SOLUTION SHEET

PHYSICS
B. TECH EXAMINATION
(APR-MAY 2023)
UNIT- I
1)
(a)(ii) International System of units.
b) Relative velocity refers to the velocity of an object or observer in relation to
another object or reference point. It describes how fast one object appears to be
moving from the perspective of another object. In physics, the concept of relative
velocity is often used to analyze the motion of objects in different frames of
reference.
Relative velocity is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude (speed) and
direction. It accounts for the motion of the observer and the motion of the object
being observed. When two objects are in motion relative to each other, their
relative velocity is the vector difference between their individual velocities.
The expression for relative velocity in the case of two bodies moving in the same
direction is V12=V1-V2.
Given,
Two bodies moving in the same direction.
To find,
expression for relative velocity in the case of two bodies moving in the same
direction.
Solution:
The application of relative velocity comes from the concept of relative motion in
1D(one-dimension) or 2D(two-dimension).
The expression for relative velocity between two bodies moving with velocities
say V1 and V2 is given as:
V12=V1-V2.
where, V12-velocity of 1st body with respect to 2nd body.
This is a general expression and can be used in both the cases when the bodies
move in the same direction or in different directions.
One can assume a certain direction to be positive axis and the other direction to
be negative axis.
For example:
Two cars A and B with velocities 15 m/s and 20 m/s move (I)in the same direction
and (ii)in the opposite direction. Find the relative velocity of b with respect to A.
(i)Vba=Vb-va
Vba=+20-(+15)
Vba=(20-15) m/s
Vba=5 m/s.
(ii)VbaVb-Va
Vba=+20-(-15)
Vba=(20+15) m/s
Vba=35 m/s.
c)
d.)
i)
ii) a)The initial velocity of the ball is 11.31m/s
b)The maximum height reached by the ball is 2.14m
Explanation:
Given that a ball of mass 600 grams is kicked at an angle of 35° with the ground
with an initial velocity V0.
a)We are required to find the initial velocity of the ball if the kinetic energy of ball
at maximum height is 22J.The kinetic energy of the ball is

The mass of ball is

Only vertical component of velocity exists at maximum height and it is

Substituting these values in kinetic energy relation,we get

Therefore,the initial velocity of the ball is 11.31m/s

b)The formula for finding maximum height reached by the ball is

Substituting the known values in above relation,we get

Therefore,the maximum height reached by the ball is 2.14m

Unit -II
a) Louis de Broglie's hypothesis of matter waves, proposed in 1924, is a
fundamental concept in quantum mechanics that suggests that particles, like
electrons and other matter, exhibit both particle-like and wave-like properties.
This idea was a key development in the early understanding of quantