long-term sustainability. lights when not in use, using energy-
• Coal: A fossil fuel used primarily for electricity efficient appliances).
generation and industrial processes. o Reducing consumption of resources
• Oil: Liquid petroleum, used in transportation like water, food, and raw materials.
(gasoline, diesel) and as a raw material in the o Improving processes (e.g.,
petrochemical industry. manufacturing products that require
• Natural Gas: A fossil fuel used for heating, less energy to produce).
electricity generation, and industrial uses. It is 2. Reuse:
less polluting than coal and oil. • Reuse means using items or materials again
• Nuclear Energy: Energy released from nuclear instead of throwing them away. This reduces
reactions, typically through the fission of the need for new products and cuts down on
uranium atoms, used in nuclear power plants. energy consumption and waste.
o Examples include reusing containers,
3. Importance of Energy Conservation repairing products, and donating old
Energy conservation is the practice of using less items rather than discarding them.
energy by being more efficient and reducing 3. Recycle:
waste. This is crucial for several reasons:
• Recycle involves converting waste materials 1. Meaning of Global Warming
into new products to prevent the consumption • Global Warming refers to the long-term
of fresh raw materials and reduce energy increase in Earth's average surface
consumption. Recycling materials like glass, temperature due to the build-up of
plastic, metal, and paper saves energy, as greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This
producing new items from raw materials phenomenon is primarily driven by human
typically requires more energy. activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels,
o For example, recycling aluminum deforestation, and industrial activities.
saves up to 95% of the energy required • Key Greenhouse Gases:
to make new aluminum from bauxite. o Carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane
(CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), water
5. Right Attitude Towards the Environment vapor (H₂O), and ozone (O₃).
A positive attitude towards the environment is • Consequences:
essential for fostering sustainable practices and o Rising global temperatures.
ensuring the conservation of resources. The right o Melting of polar ice caps and glaciers.
attitude includes: o Rising sea levels.
1. Awareness: o Disruption of weather patterns (e.g.,
• Understanding the impact of our actions on more frequent and intense heatwaves,
the environment and recognizing the need for storms, and droughts).
responsible resource usage. o Negative impacts on ecosystems,
2. Responsibility: agriculture, and human health.
• Taking personal responsibility for reducing
one's carbon footprint by practicing energy 2. Meaning of the Greenhouse Effect and Its
conservation, waste reduction, and supporting Effects
sustainable practices. What is the Greenhouse Effect?
3. Advocacy: • The greenhouse effect is a natural process
• Promoting and supporting environmental by which certain gases in Earth's
policies that encourage sustainable atmosphere trap heat, keeping the planet
development, energy efficiency, and the use of warm enough to support life. These gases
renewable resources. are known as greenhouse gases (GHGs).
4. Action: • Process:
• Actively engaging in activities such as 1. The sun's energy reaches the Earth in the
planting trees, adopting green technologies, form of sunlight (solar radiation).
and participating in community clean-ups to 2. The Earth's surface absorbs this energy and
contribute to a healthier environment. then radiates it back as heat (infrared
5. Education: radiation).
• Educating others, especially the younger 3. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such
generation, about the importance of energy as carbon dioxide, methane, and water
conservation and the need to protect the vapor, absorb and re-radiate some of this
environment for future generations. heat, warming the lower atmosphere and
Global Warming and Ozone Depletion Layer Earth's surface.
Objectives: • Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): These gases include
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to: CO₂, methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and
1. State the meaning of global warming. water vapor, all of which contribute to trapping
2. State the meaning of the greenhouse effect and heat in the atmosphere.
its effects. Effects of the Greenhouse Effect:
3. State how to control the greenhouse effect. • Global Warming: An enhanced greenhouse effect
4. State the meaning of ozone gas. leads to an increase in global temperatures, which
5. State the causes, effects, and preventive causes melting of ice caps, more frequent and
measures of ozone layer depletion. severe weather events (heatwaves, droughts,
6. State the meaning of acid rain and its effects. hurricanes), and loss of biodiversity.
• Sea Level Rise: Thermal expansion of seawater • Ozone (O₃) is a molecule composed of three
and melting glaciers and polar ice caps lead to oxygen atoms. It occurs naturally in the Earth's
rising sea levels, threatening coastal areas and atmosphere in two layers:
small island nations. o Stratospheric Ozone: The ozone layer,
• Disruption of Ecosystems: Altered weather which is located in the stratosphere
patterns disrupt ecosystems, leading to the loss of (about 10-50 km above Earth's surface),
habitats for many species and a decrease in acts as a shield, absorbing most of the
agricultural productivity. Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV)
• Health Risks: Increased temperatures can lead to radiation.
the spread of infectious diseases, heat stress, and o Tropospheric Ozone: Ground-level
respiratory problems from air pollution. ozone is a harmful pollutant that forms
when sunlight reacts with pollutants
3. How to Control the Greenhouse Effect like vehicle emissions and industrial
Controlling the greenhouse effect involves chemicals.
reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases in Ozone Layer:
the atmosphere. Key methods include: • The ozone layer is a region in the Earth's
1. Reducing Carbon Emissions: stratosphere with a high concentration of
o Switch to renewable energy: Solar, wind, ozone molecules. It protects life on Earth by
hydro, and geothermal energy sources can filtering out most of the Sun’s harmful
replace fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) for ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which can cause
power generation. skin cancer, cataracts, and harm to ecosystems.
o Energy efficiency: Improving the energy
efficiency of buildings, vehicles, appliances, 5. Causes, Effects, and Preventive Measures of
and industries reduces energy consumption. Ozone Layer Depletion
o Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion:
Technology that captures CO₂ emissions from • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): CFCs and other
power plants and industrial processes and halogenated compounds, such as
stores it underground. hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and
2. Conserving Forests and Planting Trees: halons, break down ozone molecules in the
o Forests act as carbon sinks by absorbing CO₂. stratosphere. These compounds were
Preventing deforestation and increasing commonly used in refrigeration, air
afforestation can help mitigate climate change. conditioning, and aerosol propellants.
3. Sustainable Agriculture: • Other Chemicals: Nitrous oxide (N₂O) and
o Reduce agricultural emissions by using low- other industrial chemicals also contribute to
carbon farming practices, improving soil ozone depletion.
management, and reducing methane Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion:
emissions from livestock. • Increased UV Radiation: Ozone depletion
4. Promoting Sustainable Transportation: leads to higher levels of ultraviolet (UV)
o Transitioning to electric vehicles (EVs) radiation reaching the Earth's surface. This
and encouraging the use of public increases the risk of:
transport, cycling, and walking can o Skin Cancer and cataracts in humans.
reduce emissions from the transport o Immune system suppression.
sector. o Damage to aquatic ecosystems,
5. International Agreements: particularly phytoplankton (the base of
o Global efforts like the Paris Agreement aquatic food chains).
aim to limit global temperature rise by o Reduced agricultural yields due to
reducing greenhouse gas emissions on harmful UV exposure to crops.
a global scale. Preventive Measures to Protect the Ozone Layer:
1. Montreal Protocol:
4. Ozone Gas and the Ozone Layer o A global treaty signed in 1987 aimed at
What is Ozone Gas? phasing out the production and use of
 ozone-depleting substances like CFCs, • Health Effects: The pollutants causing acid
HCFCs, and halons. rain (SO₂ and NOₓ) can cause respiratory
2. Regulation of Ozone-Depleting Chemicals: problems in humans.
o Banning or reducing the use of Preventive Measures for Acid Rain:
substances that contribute to ozone 1. Reduce Emissions:
depletion, especially in refrigeration o Limiting emissions of sulfur
and air conditioning. dioxide and nitrogen oxides by
3. Alternative Chemicals: using cleaner technologies, such as
o Using ozone-friendly refrigerants and low-sulfur coal, cleaner fuels, and
chemicals that do not harm the ozone catalytic converters for vehicles.
layer, such as hydrofluorocarbons 2. Switch to Renewable Energy:
(HFCs), though their impact on global o Reducing dependence on fossil fuels by
warming still needs attention. adopting renewable energy sources (wind,
4. Public Awareness: solar, hydro) can minimize the release of
o Educating people about the importance pollutants.
of protecting the ozone layer and 3. Regulations:
encouraging eco-friendly behaviors. o Enforcing air quality standards, such as the
Clean Air Act in the U.S., which regulates
6. Acid Rain and Its Effects emissions of pollutants that cause acid rain.
What is Acid Rain? Basic Engineering Drawing
• Acid rain is rain, snow, fog, or dust that has a Familiarisation and Information about the
lower pH than normal due to the presence of Institute and Trade
pollutants in the atmosphere, particularly Objectives:
sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides At the end of this lesson, you shall be able to:
(NOₓ). 1. State the general training system.
• These pollutants combine with water vapor in 2. State information about the trade.
the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) 3. State the rules and regulations of the
and nitric acid (HNO₃), which then fall to institute and trade.
Earth as acid rain.
Causes of Acid Rain: 1. General Training System
• Burning of Fossil Fuels: Industrial activities, The Directorate General of Training (DGT),
power plants, and vehicles release sulfur under the Ministry of Skill Development &
dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the Entrepreneurship, provides vocational training
atmosphere, which react with water vapor to courses aimed at meeting the needs of different
form acid rain. sectors of the economy and labor market. These
• Volcanic Eruptions: In some cases, natural courses are delivered under the National Council
sources like volcanic eruptions can contribute for Vocational Training (NCVT), which oversees
to acid rain by releasing sulfur dioxide into the two primary vocational training programs:
air. 1. Craftsman Training Scheme (CTS)
Effects of Acid Rain: 2. Apprenticeship Training Scheme (ATS)
• Damage to Ecosystems: Acid rain can lower The Draughtsman Civil trade falls under the CTS,
the pH of water bodies (lakes, rivers), harming which is one of the most popular courses offered
aquatic life (fish, amphibians). through the network of Industrial Training
• Soil Degradation: It can harm soil quality by Institutes (ITIs) across the country. This course
leaching essential nutrients and increasing the lasts for two years (4 semesters) and is divided into
acidity, which affects plant growth. two key areas:
• Corrosion of Buildings and Monuments: • Domain Area: Includes trade theory and
Acid rain can erode limestone, marble, and practical training aimed at developing
other stone structures, leading to the professional skills and knowledge.
deterioration of cultural heritage. Core Area: Includes subjects like workshop
calculation and science, engineering drawing, and
employability skills, which build core skills, 4. Familiarity with survey instruments and
knowledge, and life skills. the ability to use surveying tools like
Upon successful completion of the program, theodolites, total stations, and GPS.
candidates are awarded the National Trade
Certificate (NTC) by NCVT, which is globally 3. Job Duties and Tasks for a Draughtsman
recognized. The typical duties and tasks for a Civil
Draughtsman include:
2. Information about the Trade 1. Using CAD to create technical drawings
What Does a Draughtsman Do? for civil structures like highways, bridges,
A Draughtsman, or Draftsman, is a professional dams, and buildings.
who creates technical drawings or plans for 2. Drawing topographical maps, diagrams,
construction projects. Draughtsmen often work and profiles to represent elevations,
alongside architects, engineers, and other contours, and subsurface structures.
construction professionals to produce detailed 3. Preparing detailed working drawings for
drawings. The tasks of a draughtsman may vary various civil engineering projects,
depending on their area of specialization, such as including sewerage, drainage, and water
civil, architectural, or mechanical drafting. supply systems.
• Key Responsibilities: 4. Estimating and costing for civil works
o Produce drawings using computer-aided based on project requirements.
design (CAD) systems, drafting machines, or 5. Surveying sites using modern surveying
hand-drawing tools (compasses, dividers, instruments (e.g., digital theodolites, total
protractors, triangles). stations, GPS) to gather data for drawings.
o Create detailed drawings for various Course Content for Draughtsman (Civil):
structures such as highways, sewage systems, • Drafting Techniques: Use of CAD to
bridges, dams, and buildings. prepare technical drawings.
o Interpret technical specifications and design • Surveying: Hands-on practice with
requirements to produce accurate drafts. surveying tools.
o Prepare drawings for use in construction • Engineering Drawing: Creating detailed
projects and ensure they comply with safety technical drawings for various
and regulatory standards. construction and civil works.
Types of Work Draughtsmen Do: • Estimating & Costing: Preparation of cost
• Civil Draughtsman: Prepares technical estimates for construction projects.
drawings for civil engineering projects like • Project Planning: Drawing and planning
highways, bridges, dams, flood control, for the construction of residential buildings
and sewage systems. and civil infrastructure projects.
• Architectural Draughtsman: Prepares
plans for residential and commercial 4. Career Opportunities for Draughtsman (Civil)
buildings, including dimensions, Employment Options:
materials, and construction details. • Government Departments: Central and
• Structural Draughtsman: Specializes in State Government Departments offer
structural designs such as steel structures, positions as draftsmen, surveyors, and
bridges, and roof trusses. land surveyors.
Skills and Knowledge Required: • Private Sector: Opportunities as draftsmen
1. Proficiency in CAD and other drafting with architects, civil engineers,
software. construction firms, and building
2. Knowledge of construction materials and contractors.
engineering concepts. Self-Employment Opportunities:
3. Ability to interpret and create technical A trainee who has completed the Draughtsman
drawings from sketches, notes, or Civil course can start their own business offering
specifications. services such as:
• Planning, drawing, estimating, and
costing for civil construction projects.
 • Supervision of civil work and overseeing o They should also adhere to the rules and
the construction process. regulations set by the institute for smooth
• Establishing an office to provide civil operation.
construction materials, technical drawings, Overview of the Subject to be Taught in Each
and construction management services. Semester
Objective:
5. Rules and Regulations of the Institute and At the end of this lesson, you shall be able to:
Trade • State the subjects to be learned in each semester of
To maintain a productive and professional the Draughtsman Civil course.
learning environment, all trainees must adhere to
the following rules and regulations set by the Training Overview:
institute: In the Draughtsman Civil course, trainees
1. Attendance and Punctuality: undergo a comprehensive 2-year training
o Trainees must attend classes regularly and program, covering four semesters. The curriculum
maintain punctuality. is designed to equip trainees with both theoretical
o Sincere attendance and active participation are knowledge and practical skills. The primary areas
expected from all trainees. of training include Professional Skill,
2. Discipline and Behavior: Professional Knowledge, Workshop Science &
o Trainees should demonstrate respect towards Calculation, and Employability Skills.
instructors, staff members, and fellow The training progresses from basic geometric
students. drawing in the initial semesters to more complex
o A good attitude and courteous behavior are tasks such as preparing sanction plans for
essential at all times. buildings, roads, bridges, railways, and estimating
o Maintaining discipline in both classroom and costs by the final semester.
practical sessions is mandatory. Subjects Taught in Each Semester:
3. Dress Code:
o Trainees must wear the proper uniform or 1st Semester:
dress code as specified by the institute. 1. Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)
o Loose clothing should be avoided to prevent o Basic concepts of workplace safety.
accidents in the workshop. o First aid and introduction to Personal
4. Safety and Environment: Protective Equipment (PPE).
o Trainees must strictly follow safety protocols o Understanding fire alarms and
and government regulations related to work emergency procedures.
safety and environmental protection. 2. 5S Concept
o A clean and safe environment should be o Learn the principles of the 5S
maintained in the institute. methodology (Sort, Set in order, Shine,
5. Use of Tools and Equipment: Standardize, Sustain) to maintain
o Proper care should be taken while using workplace cleanliness and
drawing instruments, computers, and other organization.
technical equipment. 3. Power Failure and Fire Alarm
o Trainees should maintain all tools and o Understanding the role of power backup
equipment in good condition. systems and fire safety alarms in construction
6. Participation in Activities: sites.
o Trainees are encouraged to participate in 4. Drawing Instruments and Equipment
institute activities and workshops. o Usage, care, and maintenance of various
o Engagement in extracurricular activities helps drawing instruments.
in personal growth and skill development. o Layout of drawing sheets and understanding
7. Respect for the Institution: different sheet sizes.
o Trainees should avoid any actions that could 5. Geometrical Drawing
damage the reputation or the environment of o Plane and solid geometrical figures.
the institute. o Simple problems on projection of points, lines,
surfaces, and solids.
6. Sketch Drawing o Techniques for inking, lettering,
o Drawing of sketches from models, including and tracing blueprints.
plans, sections, and elevations. 5. Reinforced Concrete Detailing
7. Conventional Signs and Symbolism o Preparation of detailed drawings of
o Learn the standard symbols and signs used in reinforced bars, including shape,
civil engineering drawings. bends, hooks, and cranks.
8. Brick Bonds in Foundations o Drawing reinforcement details of
o Various types of brick arrangements in R.C.C structures (T-beams,
building construction and foundations. inverted beams, cantilever beams,
9. Arches and Lintels etc.).
o Different types of arches and lintels used in 6. Steel Sections and Fasteners
buildings. o Drawing different types of steel
sections, rivets, and bolts.
2nd Semester: 7. Framed Structures
1. Surveying o Detailing reinforced concrete and
o Chain surveying and preparation of site steel structures, including columns,
plans. beams, and framing.
o Traverse survey using compass, auto-level, 8. Plumbing and Sanitary Systems
and theodolite. o Detailed drawings of pipe joints,
o Longitudinal and cross-sections for the sanitary fittings, manholes, septic
given route using auto-level. tanks, and water supply systems.
2. Topographical Mapping
o Preparation of contour maps and 4th Semester:
topographical maps using theodolite and 1. Road Design and Construction
level. o Drawing cross-sectional views of
3. Construction Elements different types of roads.
o Study of different types of doors, o Longitudinal section of roads
windows, and carpentry joints. showing gradient and typical plan
o Electrical wiring system drawing. of curves.
o Design of various ground floors, 2. Bridge and Culvert Design
roofs, upper floors, and staircases. o Detailed drawings of culverts,
4. Principles of Building Construction bridges, and their components.
• General principles of construction for 3. Railway Tracks and Dam Design
buildings. o Drawings of rail sections, railway
• Truss and staircase construction details. tracks in cuts and embankments.
o Detailed drawings of dams,
3rd Semester: barrages, weirs, and cross-drainage
1. Building Plans and Elevations works.
• Drawing plans, sections, and elevations of 4. Hydroelectric Project Design
residential buildings (single-story and double- o Schematic diagrams of structures in
story) from sketches. hydroelectric projects.
2. CAD Practice 5. Building Estimation
• Introduction to CAD (Computer-Aided o Preparing detailed estimates for a
Design). building, including quantities,
• Setting up drawing areas, commands, and material costs, and rate analysis.
settings in CAD software. o Estimating costs using software
• Creating 3D models and designing objects tools.
using CAD. 6. Surveying with Advanced Equipment
3. Building Bylaws and Standards o Use of Total Station and GPS for
o Understanding local building by- advanced surveying techniques.
laws and ISI standards.
4. Inking and Tracing Job Opportunities After Training:
After completing the Draughtsman Civil course, which engineers communicate ideas
trainees can pursue employment in various public clearly and precisely.
and private sector organizations. Some of the 2. Precise Representation: It allows for the
prominent sectors and departments include: accurate representation of complex
• Public Sector: structures and systems.
• Central Public Works Department 3. Construction & Design: Provides the
(CPWD) foundation for the design, construction,
• Central Architectural Department and assembly of various engineering
• Military Engineering Services (MES) structures.
• National Highways Department 4. Documentation: Serves as a record for
• Survey of India future reference, detailing all specifications
• Indian Railways and measurements.
• State Public Works Departments (PWD)
• Municipalities and Local Government Areas of Civil Engineering Drawing:
Bodies • Structural Engineering: Focuses on
• Private Sector: designing and detailing the construction of
o Construction companies, buildings, bridges, dams, etc.
contractors, and architectural firms. • Geotechnical Engineering: Involves the
o Private building construction study of soil properties and designing
companies. foundations and structures that are
• Self-Employment: supported by the ground.
o Setting up an independent practice • Water Resources Engineering: Includes
for planning, designing, estimating, designing systems for water collection,
and supervising civil construction distribution, and storage such as dams and
works. canals.
o Offering consultancy and survey • Transportation Engineering: Deals with
services to construction projects. designing highways, railways, and public
Engineering Drawing: Overview transportation systems.
Objective:
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to: Geometrical Drawing:
• State the importance of engineering Geometrical drawing forms the foundation of
drawing. engineering drawing. It involves representing
• Identify the areas of civil engineering objects using specific techniques.
drawing. 1. Plane Geometrical Drawing: This involves
objects with two dimensions (length and
Introduction: breadth) like squares, rectangles, and
Engineering drawing is the graphical circles.
representation of objects, structures, and systems 2. Solid Geometrical Drawing: Represents
for the purpose of communication, design, and objects with three dimensions (length,
construction. It is the universal language of breadth, and height) such as cubes,
engineers, used for visualizing, documenting, and spheres, and cylinders.
conveying ideas in a precise manner. Engineering
drawing has its own grammar, consisting of Manual Drafting vs Computer-Aided Design
projection theory, conventions, symbols, and (CAD):
descriptions. It plays a vital role in civil While computer graphics and CAD software can
engineering, particularly in the design and save time and effort, manual drafting skills are
construction of structures such as buildings, roads, still in demand for certain applications, especially
bridges, dams, and more. in custom-designed or one-of-a-kind architectural
projects. Manual drafting is an essential skill for
Importance of Engineering Drawing: learning and understanding basic design
1. Universal Communication: Engineering principles.
drawing is the universal language through
List of Drawing Instruments, Equipment, and handle carefully to maintain the
Materials Used in Training straightness of the edges.
Objectives: 2. Tee-Square: Do not use the lower edge for
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: drawing. Always keep it flat on the board
• Identify the instruments, equipment, and and avoid using it as a hammer.
materials used in engineering drawing. 3. Drawing Sheets: Use appropriate size
• Understand the standards for these tools sheets for the object being drawn. Keep
and their proper usage. them flat and avoid cutting with knives.
4. Pencils: Use the appropriate pencil grade
Instruments for Engineering Drawing: for different tasks (HB for sketches, H for
1. Drawing Board: A flat surface for drawing, outlines, 2H for construction lines, etc.).
typically made of wood or plastic. 5. Erasing: Use a soft eraser for correcting
2. Tee-Square: A tool for drawing horizontal pencil marks without damaging the paper
lines. surface.
3. Set-Square: Used to draw vertical or 6. Dividers and Compasses: Ensure they are
inclined lines, typically available in 30°-60° handled carefully to avoid bending or
and 45°-45° angles. damaging the legs.
4. Scale: For measuring lengths and
transferring measurements accurately. Standards (IS: 962-1987):
5. Protractor: For measuring angles. • Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has
6. French Curves: For drawing irregular established various standards for drawing
curves. instruments and materials, which must be
7. Stencil: A template used to draw specific followed for consistency and quality in
shapes and letters. engineering drawings.
8. Drawing Instruments Box: A set of basic • Drawing Sheet Sizes: Follow standard
tools for drawing tasks. sizes such as A0 (841 x 1189 mm), A1 (594
Equipment for Engineering Drawing: x 841 mm), and smaller sizes as needed.
1. Drafting Machine: A more advanced tool Layout of Drawing Sheet
that combines the functions of a T-square, Objectives:
set-square, and protractor. At the end of this lesson, you shall be able to:
2. Computer for AutoCAD: For digital • State the system of layout of a drawing
drafting and design. sheet.
3. Plotter/Printer: For printing large-format • List the different layouts for designated
engineering drawings. drawing sheets.
Materials Used: • Explain the title block.
1. Drawing Papers: Specific paper types for
different sizes (A0, A1, A2, etc.). Introduction:
2. Drawing Pencils: Pencils with varying The layout of a drawing sheet refers to the
hardness levels for different purposes (HB, arrangement and organization of various
H, 2H, B, etc.). elements, such as the border, title block, and other
3. Rubber/Eraser: For erasing pencil marks. important information. Proper layout ensures
4. Drawing Paper Fasteners: Used to fix clarity, readability, and adherence to standards,
drawing sheets to the drawing board (e.g., and it is essential for presenting technical
thumb pins, cello tape). drawings. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS),
5. Tracing Paper or Tracing Film: Used for specifically IS: 10711-1983, specifies the sizes and
transferring designs or creating copies. layout for drawing sheets.

Precautions in Handling Instruments and System of Layout of Drawing Sheet:

Materials: A standard layout for a drawing sheet includes:
1. Drawing Board: Keep the surface clean 1. Border Lines: To define the boundary of
and avoid placing objects on it. Always the drawing area.
 2. Margins: These are space areas around the 3. Spacing for Drawing:
drawing sheet, which help to maintain • When only one figure (drawing) is to be
uniformity and allow for binding. placed on the sheet, it should be centered
3. Title Block: The section at the bottom of within the available space.
the drawing sheet that provides essential • If there are multiple figures, the sheet
information. should be divided into suitable blocks or
4. Spacing for Drawing: Proper allocation of sections to ensure a clear, organized layout.
space for the drawing(s), ensuring they are o Ensure there is adequate space
neatly placed on the sheet. between each drawing to avoid
clutter.
Details of Layout Components: o The layout should be designed to
1. Border Lines: optimize the use of space while
All technical drawings require a border to maintaining clarity and legibility.
demarcate the area where the drawing will be 4. Guidelines for Layout:
made. The standard specifications for the border • Drawing Sheet Sizes: The layout should
are as follows: be adjusted depending on the size of the
• Line Thickness: The thickness of the sheet being used. Common sizes include
border lines should be 0.60 mm. A0, A1, A2, and A3.
• Margins: • Consistency: Always follow the margin
o Top, Right, and Bottom Margins: and title block specifications to maintain
10 mm each. uniformity across all technical drawings.
o Left Margin: 20 mm. • Clarity and Legibility: Ensure that the title
The left margin is slightly larger to allow space for block and margins do not obscure any part
binding, which is particularly necessary for larger of the drawing and that the layout is
sheet sizes. visually balanced.
2. Title Block:
• Position: The title block is positioned at the Summary of Standard Layout:
right-hand bottom corner of the sheet, Component Specification
except for A4-sized sheets.
Border Line
• Dimensions: The title block is a rectangle 0.60 mm
Thickness
of size 185 mm x 65 mm.
• Contents: The title block contains the Top Margin 10 mm
following details: Right Margin 10 mm
o Name of the Firm/Institute: The Bottom Margin 10 mm
name of the organization
20 mm (larger to allow for
producing the drawing. Left Margin
binding)
o Name of the
Draughtsman/Trainee: The person 185 mm x 65 mm (at the
Title Block Size
who created the drawing. bottom-right corner)
o Roll Number: The identifier or Centered or divided into
Drawing Space
registration number of the blocks for multiple figures
draughtsman/trainee (if
applicable). Folding of Drawing Sheets
o Title of the Drawing: A brief Objectives:
description of the drawing. At the end of this lesson, you shall be able to:
o Scale of the Drawing: The scale at • State the purpose of folding a drawing
which the drawing is made (e.g., sheet.
1:100). • Explain the method of folding a drawing
o Checked By: The name or sheet.
designation of the person who
verified the drawing, such as the Introduction:
architect, engineer, or trainer.
After completing a drawing, it must be folded Importance of Technical Sketching:
properly to ensure it fits into a file for storage, Freehand technical sketching plays a significant
submission, or future reference. Folding helps role in the engineering and civil work fields. It
preserve the drawing, prevent damage, and allows engineers, designers, and workers to
organize it efficiently. The Bureau of Indian convey their ideas and designs in a quick, clear,
Standards (BIS) recommends a specific folding and practical way. The importance of freehand
method in IS: 11664-1986 for uniformity and sketching includes:
convenience. • Idea Recording: Many original designs are
initially expressed through freehand
Purpose of Folding a Drawing Sheet: sketches, reflecting the designer's
• Storage & Filing: Folding allows the thoughts.
drawing sheet to be stored in standard- • Visual Communication: Sketching allows
sized files. the designer to visually explain and share
• Protection: Proper folding prevents their concepts with others.
damage to the drawing while maintaining • Problem-Solving: When working on
its integrity. complex designs or modifications,
• Ease of Handling: Smaller folded sizes freehand sketching helps to quickly
make it easier to handle, submit, or visualize solutions.
transport the drawing. • No Scale Required: Freehand sketches
• Future Reference: Folding ensures that the don’t need to be drawn to scale but should
drawing can be easily referenced, be proportionate for clarity and
especially with the title block visible for understanding.
identification. • Details: They provide necessary details
like shape, size, and dimensions for the
Method of Folding a Drawing Sheet: construction or manufacturing of tools or
1. First Fold (Vertical): Start by folding the components.
drawing sheet vertically to reduce its For example, in civil work, a chuck key could be
width. sketched freely (as shown in Fig 1a for the object
2. Second Fold (Horizontal): After folding and Fig 1b for the sketch with dimensions).
vertically, fold it horizontally to reduce its
length. Types of Sketches:
3. Final Fold: The drawing should now be In technical sketching, different types of sketches
folded to the final size that fits the office are used to represent objects in three-dimensional
file. form. The main types of sketches include:
4. Positioning the Title Block: Ensure that 1. Multi-view Sketches:
the title block appears at the topmost o These sketches show multiple
position after folding for easy views of an object to provide a
identification and reference. clearer understanding of its shape
By following this method, the folded drawing is and dimensions. Each view
compact, protected, and organized for future use. typically represents a different side
Freehand Technical Sketching of Tools in Civil of the object (front, top, side).
Work 2. Isometric Sketches:
Objectives: o This method shows a 3D
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: representation of the object. All
• State the importance of technical sketching. three axes are represented in a
• List the types of sketches. single view, giving a true scale
• Explain the methods of sketching pictorial representation but rotated at a 30°
views. angle.
• Explain the various methods adopted in 3. Oblique Sketches:
sketching multi-views of objects and civil o These sketches represent the front
working tools. face of an object in true scale, while
the other faces are projected at an
 angle, often at 45°. The object can be and then erase construction lines to reveal
drawn to full scale (cavalier) or the final sketch.
half-scale (cabinet). Example: Fig 6A shows how the object is held for
4. Perspective Sketches: sketching, while Fig 6B and Fig 6C show steps in
o These sketches provide a realistic blocking the object’s features.
view of an object, resembling the Oblique Sketching:
way the human eye perceives it. 1. Initial Setup: Hold the object and sketch its
Lines converge at a vanishing front view first.
point. 2. Receding Lines: Sketch receding lines at a
convenient angle (often 45°), with the
Sketching Techniques and Methods: length of the receding lines either equal to
1. Proportions: the actual size (Cavalier sketch) or halved
o While freehand sketches are not to (Cabinet sketch).
scale, they should be drawn in Example: Fig 9A to Fig 9D show how an object is
proportion to maintain clarity and sketched in oblique projection.
avoid distortions. You can use grid Isometric Sketching on Grid Paper:
(cross-section) paper to help • By using isometric paper with a pre-drawn
maintain proportions. grid, you can ensure that the object’s
2. Technique of Lines: proportions are maintained while
o A significant difference between sketching. The paper helps in aligning the
freehand sketches and instrument grid with the given views (front and top).
drawings is the quality of the lines. Example: Fig 8 shows how to sketch an object
Freehand lines are more flexible using isometric grid paper.
and varied in thickness compared
to the straight, uniform lines made Sketching Multi-Views of Objects:
with instruments. When sketching multi-view projections of objects,
o For example, construction lines are the following steps are essential:
light and rough, used to outline the 1. Visualize the Object: Have a clear mental
initial shape, whereas visible lines image of the object.
should be darker to emphasize the 2. Determine the Views: Choose the views
edges of the object. that best describe the object. This could
3. Light and Dark Lines: include first-angle or third-angle
o In freehand sketching, visible lines projections, based on the international
are drawn dark and bold to indicate drawing standards.
the outline, while hidden lines, 3. Size and Scale: Determine the size of the
centre lines, and dimension lines sketch based on the complexity of the
are kept thin to avoid confusion. object. Large, complex objects may require
more space.
Pictorial Sketching: 4. Dimensions: Use appropriate dimension
There are different methods for drawing pictorial lines, extension lines, and arrows to show
views that simplify the three-dimensional measurements clearly.
representation of an object: 5. Center Lines: Indicate symmetry and
Isometric Sketching: features like holes or arcs.
1. Initial Setup: Hold the object in your hand, 6. Blocking Outlines: Block out the object’s
tilting it so that one corner is vertical, and general shape using light lines.
the other two receding edges are at 30° to 7. Adding Details: Include titles, notes, and
the horizontal. dimensions, and check the drawing for
2. Enclosing Box: Lightly sketch the completeness.
enclosing box around the object to help Example: Fig 11 shows a model of a freehand
position it correctly. sketch for reference.
3. Blocking: Draw the main features of the
object, such as recesses and projections, Hidden and Centre Lines:
 • Hidden Lines: Used to show edges or ▪ Appliances (e.g.,
features that are not visible from the refrigerators, stoves,
current view. Follow specific rules like dishwashers)
leaving gaps between hidden and visible ▪ Kitchen and Bathroom
lines and staggering parallel hidden lines. Fixtures (e.g., sinks,
• Centre Lines: Indicate the center of bathtubs, showers, toilets)
symmetrical features, such as holes or arcs, ▪ Furniture (e.g., cabinets,
and help with orientation in multi-view beds, chairs)
sketches. ▪ Electrical & Telecom
Example: Fig 22 shows the correct and incorrect symbols (e.g., switches,
methods for drawing hidden lines. outlets, lighting)
▪ Office Equipment and
Final Notes: Furniture (for commercial
• One-View Drawings: Sometimes a single plans)
view with a note or symbol is enough to ▪ Plumbing & HVAC
explain the features of an object. For symbols (for plumbing,
example, Fig 21A and Fig 21B show heating, and air
examples where a single view suffices. conditioning systems)
• Multi-View Selection: Choose the 2. Home Floor Plan: Bath & Kitchen:
minimum number of views necessary to o A home floor plan is used for
describe the object. In some cases, a top designing the kitchen and
view and side view might be sufficient, bathroom, ensuring proper
while other times, three views may be placement and alignment of
required. appliances and fixtures. By
Example: Fig 15 shows a bracket where three including symbols for plumbing
views are necessary to clearly describe its shape. and electrical systems, the floor
Symbols for Architectural & Building Drawings plan helps prevent future issues
(IS 962 - 1989) during construction.
Objectives: 3. More Kitchen & Bathroom Symbols:
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to: o The latest versions of symbol sets
• Identify symbols used for building plans, often include more detailed
especially for bathrooms and kitchens. symbols for kitchen and bathroom
• Understand how ready-made symbols layouts. These symbols help
assist in the creation of architectural plans. designers quickly add details like
• Recognize the significance of appliance, sinks, bathtubs, or built-in
door, window, and plumbing symbols in appliances.
building drawings. Example symbols include kitchen counters,
bathroom vanities, and shower enclosures (as
Symbols for Building Plans: Bath & Kitchen shown in Fig 3, Fig 1.2.14.03).
In architectural and building plans, standardized
symbols are used to represent various features Using Appliance Symbols in Building Plans:
such as bathrooms, kitchens, doors, windows, and • Creating a plan for the layout of appliances
appliances. These symbols are essential for in kitchens, bathrooms, or office spaces
communicating design details quickly and clearly. ensures that the appliances are positioned
1. Ready-Made Symbols for Building Plans: for maximum efficiency and convenience.
o Ready-made symbols streamline • Appliance Layout: For instance, using
the design process by providing symbols for stoves, fridges, dishwashers,
pre-drawn graphics that can be and laundry machines helps pre-plan their
easily placed in floor plans. These location, reducing mistakes and reworks
symbols cover a wide range of during construction.
features such as: • Using specialized software like
ConceptDraw PRO, which includes
 appliance symbol libraries, can simplify engineers, and electricians to quickly understand
this process by providing ready-to-use the layout and connections of electrical systems
symbols for drawing professional layouts. within a building. Below is a guide to the common
Example symbols include fridges, ovens, and electrical symbols used in building plans and the
dishwashers (as shown in Fig 5, Fig 6, Fig 7). layout of electrical points.

Floor Plan and Blueprint Symbols: 1. Electrical Layout on Drawing Area

• Blueprint symbols provide a visual In building plans, the layout for electrical points
shorthand for complex systems and typically includes the following components:
layouts. These include symbols for • Switches (e.g., light switches, fan switches,
electrical circuits, lighting, HVAC, and power switches)
plumbing systems. • Outlets (e.g., power outlets,
• Electrical Symbols: Used for switches, data/telecommunication outlets)
outlets, light fixtures, and other electrical • Lights (e.g., ceiling lights, wall lights)
components. • Circuit Breakers (for protection and
• Lighting Symbols: Depict light fixtures, control)
bulbs, or light switches. • Sockets (for connecting electrical devices)
• HVAC and Plumbing Symbols: Represent • Wiring and Distribution Systems
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning These symbols are positioned in the drawing area
systems, along with plumbing lines and to show the locations and connections of each
fixtures. component in the electrical system.
Example: Fig 8, Fig 9, Fig 10, Fig 12 depict different
blueprint symbols used in construction. 2. Common Electrical Symbols
Here are some commonly used electrical symbols
Symbols for Doors & Windows: in building and floor plans:
• Specific symbols are used to represent 1. Switches
various types of doors and windows on • Single Pole Switch (for controlling a single
architectural drawings. These symbols light or appliance):
ensure that builders and designers can o Symbol: A small circle with a line
quickly identify the opening types (e.g., breaking the circle and a diagonal
sliding doors, casement windows). line crossing through the center.
• Door & Window Layout: These symbols • Double Pole Switch (for controlling two
are placed within the floor plan to indicate devices):
the type, size, and placement of doors and o Symbol: A circle with two lines
windows. crossing the center, representing
two switches.
Material Symbols & Hatching Patterns: • Three-Way Switch (for controlling the
• Materials in sectional views are often same light from two locations):
indicated using specific hatching patterns. o Symbol: A rectangle with three
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) connections.
outlines these patterns (as per IS: 11663) to 2. Light Fixtures
differentiate materials like concrete, brick, • Ceiling Light:
steel, etc. o Symbol: A circle with a line
• Material Symbols: These symbols are extending from it, often with a "+"
crucial for indicating the materials used for sign inside to indicate the light
different structural elements in the bulb.
building (e.g., concrete, wood, steel). • Wall Light:
Electrical Symbols for Building Drawings o Symbol: A square with a “+”
In electrical and architectural drawings, symbol, sometimes enclosed in a
standardized electrical symbols are used to box representing wall-mounted
represent electrical components, circuits, and fixtures.
devices. These symbols allow architects, • Downlight (Recessed Ceiling Light):
 o Symbol: A small circle with a cross • Wiring (connecting electrical points):
at the center. o Symbol: A line connecting various
• Emergency Light: components, often with a note
o Symbol: A circle with a small “E” indicating the type of wire used
inside, indicating the emergency (e.g., thick line for high-power
lighting system. wiring).
3. Electrical Outlets • Ground Connection (for safety):
• Power Outlet (for plugging in electrical o Symbol: A three-line symbol
appliances): resembling an inverted "T",
o Symbol: A small circle with two indicating the grounding system.
parallel lines, representing the two
sockets. 3. Example Illustrations of Electrical Symbols
• Data Outlet (for telephone or internet Illustration 1: Switch and Light Fixtures Layout
connections): • Single Pole Switch: A simple circle with a
o Symbol: A small square with a diagonal line (X) across it to indicate a light
diagonal line through it, sometimes switch.
with additional markings • Ceiling Light: A circle with a small “+”
indicating the type of data port symbol inside.
(telephone, Ethernet, etc.). • Wall Light: A square with a "+" sign inside,
4. Sockets and Plugs placed on the wall.
• Power Socket (for connecting electrical Illustration 2: Power Outlets and Switches
devices): • Power Outlet: A circle with two vertical
o Symbol: A circle with two lines (showing two socket holes).
horizontal lines or two vertical • Data Outlet: A small square, often marked
lines, representing the socket’s with “ETH” or “TEL” to indicate Ethernet
connection points. or telephone.
• Telephone Socket: Illustration 3: Circuit Breakers and Distribution
o Symbol: A small rectangle with a Panel
line at the top, typically placed near • Circuit Breaker: A small rectangle labeled
walls for telephone connections. "CB" for circuit breaker.
5. Circuit Breaker • Main Distribution Board: A large
• Circuit Breaker (used to protect the rectangle labeled "DB" showing the
electrical system from overload): distribution panel.
o Symbol: A rectangle with a "B" Illustration 4: Grounding and Power Sources
inside, representing the breaker. • Ground Symbol: Three parallel lines
• Distribution Board (DB): stacked on top of each other, representing
o Symbol: A large rectangle with a the ground connection for safety.
"DB" label, indicating the main • Main Power Source: A circle with a line
control panel for the electrical extending from it, showing the incoming
system. power supply.
6. Power Sources Line Conventions in Engineering Drawing
• Main Power Supply (incoming electric In engineering drawing, lines serve as a means of
power): communication to depict various features,
o Symbol: A circle with a line leading boundaries, and interactions within the design.
to it, indicating where power enters Different line types are used to convey specific
the building. messages and to differentiate between features
• Battery or UPS (Uninterruptible Power such as visible edges, hidden outlines, and
Supply): centerlines.
o Symbol: A small rectangular box
with a "B" for battery or "UPS" for Types of Lines and Their Applications:
power backup. 1. Continuous Thick Line
7. Electrical Connections
 o Application: Visible outlines and • Lettering on drawings must be legible,
edges (A1, A2). uniform, and executed with rapidity for
2. Continuous Thin Line (Straight or efficiency. The standard height of lettering
Curved) is typically 3mm for most details, with
o Application: Projection lines, larger sizes (5mm-6mm) for headings and
dimension lines, leader lines, special notes. It follows the IS:962-1989
hatching, outlines of revolved standard for technical drawing fonts.
sections (B1, B2, B4). Plane Geometrical Construction
3. Continuous Thin Free Hand Line Objectives:
o Application: Freehand drawing for By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
rough layouts and sketches (B5). • Define the terms of commonly used
4. Continuous Thin (Straight) with Zig-Zags geometrical shapes.
o Application: Indicates broken or • Understand the properties and
interrupted lines (D1, E2). classification of geometric shapes, lines,
5. Dashed Thick Line and angles.
o Application: Hidden outlines, • Construct simple geometric shapes using
edges (F1, F2). basic geometric principles.
6. Dashed Thin Line
o Application: Represents hidden Introduction:
details that cannot be seen directly Geometry is the study of shapes, sizes, and the
(E1). properties of space. In the context of engineering
7. Chain Thin Line drawings, geometry involves representing objects
o Application: Representing from various angles such as top, front, and side
alternate positions or limits of views. The preparation of engineering drawings
partial views (C1, G1). involves a number of geometrical constructions,
8. Chain Thin Line, Thick at Ends & which are largely based on plane geometry.
Changes of Direction Understanding geometric shapes and their
o Application: Limits of interrupted properties is essential for drawing accurate
views and changes of direction (C1, representations of real-world objects. This lesson
K2). focuses on important geometrical terms and the
9. Chain Thick Line classification of lines and angles.
o Application: Used for visible
outlines of adjacent parts (K1, K3). Important Geometrical Terms
10. Chain Thin Double Dashed Line 1. Triangles:
o Application: Indicating trajectory A triangle is a polygon with three sides. There are
paths or centerlines (G2). different types of triangles based on their sides and
angles:
These lines help ensure clarity in a drawing, • Equilateral Triangle: All three sides are
communicating specific characteristics such as equal, and all angles are 60°.
dimensioning, cutting planes, and symmetry, • Isosceles Triangle: Two sides are of equal
following standards like IS:962-1989 and IS:11663. length, and the angles opposite those sides
Dimensioning and Lettering in Engineering are equal.
Drawings • Scalene Triangle: All three sides and all
• Dimensioning involves providing specific three angles are different.
measurements on a drawing to convey the 2. Quadrilaterals:
size and relationship between parts. Proper A quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon. There are
dimensioning ensures that the drawing is several types of quadrilaterals:
understood and executable. It is done • Square: All sides are equal, and all angles
using either the aligned or unidirectional are 90°.
system, with values clearly marked on • Rectangle (Oblong): Opposite sides are
dimension lines. equal, and all angles are 90°.
 • Rhombus: All sides are equal, but the • Angles are measured using a protractor.
angles are not 90°. The protractor provides a scale, typically
• Rhomboid: Opposite sides are equal and from 0° to 180° or 360°, depending on the
parallel, but angles are not 90°. type of protractor.
• Trapezoid: Only two sides are parallel. o Place the midpoint of the protractor
• Trapezium: No sides are parallel, though it at the vertex of the angle.
may have two equal sides. A special case of o Align one of the arms of the angle
a trapezium with two equal sides is known with the 0° line of the protractor.
as a kite. o Read the measurement where the
3. Polygons: other arm of the angle intersects the
A polygon is a closed shape with straight sides. protractor scale.
When all sides are equal, it is a regular polygon, Triangles and Their Types
and when the sides are not equal, it is an irregular Objectives:
polygon. Common types of polygons include: By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Pentagon: 5 sides. • Define triangles.
• Hexagon: 6 sides. • Name the different types of triangles and
• Heptagon: 7 sides. state their properties.
• Octagon: 8 sides.
• Nonagon: 9 sides. Definition of a Triangle:
• Decagon: 10 sides. A triangle is a closed plane figure with three sides
and three angles. The sum of the three interior
Types of Lines and Angles angles in any triangle is always equal to 180°.
Points and Lines: To define a triangle, we need a minimum of three
• Point: A location in space with no measurements:
dimension, usually represented by a dot. • 3 sides, or
• Line: A straight path that extends infinitely • 2 sides and 1 angle, or
in both directions and has no thickness. • 2 angles and 1 side.
o Line Segment: A part of a line that
has two endpoints. Types of Triangles
o Ray: A line that starts at one point 1. Equilateral Triangle:
and extends infinitely in one • Properties: All three sides are equal, and
direction. all three angles are equal.
Classification of Lines: • Angle Measurement: Each of the three
• Parallel Lines: Two lines that are angles is 60°.
equidistant from each other at all points • Example: A triangle where all sides
and never intersect. measure 5 cm, and each angle is 60°.
• Perpendicular Lines: Two lines that 2. Isosceles Triangle:
intersect at a right angle (90°). • Properties: Has two sides that are equal in
• Intersecting Lines: Two lines that meet or length. The angles opposite these two sides
cross at a point. are also equal.
• Oblique Lines: Lines that are neither • Example: A triangle where the two equal
parallel nor perpendicular. sides measure 6 cm and the angle between
Types of Angles: them is 70°.
• Acute Angle: An angle less than 90°. 3. Scalene Triangle:
• Right Angle: An angle equal to 90°. • Properties: All three sides are of different
• Obtuse Angle: An angle greater than 90° lengths, and all three angles are unequal.
but less than 180°. • Example: A triangle where sides measure 4
• Straight Angle: An angle equal to 180°. cm, 5 cm, and 6 cm, and the angles are
• Reflex Angle: An angle greater than 180° different from each other.
but less than 360°. 4. Right-Angled Triangle:
Measuring Angles:
 • Properties: One of the angles is exactly 90° • Construction: You can construct a square
(a right angle). The side opposite the right by knowing either:
angle is called the hypotenuse. o The length of one side, or
• Example: A triangle with sides 3 cm, 4 cm, o The length of the diagonal.
and 5 cm (where 5 cm is the hypotenuse). 2. Rectangle:
5. Acute-Angled Triangle: • Properties:
• Properties: All three angles are less than o Opposite sides are equal and
90° (acute). parallel.
• Example: A triangle where all angles o All four angles are right angles.
measure 45°, 60°, and 75°. o The diagonals are equal in length
6. Obtuse-Angled Triangle: but do not bisect each other at right
• Properties: One of the angles is greater angles.
than 90° (obtuse). • Construction: You can construct a
• Example: A triangle where one angle rectangle by knowing either:
measures 120°, and the other two angles o The lengths of two adjacent sides,
are less than 90°. or
o The length of the diagonal and one
Properties of Triangles: side.
• The sum of the three angles in any triangle 3. Rhombus:
is always 180°. • Properties:
• The sum of any two sides of a triangle is o All four sides are equal.
always greater than the third side. This is o Opposite angles are equal.
called the Triangle Inequality Theorem. o The diagonals are not equal but
bisect each other at right angles.
Quadrilaterals and Their Properties • Construction: You can construct a
Objectives: rhombus by knowing:
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to: o The length of one side, or
• Define a quadrilateral. o The lengths of the diagonals.
• Name the different types of quadrilaterals. 4. Rhomboid (Parallelogram):
• State the properties of each type of • Properties:
quadrilateral. o Opposite sides are equal and
parallel.
Definition of a Quadrilateral: o Opposite angles are equal.
A quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon. The sum o The diagonals bisect each other but
of the interior angles in a quadrilateral is always are not equal.
360°. The line joining opposite corners of a • Construction: You can construct a
quadrilateral is called a diagonal. rhomboid by knowing:
To construct a quadrilateral, you need a minimum o The lengths of two adjacent sides,
of five measurements, of which two must be sides. and
These five dimensions can include sides, angles, o The angle between them.
and diagonals. 5. Trapezoid (Trapezium in some regions):
• Properties:
Types of Quadrilaterals: o Only one pair of sides is parallel.
1. Square: o The angles adjacent to each base are
• Properties: supplementary (sum of 180°).
o All four sides are equal. • Construction: You can construct a
o All four angles are right angles trapezoid by knowing:
(90°). o The lengths of the parallel sides,
o The diagonals are equal in length and
and bisect each other at right o The height or angle between the
angles. sides.
6. Trapezium (in some regions called a Kite):
 • Properties: • Circle Inscribed: All the corners (vertices)
o No sides are parallel, though it may of a regular polygon lie on a circle, and the
have two equal sides. sides of the polygon are tangential to the
o The diagonals intersect at right circle drawn inside it. This is known as a
angles and one of them bisects the circumscribed circle. The radius of this
other. circle is the same for all vertices.
• Construction: You can construct a o Example: A regular hexagon can be
trapezium by knowing: inscribed in a circle, with all six
o The lengths of the sides, or vertices touching the circumference
o The lengths of the diagonals. of the circle.
Polygons and Their Properties 2. Interior Angles:
Objectives: The sum of the interior angles of a polygon
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: depends on the number of sides nnn. It can be
• Define a polygon. calculated using the formula:
• Name polygons based on the number of Sum of interior angles=(n−2)×180∘\text{Sum of
sides. interior angles} = (n - 2) \times
• State the properties of polygons. 180^\circSum of interior angles=(n−2)×180∘
where nnn is the number of sides of the polygon.
Definition of a Polygon: For example:
A polygon is a closed plane figure bounded by • In a pentagon (5 sides), the sum of the
straight lines. A polygon can have three or more interior angles is:
sides, and the number of sides typically (5−2)×180∘=3×180∘=540∘(5 - 2) \times
determines its name. Polygons can be classified as 180^\circ = 3 \times 180^\circ =
regular or irregular: 540^\circ(5−2)×180∘=3×180∘=540∘
• A regular polygon has all its sides and • In a hexagon (6 sides), the sum of the
angles equal. interior angles is:
• An irregular polygon has sides and/or (6−2)×180∘=4×180∘=720∘(6 - 2) \times
angles that are not equal. 180^\circ = 4 \times 180^\circ =
720^\circ(6−2)×180∘=4×180∘=720∘
Naming Polygons Based on the Number of Sides: 3. Exterior Angles:
The name of a polygon is determined by the The sum of the exterior angles of any polygon is
number of sides it has. Here are the names of always 360°, regardless of the number of sides.
common polygons: This is true for both regular and irregular
Name Number of Sides polygons.
Triangle 3 • Exterior Angle Formula: The exterior
angle of a regular polygon can be
Quadrilateral 4
calculated by dividing 360° by the number
Pentagon 5 of sides n. Exterior angle=360/∘n
Hexagon 6 For example:
Heptagon 7 • In a regular pentagon (5 sides), each
Octagon 8 exterior angle is: 360∘5=72∘
• In a regular hexagon (6 sides), each
Nonagon 9
exterior angle is: 360∘6=60∘
Decagon 10 4. Interior and Exterior Angles Relationship:
Undecagon 11 The sum of an interior angle and its
Dodecagon 12 corresponding exterior angle is always 180°.
• Example: In a regular polygon:
Properties of Polygons: o For a pentagon (5 sides), if the
1. Regular Polygon Properties: interior angle is 108°, the
A regular polygon is a polygon in which: corresponding exterior angle is:
• All sides are of equal length. 180∘−108∘=72∘
• All angles are equal.
 o For a hexagon (6 sides), if the • A chord is a straight line that joins any two
interior angle is 120°, the points on the circle's circumference.
corresponding exterior angle is: • The longest chord of the circle is the
180∘−120∘=60∘ diameter.
Circles and Their Elements 7. Segment:
Objectives: • A segment of a circle is the region of the
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to: circle bounded by a chord and the arc that
• State what a circle is. connects the ends of the chord.
• Name the elements of a circle. • It can be a minor segment (the smaller
• State the function of a compass. area) or a major segment (the larger area),
• Explain concentric and eccentric circles. depending on the size of the arc.
8. Sector:
Definition of a Circle: • A sector of a circle is the region bounded
A circle is a plane figure that is bounded by a by two radii (plural of radius) and the arc
curve. It is formed by the locus (path) of a point between them.
that moves so that it is always at a fixed distance • The sector looks like a "pie slice" or "pizza
from a stationary point called the centre. In slice" of the circle.
simpler terms, a circle is the set of all points in a • The area of a sector can be calculated as a
plane that are equidistant from a central point. fraction of the total area of the circle.
9. Quadrant:
Elements of a Circle: • A quadrant is a quarter of a circle, formed
1. Centre: by two radii that intersect at a 90° angle.
• The fixed point inside the circle from which • It represents one-fourth of the total area of
all points on the circle are equidistant. the circle.
• The centre is denoted by a point, typically 10. Semi-circle:
labeled O. • A semi-circle is half of the circle, formed by
2. Radius: a diameter and the arc that connects its
• The radius is the distance from the centre endpoints.
to any point on the circle. • The angle at the centre of a semi-circle is
• It is usually denoted as r. always 180°.
• All radii of a circle are of equal length. 11. Tangent:
3. Diameter: • A tangent is a straight line that touches the
• The diameter is a straight line that passes circle at exactly one point. It does not cut
through the centre and touches two points through the circle when extended.
on the circle. It is the longest chord of the • The point where the tangent touches the
circle. circle is called the point of tangency.
• The diameter is twice the radius. Hence, if • The angle between the tangent and the
the radius is rrr, the diameter is D=2rD = radius at the point of tangency is always
2rD=2r. 90°.
4. Circumference:
• The circumference is the linear length of Function of a Compass:
the entire curve or boundary of the circle. A compass is a geometric tool used for drawing
• It can be calculated using the formula: circles and arcs. It consists of two arms:
C=2πrorC=πDC = 2\pi r \quad \text{or} • One arm holds a pencil or pen, and the
\quad C = \pi DC=2πrorC=πD where rrr other has a pointed end that is placed at the
is the radius and DDD is the diameter. centre of the circle.
5. Arc: • By adjusting the distance between the two
• An arc is a part of the circle's circumference arms, the compass allows you to draw a
that is bounded by two points on the circle. circle with a specific radius.
• An arc can be measured as a portion of the
entire circumference. Concentric and Eccentric Circles:
6. Chord: 1. Concentric Circles:
 • Concentric circles are two or more circles Representative Fraction (RF):
that have a common centre but different • The Representative Fraction (RF) is a way
radii. of expressing the scale of a drawing, map,
• These circles do not intersect and are or model. It is a ratio that represents the
drawn within the same plane. They are relationship between the drawing's units
often used in designs like target boards or and the actual size units.
in mechanical components such as ball • Formula:
bearings. RF=Length on drawingActual length\text
o Example: A target board with {RF} = \frac{\text{Length on
multiple rings representing drawing}}{\text{Actual
concentric circles. length}}RF=Actual lengthLength on drawi
2. Eccentric Circles: ng
• Eccentric circles are circles that do not • Example: If 1 cm on a map represents 100
have the same centre. They may appear to m in reality, then the RF is:
be "offset" from each other. RF=110000\text{RF} =
• These circles may intersect or be \frac{1}{10000}RF=100001 This means that
completely separate, and their centres are 1 unit on the drawing (e.g., 1 cm)
at different points. represents 10,000 units in real life (e.g., 100
o Example: Two circles with different m).
centres, like two wheels of a bicycle The RF allows for the scaling of distances and
that are not aligned. dimensions between the drawing and the actual
Types of Scales object.
Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to: Types of Scales:
• State the necessity of scales. 1. Plain Scale:
• Explain Representative Fraction (RF). • A plain scale is the simplest type of scale
• List the types of scales. and is used to represent one unit of length
• Explain plain scale, comparative scale, on the drawing corresponding to a larger
scale of chords, diagonal scale, and vernier unit of length in reality.
scale. • It can be used for linear measurements like
distances, lengths, and areas.
Necessity of Scales: • Construction:
Scales are essential in technical drawing and o A plain scale consists of a main
engineering because they allow for the accurate scale, usually in larger units (e.g.,
representation of large objects, distances, or areas meters, kilometers) and sub-
on a smaller, manageable drawing. Without scales, divided into smaller units (e.g.,
it would be impossible to represent the actual size centimeters or millimeters).
of objects in designs, maps, or plans in a limited o Example: A plain scale with the RF
space. Scales help to: of 1:100, meaning 1 cm on the scale
• Reduce the size of large objects to fit onto equals 100 cm (or 1 meter) in reality.
paper. 2. Comparative Scale:
• Represent dimensions and distances • A comparative scale is used to represent
accurately. two or more different units or types of
• Ensure that measurements on a drawing measurements on the same scale. It is
can be scaled back to real-world helpful when you need to compare two
dimensions using the scale ratio. objects that are in different units of
Scales are widely used in engineering drawings, measurement.
architectural designs, road maps, and various • Construction:
other fields where exact proportionate o A comparative scale consists of two
representation of real-life objects or distances is or more scales placed side by side,
needed. each with its own unit of
measurement.
 o Example: A scale that compares 5. Vernier Scale:
distances in miles and kilometers • A Vernier scale is used to measure very
on a map. It allows you to use the precise dimensions by providing
same scale for two different units. fractional measurements beyond the main
This type of scale is used in cases like mapping, scale divisions. It is commonly used in
where distances may need to be represented in calipers, micrometers, and for measuring
multiple units (e.g., metric and imperial units). small lengths or angles.
3. Scale of Chords: • Construction:
• The scale of chords is used in circular or o A vernier scale consists of a main
arc-related measurements, particularly in scale and a movable Vernier scale,
fields like surveying, astronomy, and which allows the user to read
engineering. fractional measurements based on
• It is based on the chord length of an arc of how the Vernier scale aligns with
a circle, which can be used to determine the main scale.
angles or distances. o The Vernier scale has smaller
• Construction: divisions than the main scale, and
o A scale of chords is typically by reading the position where the
constructed using a circular scale, scales align, it can give more precise
and the values represent the readings.
lengths of the chords Vernier scales are commonly used in instruments
corresponding to certain angles. where high precision is needed, such as
o The scale is used when dealing with micrometers and calipers for measuring
angles or distances along curves, thickness, diameter, and other small dimensions.
especially in trigonometry and Properties of Materials
navigation. Objectives:
This scale is particularly useful in applications By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
involving circular arcs, such as compass bearings • Classify materials.
or angles in engineering diagrams. • State the properties of materials.
4. Diagonal Scale: • Explain the properties of building
• A diagonal scale allows for the materials.
measurement of small fractional distances
with a greater degree of precision than a Introduction
plain scale. It is particularly useful when Engineering materials play a vital role in various
you need to measure lengths that are industries, including civil engineering, electrical,
fractions of a unit. and mechanical fields. Materials are used to design
• Construction: and manufacture products, structures, and
o A diagonal scale consists of a main systems that meet the requirements of strength,
scale and a diagonal line that durability, functionality, and safety.
provides fractional subdivisions. In this lesson, we will study the materials from the
o The diagonal scale allows following perspectives:
measurements to be made to a 1. Sources, composition, and properties of
higher precision than ordinary materials.
scales, typically in decimal 2. Manufacturing methods and testing of
fractions. materials.
• Example: A diagonal scale with an RF of 3. Utility of materials in different fields of
1:100 can allow you to measure distances application.
such as 5.4 cm, where 5 cm is the main scale 4. Modern techniques for handling and
and 0.4 cm is measured using the diagonal using materials to ensure economical and
scale. safe designs.
This type of scale is often used in engineering and
architectural drawings where high precision is Classification of Materials:
required.
Materials are commonly classified based on their properties. Understanding these properties is
application and properties. Here’s a breakdown of crucial in determining which material is suitable
the main categories: for a particular application.
A. 1 Civil Engineering Materials:
• Building Stones (e.g., granite, limestone). 1. Physical Properties:
• Clay Products (e.g., bricks, tiles). Physical properties are intrinsic characteristics of
• Lime, Cement, Concrete, Mortar: Used for materials that can be observed without changing
making strong and durable construction their composition. These include:
materials. • Specific Gravity:
• Timber: Used for structural applications, o The ratio of the weight of a material
particularly in wooden buildings, framing, per unit volume (excluding air
and flooring. holes and pores) to the weight of an
A. 2 Electrical Materials: equal volume of water under
• Conductors: Materials like copper, standard conditions.
aluminum, iron, steel that allow the easy o It is used to calculate the density
flow of electricity. and porosity of materials.
• Semiconductors: Materials like silicon, • Density:
germanium that conduct electricity under o The mass of a material per unit
certain conditions. volume.
• Insulators: Materials such as asbestos, o It indicates how heavy or light a
mica, varnishes, and air that do not material is compared to its size.
conduct electricity. • Bulk Density or Unit Weight:
• Magnetic Materials: Materials like o The mass per unit volume of a
bakelite, iron, nickel, and cobalt are used material in its natural state,
in making magnets and magnetic devices. including voids and pores.
B. Mechanical Materials: • Porosity:
• Cast Iron, Steel: Used in a wide range of o The percentage of the volume of a
structural applications due to their material that is made up of pores or
strength and durability. voids.
• Lubricating Materials: Used to reduce o Materials with high porosity (e.g.,
friction between mechanical parts. bricks, concrete) are often more
C. 1 Metals and Alloys: lightweight and absorb more water.
• Ferrous Metals: These are metals • Water Absorption:
containing iron, including cast iron, o The ability of a material to absorb
wrought iron, and steel. and retain water. This property is
• Non-Ferrous Metals: Metals that do not important for materials like stones,
contain iron, such as copper, aluminum, bricks, and clay.
zinc. • Hygroscopicity:
• Alloys: These are mixtures of two or more o The ability of a material to absorb
metals, such as brass, bronze, duralumin, water vapor from the air. Timber is
and superalloys. an example of a hygroscopic
C. 2 Ceramics: material.
• Materials such as silica, soda-lime glass, • Permeability:
concrete, cement, ferrites, and garnets. o The capacity of a material to allow
C. 3 Organic Polymers: water (or another fluid) to pass
• Plastics (e.g., PVC, polythene), fibers (e.g., through it under pressure. This is
nylon, terylene), rubbers, leather (natural particularly important in soils and
and synthetic). certain building materials like
bricks and concrete.
Properties of Materials • Fire Resistance:
Materials can be classified based on their physical, o The ability of a material to resist the
mechanical, electrical, magnetic, and chemical action of high temperatures
 without losing its load-bearing • Magnetism: The ability of a material to be
capacity or structural integrity. attracted to or repelled by a magnet.
• Durability: • Permeability: The degree to which a
o The resistance of a material to material can support the formation of a
degradation caused by natural magnetic field within itself.
agencies like weather, chemicals, or
biological agents. Durability is an 5. Chemical Properties:
essential property for materials Chemical properties refer to the material’s ability
used in construction and outdoor to react with other substances:
applications. • Chemical Composition: The types and
proportions of elements or compounds
2. Mechanical Properties: present in a material.
Mechanical properties are essential for • Acidity and Alkalinity: The pH of a
understanding how materials respond to different material, which affects its chemical
forces. These properties include: reactions.
• Elasticity: The ability of a material to • Corrosion Resistance: The ability of a
return to its original shape after being material to resist chemical degradation,
deformed by stress. particularly oxidation (e.g., rusting of
• Plasticity: The ability of a material to iron).
undergo permanent deformation without
breaking. Properties of Building Materials:
• Hardness: A measure of a material's Building materials need to meet specific criteria
resistance to surface indentation or based on their mechanical, chemical, electrical,
scratching. Harder materials, like steel, are optical, and thermal properties. These properties
often more durable. help determine the suitability of materials for
• Strength: The ability of a material to various construction projects.
withstand an applied force without failing. 1. Mechanical Properties:
This includes: • Elasticity, Plasticity, Strength: Essential
o Tensile Strength (resistance to for structural integrity. Materials must be
being pulled apart). strong enough to support loads without
o Compressive Strength (resistance deforming or breaking.
to being compressed). • Hardness: Important for durability and
o Shear Strength (resistance to forces wear resistance, especially in flooring,
that cause sliding along a plane). countertops, and pavements.
2. Chemical Properties:
3. Electrical Properties: • Corrosion Resistance: Key for materials
Electrical properties refer to how a material exposed to environmental conditions like
responds to electric fields: humidity or saltwater.
• Resistivity: The property that quantifies • Chemical Composition: Impacts the
how strongly a material resists the flow of suitability of materials for certain
electric current. environmental conditions.
• Conductivity: The ability of a material to 3. Electrical Properties:
allow the flow of electrical current (inverse • Conductivity: Some building materials,
of resistivity). like metals, may need to meet certain
• Dielectric Strength: The maximum electric electrical conductivity standards,
field a material can withstand without especially in industrial or electrical
breaking down (useful in insulating installations.
materials). 4. Optical Properties:
• Light Transmission: In materials like
4. Magnetic Properties: glass, the ability to transmit light without
Magnetic properties define how materials interact distortion is crucial.
with magnetic fields:
 • Color and Reflectivity: Important for o Fine-grained stones are ideal for
aesthetic and energy-efficiency purposes in molding and intricate work.
buildings. 5. Compactness:
5. Thermal Properties: o Stones that are compact can
• Thermal Conductivity: Determines how withstand the effects of weather
well a material can conduct heat. Insulating and external forces.
materials like wool or foam are low in o Greater compactness also improves
thermal conductivity. durability.
• Thermal Expansion: Building materials 6. Resistance to Fire:
should be stable under temperature o Stones should be homogeneous
changes to avoid cracking or shifting. and free from calcium carbonate or
Short Notes on Building Stones oxides of iron, which can degrade
Objectives: under high temperatures.
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 7. Electrical Resistance:
• Define rock and building stone. o Stones like slate should be non-
• Explain the characteristics of good building absorbent for electrical resistance.
stones. 8. Hardness and Toughness:
• Classify rocks. o A stone must resist wear and tear,
• Identify types of stones available in India. with hardness tested by scratching
• Explain testing methods for stones. and toughness tested by
hammering.
Introduction 9. Strength:
Stones are obtained from rocks, which are o Stones should have a crushing
classified based on geological, physical, chemical, strength greater than 100 N/mm².
and practical properties. A specific building stone Most igneous and some
is chosen depending on the structural needs and metamorphic rocks meet this
environmental conditions. requirement, while sedimentary
Definition: rocks usually have lower strength.
• Rock: The solidified portion of the Earth's 10. Specific Gravity:
surface with no definite chemical o Stones used for heavy
composition or shape. constructions like docks and
• Stone: Quarried pieces of rock used for gravity dams should have a high
engineering purposes. specific gravity, generally not less
than 2.6. The higher the specific
Characteristics of a Good Building Stone: gravity, the heavier and denser the
To assess the suitability of stones for construction, stone.
the following characteristics should be considered:
1. Appearance and Colour: Classification of Rocks:
o Must have a pleasing color and the Rocks are classified based on their origin
ability to receive a good polish. (geological classification), structure (physical
o Should be free from cracks, spots, classification), and chemical composition.
or blemishes. 1. Geological Classification:
2. Weight: • Igneous Rocks: Formed by the cooling and
o A heavier stone generally indicates solidification of molten magma. They are
greater compactness and lower generally strong and durable. Examples:
porosity, which makes it more Granite, Basalt, Trap.
durable. • Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from the
3. Porosity and Absorption: deposition and consolidation of materials,
o Stones with high porosity absorb often in layers. They are more uniform and
more water and may become compact. Examples: Limestone,
unsuitable for construction. Sandstone.
4. Fineness of Grain:
 • Metamorphic Rocks: Formed from the 4. Fire Resistance Test: To assess the stone’s
alteration of existing rocks under pressure resistance to high temperatures.
and heat. Examples: Marble (from 5. Attrition Test: To determine the stone's
Limestone), Slate (from Mudstone). resistance to wear.
2. Physical Classification: 6. Acid Test: To evaluate how the stone reacts
• Stratified Rocks: These rocks have layers to acids.
(strata). They can be split easily along these 7. Water Absorption Test: To measure the
planes. Examples: Sandstone, Slate. percentage of water absorbed by the stone.
• Unstratified Rocks: These rocks have a 8. Smith’s Test: To detect the presence of
crystalline structure and cannot be split earthy materials.
easily. Examples: Granite, Marble. 9. Crystallization Test: To determine the
• Foliated Rocks: These rocks split along stone's durability and weathering quality.
specific planes, not necessarily parallel. 10. Microscopic Test: To examine the mineral
Example: Gneiss. constituents and texture of the stone.
3. Chemical Classification: 11. Freezing and Thawing Test: To observe
• Silicious Rocks: Contain a high percentage how the stone reacts to freezing and
of silica. They are hard and durable. thawing cycles.
Examples: Granite, Quartzite.
• Calcareous Rocks: Contain calcium Common Building Stones of India:
carbonate. Examples: Limestone, Marble. Type of Character Places
• Argillaceous Rocks: Contain a high Stone Uses
Rock istics Found
percentage of clay. They are brittle and
Hard, Road
cannot withstand shock. Examples: Slate, Maharas
tough, metal,
Schist. htra,
high rubble
Basalt Igneous Gujarat,
compress masonry,
Durability of Building Stones: Bengal,
ive foundatio
A stone's durability is influenced by its Bihar.
strength. n work.
compactness, uniformity, and resistance to
weathering and water absorption. Stones that are Glazier's Maharas
Soft, pure
more compact and homogeneous tend to be more putty, htra,
Sedimen white
durable and resistant to weathering. Chalk cement Punjab,
tary limestone
• Dressing: Stones must have uniform manufact Rajastha
.
texture for easy dressing. Hard stones may uring. n.
be difficult and uneconomical to dress. Flooring, Kashmir
Hard,
• Cost: The cost of the stone is an important steps, , Punjab,
durable,
consideration in selection. Granit facing Rajastha
Igneous takes
• Seasoning: After quarrying, stones should e walls, n,
good
be allowed to season for 6-12 months to bridge Madras,
polish.
allow for moisture and sap removal, piers. U.P.
ensuring better durability and ease of Floors, Maharas
dressing. Consists
steps, htra,
Limest Sedimen of
lime Bihar,
Testing of Stones: one tary carbonate
productio Gujarat,
To determine the suitability of stones for of lime.
n. Punjab.
construction, various tests are conducted:
Rajastha
1. Hardness Test: To assess the hardness of
Takes a Flooring, n,
the stone. Marbl Metamo
good ornament Gujarat,
2. Crushing Test: To determine the e rphic
polish. al works. Maharas
maximum load at which the stone will
htra.
break.
3. Impact Test: To evaluate the toughness of
the stone.
 Type of Character Places 2. Layout planning: For efficient stone
Stone Uses extraction.
Rock istics Found
3. Labor and machinery availability:
Retaining
Ensuring manpower and tools.
Hard, walls,
Punjab, 4. Removal of top surface: To expose the
Quartz Metamo brittle, road
Madras, stone bed.
ite rphic crystallin metal,
Gujarat. 5. Structural stability: Ensuring the
e. rubble
surrounding area is stable.
masonry.
Easy to Maharas Methods of Quarrying
work, Steps, htra, 1. Quarrying by Hand Tools:
Sandst Sedimen available walls, Gujarat, o This is an ancient method used for
one tary in ornament Rajastha soft stones that occur in large or
different al work. n, small blocks.
colors. Bengal. o Tools: Pickaxes, hammers, shovels,
Non- chisels, scraping spoons, priming
Roofing, U.P.,
absorbent needles, dippers, steel pins.
sills, M.P.,
Metamo , splits Common methods:
Slate damp- Rajastha
rphic along o Digging and excavating
proof n,
bedding o Heating: Stones are heated to crack
courses. Madras.
planes. them.
o Wedging: Wedges are driven into
Quarrying (Building Stones) the rock to split it.
Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should 2. Quarrying by Use of a Channeling
be able to: Machine:
• Define quarrying o Machines powered by steam,
• State quarry location compressed air, or electricity.
• Explain methods of quarrying o Cuts channels of 50-75 mm in
• List explosives used in blasting width and up to 24 m in length and
240-370 cm in depth.
Introduction o Process:
• Stones for construction are obtained from ▪ Cut vertical channels.
solid rock formations, not loose boulders, ▪ Drill horizontal holes
which are weathered and not suitable for beneath the block.
major construction. ▪ Drive in wedges to break
• The term quarry refers to places where the block loose.
building stones are extracted from rock ▪ Lift the block and cut it into
outcrops by digging or blasting. slabs.
• In contrast, mining refers to the extraction 3. Quarrying by Blasting:
of mineral resources like coal or precious o Used for hard stones without
stones. natural cracks or fissures.
o Involves drilling holes, charging
Definition: them with explosives, and firing
• Quarrying is the art of extracting stones the charge to break the stone into
from rock beds. small pieces.

Quarry Location Explosives in Blasting

Before starting a quarry, several factors must be Blasting uses various types of explosives. Below
considered: are some common ones:
1. Examination of rock surface: To assess
quality and texture.
Sl. Name of • State purposes of dressing
Composition Remarks
No. Explosive • Explain varieties of finishes
High explosive • List artificial stones
93% Nitro- • Explain natural bed of stone
Blasting power, 50%
1 glycerine, 7%
Gelatine more than
Gun cotton Definition:
dynamite.
• Dressing of stone is the process of cutting
Powerful and
Nitro-glycerine and shaping quarried stone into desired
smokeless. Can
2 Codite + Nitro- sizes and surface finishes.
be used
cellulose
underwater.
Purposes of Dressing:
More 1. To give the stone the desired appearance
65% Blasting
convenient for building works.
gelatine, 35%
3 Gelignite than dynamite, 2. To make transportation from the quarry
Absorbing
used easier and economical.
powder
underwater. 3. To make the stone suitable for stone
Saturated cotton Strong, but low masonry.
Gun-
4 in nitric and shattering
cotton
sulfuric acid power. Varieties of Finishes:
Cheaper and Dressed stones can be finished in several ways:
Liquid Oxygen in used for large- 1. Axed finish: Rough finish created using an
5 axe.
Oxygen liquid form scale
operations. 2. Bush-hammered finish: Rough surface
with a textured appearance.
Effective
79% Potassium 3. Chisel-drafted margins: Edges finished
Rock-a- underwater,
6 chlorate, 21% with a chisel.
rock used mainly in
Nitro-benzol 4. Circular finish: Circular design carved on
the U.S.
the stone surface.
Quick and
75% Nitro- 5. Dragged or combed finish: A linear or
powerful,
7 Dynamite glycerine, 25% combed texture on the surface.
effective
Sandy earth 6. Furrowed finish: Parallel grooves carved
underwater.
into the surface.
65% Potassium 7. Moulded finish: Surface carved into
Blasting nitrate, 20% Slow action, specific shapes.
8
Powder Sulfur, 15% cheaper. 8. Hammer-dressed finish: Rough finish
Charcoal achieved with a hammer.
Precautions During Blasting: 9. Polished finish: Smooth, glossy surface.
1. Fixed Hours: Blasting should be done at 10. Punched machine finish: Machine-
predetermined times. generated finish with punched marks.
2. Warning Signals: Use sirens and flags to 11. Reticulated finish: Grid-like pattern on the
warn workers. stone.
3. Danger Zones: Maintain a safety zone of 12. Rubbed finish: Polished finish obtained
200m around the blast area. by rubbing.
4. Fuse Lengths: Ensure fuses are of correct 13. Tooled finish: Fine details carved with a
length before use. tool.
5. Proper Handling: Handle explosives with 14. Shackling finish: Irregular surface with
rubber or polythene gloves. chisel marks.
15. Self-faced (rock-faced): The natural
Dressing of Stones (Building Stones) texture of the stone is left on the exposed
Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should face.
be able to: 16. Sunk finish: A recessed design on the
• Define dressing surface.
 products are essential in the building industry,
Artificial Stones: including bricks, tiles, ceramic items (e.g.,
Artificial stones (or cast stones) are manufactured porcelain, terra-cotta), and stoneware.
for areas where natural stone is not readily Bricks are rectangular blocks of clay, molded to a
available or affordable. standard shape and size, dried, and then fired to
Types of artificial stones: be used in masonry work.
1. Cement concrete blocks
2. Ransom's patent stone Comparison of Stone and Brick
3. Artificial marble Stone Brick
4. Terrazzo Heavier than brick Lighter than stone
5. Mosaic tiles
Obtained from rock Made from clay
6. Reconstructed stone
7. Bituminous stone Free from clay holes and Free from lumps, flaws,
flaws and cracks
Natural Bed of Stone: Hard and tough Hard and sound
• The natural bed refers to the original Absorbs more heat Absorbs less heat
position of sedimentary (stratified) rocks.
Water absorption <
• Plane of cleavage: The distinct plane along Water absorption < 5%
16%
which stones can easily be split.
• Stones should be placed in masonry with Uniform in color but
Uniform in color,
the load acting at right angles to the irregular in size and
shape, and size
bedding plane to ensure maximum shape
strength. High durability Less durable than stone
Placement of stones with respect to the natural Suitable for industrial
Acid & smoke resistant,
bed: areas, acid & smoke
but less so than stone
1. Arches: Bedding planes are at right angles resistant
to the line of thrust. Dressing and Less expensive to
2. Cornices and String Courses: Bedding transporting are costly manufacture
should be placed vertically to prevent the
Higher labor cost for Lower labor cost for
horizontal layers from dropping.
laying laying
3. Columns and Walls: Bedding planes
should be radial to the load line for optimal
strength. Brick Earth (IS: 2117-1975)
Clay Products (Bricks) A good brick earth should have the following
Objectives: By the end of this lesson, you should qualities:
be able to: • It should be easy to mold and dry without
1. Define clay products. cracking.
2. Compare stone and brick. • It should have a proper proportion of sand,
3. Explain the composition of brick earth. silt, and clay.
4. Describe the method of manufacturing • Homogeneous and free from impurities
bricks. like lime lumps, organic material, and
5. Explain the qualities of good bricks. pebbles.
6. Classify bricks. • It should not mix with salty water.
7. State the testing of bricks. Composition of Brick Earth:
8. List out special bricks. • Alumina (Clay): 20-30% by weight
• Silica (Sand): 35-50% by weight
Introduction • Silt: 20-25% by weight
Clay is a naturally occurring material, abundant in • Iron oxide, Magnesia, Lime (CaO),
nature. When mixed with water, clay becomes Sodium, Potash: 1.2% by weight
plastic, making it easy to mold into desired shapes. • Water-soluble materials: Not more than
Once dried and fired in a kiln, the clay products 1%
become hard and durable. These fired clay
 • Lime + Magnesia: Not more than 1% for Kilns and Clamps:
alluvial soil, and 15% for others. • Kilns: Permanent structures for large-scale
production.
Manufacturing of Clay Bricks (IS: 2117-1975) o Intermittent Kilns: Loaded, fired,
1. Preparation of Clay: cooled, and unloaded in stages
• Unsoiling: Removal of the top layer (about (e.g., up-draught and down-
20 cm) which contains impurities. draught).
• Digging: Clay is dug from deeper layers. o Continuous Kilns: Bricks are
• Cleaning: Removal of stones, pebbles, and loaded continuously and removed
other impurities. at the other end.
• Weathering: The clay is exposed to the • Clamps: Temporary structures, often used
atmosphere for softening and mellowing. for small-scale production. They consist of
• Blending: The clay is mixed thoroughly for alternating layers of raw bricks and fuel
uniformity. (wood, coal dust, etc.). Clamps are cheaper
• Tempering: Water is added to achieve the but less efficient and produce bricks of
right consistency for molding. varying quality.
2. Moulding: Advantages of Clamp Burning:
• The prepared clay is molded into bricks • Gradual burning makes the bricks tough
either by hand or by machines. and strong.
Hand Moulding: • Economical, with no need for skilled labor.
• Ground Moulding: Clay is pressed into Disadvantages of Clamp Burning:
wooden or steel molds on the ground. • Uneven burning, leading to irregular-
• Table Moulding: A moulder works on a shaped bricks.
table with the same process but in a more • Slow process and difficulty in controlling
structured manner. fire.
Machine Moulding: • Brick quality is inconsistent.
• Plastic Clay Machines: The clay is forced
through a rectangular opening and cut into Testing of Bricks
strips. Bricks are tested for:
• Dry Clay Machines: Strong clay is 1. Compressive Strength: To ensure they can
powdered, mixed with water to form stiff withstand pressure.
paste, and then pressed into molds. 2. Water Absorption: The bricks should
3. Drying: absorb less water to ensure durability.
• The molded bricks are laid in stacks to dry 3. Efflorescence Test: To check if salts leach
naturally or artificially in special dryers to out.
remove excess moisture. Typically, drying 4. Hardness Test: The brick should not easily
takes 3-10 days. scratch or break.
4. Burning:
• Burning Process: The dried bricks are fired Qualities of Good Bricks
in kilns or clamps. The temperature during • Shape and Size: Uniform and well-shaped.
burning is crucial. Overburning makes • Color: Uniform color (red or brown
bricks brittle, while underburning makes indicates proper burning).
them soft. • Soundness: No cracks or lumps.
Burning Stages: • Hardness: Should resist scratches.
• Low Temperature (~650°C): Organic • Absorption: Should absorb less than 16%
matter is oxidized, and water is driven out. water.
• Medium Temperature (~1100°C):
Alumina and sand bind together, Classification of Bricks
increasing strength and density. Bricks can be classified based on:
• High Temperature: Beyond this point, the 1. Quality:
bricks may vitrify (become glass-like) and o First-class bricks: High quality,
lose their shape. used for superior masonry work.
 o Second-class bricks: Good quality, hardness test can be done using a fingernail
but can have slight defects. or by scratching it with a tool.
o Third-class bricks: Soft and less 5. Soundness
durable, used for temporary • Clear Ringing Sound: When struck with
structures. another brick, a good brick produces a
2. Type: clear, ringing sound. This indicates that the
o Common Bricks: Ordinary bricks brick is free from internal defects or flaws.
used in walls and pavements. A dull sound suggests poor quality.
o Fire Bricks: Used in kilns, furnaces, 6. Porosity
and fireplaces. • Water Absorption: A good brick should
o Hollow Bricks: Used for insulation not absorb more than 20% water for first-
and light masonry work. class bricks and 22% for second-class bricks
when soaked in cold water for 24 hours.
Special Bricks Excessive water absorption can weaken the
• Fly Ash Bricks: Made from fly ash, cement, brick.
and sand, used for construction where high 7. Strength
durability is needed. • Crushing Strength: The minimum
• Refractory Bricks: Used for high- crushing strength of a brick should be 3 to
temperature applications (e.g., kilns). 5 N/mm². This ensures that the brick can
• Fire Bricks: Highly heat-resistant, used in withstand the loads it will encounter
furnaces and fireplaces. during construction.
8. Resistance to Fire
Qualities of Good Bricks • Heat Resistance: A good brick should have
For bricks to be suitable for use in important high fire resistance. This property makes
engineering structures, they must exhibit certain bricks suitable for use in buildings
qualities. The following are key characteristics that subjected to high temperatures (e.g.,
define a good brick: chimneys, fireplaces).
9. Efflorescence
1. Size and Shape • No Soluble Salts: Efflorescence is the
• Standard Size: A good brick should be of formation of white, powdery deposits on
uniform shape, with standard dimensions the surface of bricks, caused by soluble
such as 19 x 9 x 9 cm. This ensures ease of salts. Good bricks should not show
use in construction and consistency in efflorescence after being immersed in
quality. water.
2. Color 10. Durability
• Uniform Copper Red: Good bricks should • Long-lasting: The brick should be durable,
have a uniform color, typically a copper meaning it can withstand environmental
red hue, which indicates proper firing conditions such as rain, wind, and
during the manufacturing process. A chemical exposure without deteriorating.
consistent color suggests that the brick has Durability ensures that the brick maintains
been adequately and evenly fired. its strength and appearance over time.
3. Structural Integrity
• No Cracks or Flaws: The brick should be Example of Good Bricks
free from any structural defects such as 1. Color: Uniform copper red color.
cracks, holes, or lumps. A uniform texture 2. Shape: Standard rectangular shape of 19 x
is vital for ensuring strength and 9 x 9 cm.
durability. 3. Soundness: Clear, ringing sound when
4. Hardness struck together.
• Resistant to Scratch: A good brick should 4. Absorption: Water absorption should be
be hard and durable. It should not crumble less than 20% for first-class bricks, and less
easily when handled or dropped. The than 22% for second-class bricks when
soaked in water for 24 hours.
 5. Toughness: The brick should not break Excessive salts can cause damage to the
when dropped from a height of 1 meter. brick over time.
6. Crushing Strength: Minimum 3-5 N/mm². 4. Hardness Test: Assesses the hardness of
7. Specific Gravity: Between 2.0 and 2.6. the brick. A good brick should not easily be
scratched or broken.
Classification of Bricks 5. Shape and Size: Ensures that the brick
Bricks can be classified based on the degree of meets standard size and shape
burning and their usage: requirements, allowing for easy and
1. Unburnt Bricks uniform construction.
• Sun-dried bricks: These bricks are dried 6. Soundness Test: Evaluates the brick’s
using only the heat of the sun and are not ability to produce a clear, ringing sound
fired in a kiln. They are generally weak and when struck, which indicates it is free from
used for temporary structures. defects.
2. Burnt Bricks 7. Structural Integrity: Inspects the brick for
Burnt bricks are fired in a kiln or clamp and are any internal holes, lumps, or cracks that
divided into four main categories: could weaken it.
• First-Class Bricks: These are the highest
quality bricks used for load-bearing walls, Special Bricks
arches, and important masonry works. These bricks are designed for specific applications
They are strong, uniform in size, and free and differ from regular building bricks in terms of
from cracks. shape, specification, and purpose.
• Second-Class Bricks: Used in unimportant 1. Specially Shaped Bricks: Used for
situations, such as internal walls. They may architectural features and designs
have slight defects but are still suitable for requiring non-standard shapes.
non-structural applications. 2. Heavy Duty Bricks: Stronger bricks used
• Third-Class Bricks: These are used for for heavy-load applications such as
temporary buildings or structures that do pavements and foundations.
not require high strength or durability. 3. Perforated Bricks: These bricks have holes
• Fourth-Class Bricks: These are the lowest or perforations, reducing weight and
quality bricks, often used for foundations, providing insulation.
floors, and other non-visible structural 4. Burnt Clay Hollow Bricks: These bricks
elements. have cavities that reduce weight, making
them ideal for partition walls and
Testing of Bricks (IS: 3495-1992) providing better thermal and sound
Indian Standard IS: 3495-1992 outlines various insulation.
tests to determine the quality of burnt clay bricks. 5. Sand-Lime Bricks: Made from a mixture of
These tests help assess the physical properties of sand and lime, these bricks are durable and
bricks, such as strength, absorption, and have a smooth surface finish.
durability. The following tests are generally 6. Sewer Bricks: Used in sewer systems, they
performed: are resistant to moisture and chemical
Tests to be Conducted on Bricks: action.
1. Absorption Test: Measures the amount of 7. Acid-Resistant Bricks: Designed to
water absorbed by the brick. This is withstand the corrosive effects of acids,
important for understanding how much these are used in chemical industries or in
moisture the brick can hold, which affects areas exposed to acidic substances.
its strength and durability.
2. Crushing Strength Test: Determines the Hollow Bricks
compressive strength of the brick, ensuring Hollow Bricks are made from clay and contain
it can withstand applied loads. cavities that reduce their weight. These are
3. Efflorescence Test: This test helps detect commonly used in constructing walls, especially
the presence of soluble salts in the brick. for partition walls, as they provide better thermal
insulation and reduce sound transmission.
 • Thickness: Typically 20 mm to 25 mm Classification of Lime (IS: 712-1973)
thick. Lime is classified into several types based on its
• Machine Pressed: Hollow bricks are hydraulic properties and impurities:
formed by pressing clay in machines that • Class A: Eminently hydraulic lime, used
create the cavities inside. for structural works such as arches, domes,
• Uses: Suitable for partition walls and non- etc.
load bearing applications. • Class B: Semi-hydraulic lime, suitable for
The cavity inside the brick provides benefits in masonry works.
terms of: • Class C: Fat lime, used for plastering,
• Weight Reduction: Hollow bricks are whitewashing, and in masonry mortar
lighter than solid bricks, making them with pozzolanic materials.
easier to handle. • Class D: Magnesium (Dolomite) lime, used
• Thermal and Sound Insulation: The for finishing coat plastering and
cavities help in reducing heat transfer and whitewashing.
sound transmission between rooms or • Class E: Kankar lime, produced by burning
areas. lime nodules from certain soils like black
Lime cotton soils; it is hydraulic and can be used
for masonry mortar.
Objectives: • Class F: Siliceous dolomite lime, used for
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: undercoats and finishing plaster.
• Define lime
• Classify lime Properties of Lime
• State the properties of lime 1. Workability: Lime is easily workable,
• Describe the uses of lime allowing it to be shaped and applied
• Compare fat lime and hydraulic lime efficiently.
• Explain tests for lime 2. Plasticity: It possesses good plasticity,
• List precautions in handling lime making it ideal for mortar and plaster.
3. Early Stiffening: Lime sets and stiffens
Introduction quickly after application.
Lime is a versatile material primarily produced by 4. Strength: Provides adequate strength to
heating calcium carbonate, found in limestone, masonry when mixed properly.
seashells, coral, kankar, etc. Lime is produced in 5. Moisture Resistance: Lime mortar and
two forms: plaster are resistant to moisture.
1. Quicklime (Calcium Oxide): It is 6. Adhesion: Lime adheres well to masonry
produced by heating limestone and is not units, making it an excellent binder.
stable. Quicklime absorbs carbon dioxide 7. Durability: Lime masonry is durable due
from the air and reverts to calcium to low shrinkage during drying.
carbonate, hence it must be slaked
(hydrated) to form calcium hydroxide to Uses of Lime
remain stable. 1. Matrix for Concrete: Lime is used as a
2. Hydrated Lime (Calcium Hydroxide): The component in concrete.
result of slaking quicklime with water, 2. Binding Material: Used in mortars for
making it stable for construction use. stoneware, masonry, and brickwork of low
strength.
Definition 3. Plastering: Employed for plastering walls
Lime is a fine powder obtained by heating and ceilings.
limestone (calcium carbonate) to high 4. Whitewashing: Lime is used for
temperatures, causing it to break down into whitewashing and as a base coat for
calcium oxide (quicklime), which can then be distempers.
hydrated to form hydrated lime (calcium 5. Timber Knotting: Used for knotting
hydroxide). timber before painting.
 6. Artificial Stone Production: Lime is Hydraulic
Property Fat Lime
involved in making artificial stone, lime- Lime
sand bricks, and foam-silicate products. times the volume increase is less,
7. Plasticizer in Cement: When mixed with of quicklime without sound
Portland cement, lime-cement mortar or heat
becomes a plasticizer, reducing costs.
Sets
8. Flux in Steel Manufacture: Lime is used as Sets slowly in air;
underwater;
a flux in steel manufacturing. Setting absorbs CO₂ to
forms hydrated
9. Masonry Below Ground Level: Hydraulic Action form calcium
tri-calcium
lime can be used in masonry work below carbonate
silicate
ground level.
10. Paint Manufacturing: Lime is a key Possesses
Does not possess
ingredient in the production of paints. Hydraulic hydraulic
hydraulic
11. Soil Stabilization: Lime is used to stabilize Property properties (sets
properties
soils. under water)
12. Sanitary Conditions: Lime helps in Grey or
Color White or off-white
improving sanitary conditions in damp, greenish-grey
foul places. Stronger,
Less strong, not
suitable for
Tests for Lime Strength suitable for heavy
structural
Laboratory Tests (IS: 6932-1973) structures
works
Several laboratory tests are conducted to assess the Mortar for thick
quality of lime, including: Plastering,
walls, damp
• Hydraulicity Test whitewashing,
Uses conditions,
• Specific Gravity Test mortar for lighter
masonry below
• Chemical Composition Analysis work
ground
Field Tests (IS: 6924-1974)
Some common field tests include:
1. Visual Examination: Pure lime (Class C) Precautions in Handling Lime
1. Contact with Water: Quicklime should not
should be white in color.
come in contact with water before it is
2. Hydrochloric Acid Test: Assesses the
slaked as it can lead to hazardous reactions.
lime’s classification and calcium carbonate
2. Worker Protection: Workers handling lime
content.
should use protective gear such as goggles,
3. Ball Test: Determines lime’s classification.
respirators, gloves, and boots.
4. Impurity Test: Assesses the quality of lime,
3. Fire Hazard: Proper precautions must be
identifying impurities.
taken to prevent fire hazards, as lime
5. Plasticity Test: Determines the plasticity of
production involves high temperatures.
lime.
6. Workability Test: Measures the
workability of lime.
Cement
Comparison Between Fat Lime and Hydraulic
Objectives:
Lime
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
Hydraulic
Property Fat Lime • Define cement
Lime
• State the properties of cement
Pure calcium Contains 5-30% • Explain the uses of cement
carbonate with clay, ferrous • Compare cement and lime
Composition
minimal oxide, and • Understand the manufacturing process of
impurities other minerals cement
Slaking Slakes vigorously, Slakes slowly, • Explain the flow diagram of the wet
Action expanding 2 to 2.5 volume process of cement manufacturing
 • Describe the types of cement Aspect Cement Lime
• State the purpose of cement water proofers Color Greenish grey White or grayish
and admixtures
Does not slake
• Explain tests for cement Slakes when
Slaking when wetted
wetted with water
with water
Introduction
Cement is a crucial building material, primarily Sets rapidly
Sets slowly when
used as a binding agent in construction. It is Setting when mixed with
mixed with water
produced by heating a mixture of lime (calcareous water
material) and clay (argillaceous material) at high Artificial cement
Lime possesses less
temperatures, with a small quantity of gypsum. Strength has more
strength
Cement can be classified as natural or artificial strength
based on the raw materials and processes used in Suitable for
its production. Not suitable for
heavy and
Suitability heavy engineering
important
Definition structures
structures
Cement is a material obtained by burning a
mixture of calcareous (lime) and argillaceous Cement Manufacturing
(clay) materials with a small quantity of gypsum at Cement is manufactured by heating a mixture of
high temperatures. The resulting product is limestone (calcareous material) and clay
ground into a fine powder. (argillaceous material) at very high temperatures.
The manufacturing process can follow either the
Properties of Cement dry process or wet process, with the wet process
Good cement should possess the following being the older method.
properties: Wet Process Flow Diagram:
1. Strength: Provides strength to masonry 1. Raw Material Extraction: Limestone and
and concrete. clay are extracted from quarries.
2. Early Hardening: Cement stiffens and 2. Mixing and Grinding: The raw materials
hardens quickly after mixing with water. are mixed and ground into a fine powder.
3. Plasticity: Cement is easily workable and 3. Kiln Process: The mixture is heated in a
can be molded. rotary kiln to produce clinker.
4. Durability: Cement structures are durable 4. Clinker Grinding: The clinker is then
when properly mixed and cured. ground with gypsum to produce cement.
5. Moisture Resistance: Good moisture 5. Packaging: The cement is packed and
resistance, essential for structures exposed ready for shipment.
to water.
Types of Cement
Uses of Cement 1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC):
1. Masonry Works: Used in mortar for brick Standard cement used for general
and stone masonry. construction.
2. Concrete Works: Used in laying floors, 2. Rapid Hardening Cement: Hardens more
roofs, beams, and constructing structures quickly than OPC.
like bridges, dams, and tunnels. 3. Low Heat Cement: Designed to generate
3. Precast Construction: Used in making less heat during hydration, ideal for large
precast pipes, piles, and other components. concrete structures.
4. Plastering: Used in plastering walls and 4. Sulfate Resisting Cement: Used for
ceilings. structures exposed to sulfate-rich
5. Waterproofing: Cement is used in creating environments.
watertight floors, tanks, and roofs. 5. Pozzolanic Cement: Contains pozzolanic
material for better durability in aggressive
Comparison Between Cement and Lime environments.
Cement Water Proofers and Admixtures sulphate content, like sewage
• Waterproofing Admixtures: Used to treatment plants or foundations.
reduce the permeability of concrete, 4. Portland Slag Cement (PSC) (IS: 455-
making it water-resistant. 1989):
• Admixtures: Chemicals added to cement o Composition: Contains slag, a by-
or concrete to improve properties such as product of the steel industry.
workability, setting time, and durability. o Features: Low heat of hydration
and good durability.
Tests for Cement o Use: Suitable for large construction
1. Consistency Test: To measure the water projects such as dams, bridges, and
requirement to make a paste of standard foundations.
consistency. 5. Low-Heat Cement (IS: 12600-1989):
2. Setting Time Test: To measure the time it o Features: Reduced heat generation
takes for cement to set. during hydration, making it
3. Compressive Strength Test: To determine suitable for mass concrete works.
the strength of cement after setting. o Use: Often used in the construction
4. Soundness Test: Ensures that the cement of large-scale structures like dams.
does not expand excessively after setting. 6. Rapid-Hardening Cement (IS: 8041-1990):
Types of Cement o Features: Develops strength
Cement is categorized based on its composition quickly, ideal for projects requiring
and intended use. The most common types of early strength.
cement are classified by their grade, which o Use: Suitable for road repairs,
indicates the compressive strength of cement precast concrete, and cold-weather
mortar cubes (50 cm² area and 7.06 cm thickness) applications.
after 28 days of curing. 7. Concrete Sleeper-Grade Cement (IS: T40-
1985):
Common Types of Cement (IS Standards) o Use: Specially designed for the
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): manufacture of concrete sleepers
o Grades: 33, 43, 53 (IS: 269-1989) for railway tracks.
o Features: General-purpose cement 8. Coloured Cement (White Cement) (IS:
used in concrete for buildings and 8042-1989):
structures. o Features: White or colored cement
o Use: Suitable for general concrete for decorative purposes.
work, plastering, etc. o Use: Used in architectural finishes,
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) (IS: flooring, and decorative
1489): applications.
o Composition: A mixture of 9. Oil Well Cement (IS: 8229-1986):
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) o Features: Specially designed to
and pozzolana (a material that withstand high temperature and
reacts with lime). pressure conditions.
o Features: Offers enhanced o Use: Used for cementing oil wells.
durability and resistance to 10. Hydrophobic Cement (IS: 8043-1991):
chemical attacks. • Features: Water-repellent properties,
o Use: Ideal for construction in making it suitable for storage in humid
humid or aggressive environments, conditions.
such as dams and marine works. • Use: Used in rainy or humid climates for
3. Sulphate-Resisting Cement (IS: 12330- better storage stability.
1988): 11. Masonry Cement (IS: 3466-1988):
o Features: High resistance to • Features: Offers better bonding and
sulphate attack. workability.
o Use: Recommended for • Use: Primarily used for masonry mortar in
construction in areas with high soil building walls.
 12. High-Alumina Cement (IS: 6452-1989): 1. Improving Workability: Makes mixing
• Features: Highly resistant to chemical and application easier.
attacks. 2. Retarding Setting Action: Delays the
• Use: Ideal for use in extreme environments setting time of the concrete or mortar.
such as chemical plants or furnaces. 3. Increasing Bond Strength: Improves the
13. Super-Sulphated Cement (IS: 6909-1990): adhesion between reinforcement and
• Features: Resists sulphate attack even concrete.
more than ordinary cement. 4. Improving Waterproofing: Enhances the
• Use: Used in highly aggressive water resistance of concrete or mortar.
environments like sewage treatment plants 5. Reducing Shrinkage: Helps control the
and in water-logged soils. shrinkage of concrete as it sets.
14. Expansive Cement: 6. Reducing Bleeding and Segregation:
• Features: Expands during hydration. Reduces water separation during mixing,
• Use: Used for repairing cracks in concrete ensuring better quality concrete.
or for improving the bonding of old
concrete to new concrete. Tests for Cement
15. Quick Setting Cement: To ensure the quality of cement used in
• Features: Sets very quickly. construction, the following tests are conducted:
• Use: Used for rapid repairs in situations Laboratory Tests (IS: 269-1958):
where time is a critical factor. 1. Fineness: Measures the particle size of the
cement. Finer cement gives better strength.
Cement Water Proofers 2. Compressive Strength: Cement cubes are
Waterproofing is critical for structures exposed to tested after 3, 7, and 28 days of curing to
water or high humidity. Cement waterproofers are measure the strength of the cement.
used in a variety of applications, including: 3. Consistency: Determines the amount of
1. Swimming Pools water required to achieve standard
2. Basements consistency. This is crucial for setting time
3. Hospitals and strength development.
4. Refrigeration Rooms 4. Setting Times: Determines the initial and
5. Cold Storages final setting time of cement, using a Vicat
6. Water Supply and Sewage Works apparatus.
7. Exterior Plaster 5. Soundness: Ensures that cement doesn’t
8. Bathrooms and Kitchens contain free lime, which can cause
9. Reservoirs cracking. This is tested using the Le
Functions: Water proofers help render mortar or Chatelier apparatus.
concrete water-tight either by physically blocking Field Tests:
the pores or reacting chemically to create a 1. Colour: Cement should be greenish-grey in
waterproof surface. color.
Common Forms: 2. Presence of Lumps: When pressed
• Powder form: 2 to 5% by weight of cement. between the fingers, cement should break
• Paste form: 1 part paste to 10 parts water. into a fine powder.
• Liquid form: 1 liter liquid mixed with 15 3. Rubbing: When rubbed between fingers, it
liters of water. should feel smooth.
These waterproofers significantly improve the 4. Floating Test: Cement should float when
durability of the structure by preventing water thrown into water.
penetration. 5. Temperature: When you insert a hand into
a bag of cement, it should feel cold due to
Admixtures the absorption of heat during hydration.
Admixtures are materials added to cement,
mortar, or concrete to improve specific properties. Grades of Cement
They serve various purposes, such as: Cement is classified into three grades based on its
compressive strength:
 1. Grade 33: Compressive strength of 33 Type of
N/mm² after 28 days. Features Uses
Cement
2. Grade 43: Compressive strength of 43
Modified Heavy
N/mm² after 28 days. Reduced heat of
Portland construction
3. Grade 53: Compressive strength of 53 hydration
Cement projects
N/mm² after 28 days.
The grade number indicates the compressive Sulphate- High resistance In sulfate-rich
strength of cement sand mortar at 28 days. Resisting to sulphate soils or water
Cement attack areas
Properties of Cement Made by
Portland Dams, marine
• Strength: Provides strength to the blending OPC
Pozzolana structures,
structure. and pozzolana
Cement (PPC) sewage works
• Early Hardening: Cement stiffens and (fly ash)
hardens quickly.
• Plasticity: Allows easy mixing and Projection
application. Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should
• Workability: Easily workable during be able to:
construction. • Define projection.
• Moisture Resistance: Resists moisture and • Classify projections.
weathering over time. • State the types of pictorial projection.

Common Types of Cement and Their Uses Introduction to Projection

Type of Objects in the real world are three-dimensional,
Features Uses
Cement having length, width, and height (or thickness).
Ordinary General However, drawing papers and screens are two-
General- dimensional. To represent these three-dimensional
Portland concrete,
purpose cement objects, we need to project their 3D features onto a
Cement (OPC) plastering
2D surface. This is done by taking various points
Chemical
Resistant to from the object and projecting them onto a plane
Acid-Resistant industries,
acids and using straight lines (projectors). The resulting
Cement acid-resistant
chemicals image on the plane is known as the projection.
coatings
Classification of Projections
Rapid Cold weather Projections can be broadly classified into two
Quick strength
Hardening concreting, categories:
development
Cement rapid repairs 1. Parallel Projection
Mass concrete 2. Perspective Projection
Blast Furnace Low heat,
structures like
Cement slower setting
dams 1. Parallel Projection
In parallel projection, the lines of sight (projectors)
Expanding Expands during Repairs to
from the object are parallel to each other. It is
Cement setting concrete cracks
further categorized into:
Decorative Decorative • Orthographic Projection
Coloured
cement with finishes, o Projects the object perpendicular to
Cement
pigments flooring the projection plane.
Resistant to high o Displays true shape and size of the
Chemical
High Alumina temperatures object.
plants,
Cement and chemical o Common in technical and
furnaces
attack engineering drawings.
Cold climates, • Oblique Projection
Hydrophobic Water and frost o Projects the object with lines
waterproof
Cement resistant inclined at angles (e.g., 30°, 45°,
structures
60°).
 o Commonly used for assembly 1. Cavalier Projection:
drawings and simpler o Receding lines are drawn at full
visualizations. scale, and the projection angle is
30°, 45°, or 60° to the projection
2. Perspective Projection plane.
In perspective projection, the lines of sight 2. Cabinet Projection:
converge to a single point. This mimics the way we o Receding lines are drawn at half
see objects in real life, where distant objects appear scale to reduce the distortion of
smaller. It is categorized into: depth.
• One-Point Perspective
• Two-Point Perspective Difference between Isometric View and
• Three-Point Perspective Isometric Projection
Isometric View Isometric Projection
Pictorial Projection
Drawn to actual Drawn to isometric scale
Pictorial projections are used to represent three-
scale. (reduced).
dimensional objects in a way that is easy for non-
Lines parallel to the Lines parallel to the axes are
technical people to understand. These drawings
show a 3D effect, making it easier to visualize an axes are drawn at foreshortened to 82% of
object without needing to understand technical their true length. their true length.
orthographic views.
There are several types of pictorial projections: Types of Pictorial Projections
• Isometric Projection Pictorial projections include:
• Dimetric Projection 1. Axonometric Projection (Isometric,
• Trimetric Projection Dimetric, Trimetric)
• Axonometric Projection 2. Oblique Projection (Cavalier, Cabinet)
• Oblique Projection 3. Perspective Projection (One, Two, Three-
Point)
Isometric Projection
Isometric projection is a type of pictorial Orthographic Projection
projection where the three dimensions of the object Orthographic projection is used to represent the
(height, width, and depth) are represented in one exact shape and size of an object by projecting its
view. The axes are inclined at 120° to each other, features onto different planes. A single
and the three dimensions are foreshortened orthographic view only shows two of the three
equally. dimensions, requiring multiple views to represent
Important Points: all dimensions of the object. These views are
1. In isometric view, the two sides are generally:
inclined at 30° to the height axis. • Top View (Plan)
2. Lengths along the axes are scaled down to • Front View (Elevation)
82% of their true size using an isometric • Side View (Profile)
scale. Orthographic projection ensures accurate
3. Hidden details are not shown in isometric representation of the object's dimensions and
views. shape.
4. Vertical lines are drawn vertical, while General Procedure for Creating Orthographic
horizontal lines are drawn at 30° to the Projections:
horizontal. 1. Determine Dimensions: Find the
dimensions of the object.
Oblique Projection 2. Draw Views: Draw the required views
Oblique projection is useful when representing an (front, top, side) using a suitable scale.
object with one view only, often for assembly or 3. Add Details: Show important features
production drawings. The object is projected using such as circles, arcs, and edges.
parallel lines, inclined to the projection plane. 4. Indicate Hidden Features: Use dashed
Types of Oblique Projection: lines for hidden edges.
Important Terms in Orthographic Projection:
• Plan (Top View): Shows the object from
above.
• Elevation (Front or Side View): Shows the
object from the front or side.
• Object Lines: Solid lines representing
visible edges.
• Hidden Lines: Dashed lines representing
hidden edges.

First Angle Projection vs Third Angle Projection

In engineering, orthographic views are projected
in two common methods: First Angle Projection
and Third Angle Projection.
First Angle Projection:
• The object is placed between the observer
and the projection plane (first quadrant).
• The views are arranged as follows:
o Top view is placed below the front
view.
o Left view is placed to the right of
the front view.
Third Angle Projection:
• The projection plane is placed between the
object and the observer (third quadrant).
• The views are arranged as follows:
o Top view is placed above the front
view.
o Left view is placed to the left of the
front view.

Projection of Points and Lines

The study of projection also involves
understanding how points and lines are projected
onto the projection plane:
1. Projection of Points:
o Points are projected onto a plane
using perpendicular projectors.
2. Projection of Lines:
o Horizontal Lines: Parallel to the
plane of projection.
o Inclined Lines: Lines that are not
parallel to the plane, often shown
with foreshortening in pictorial
projections.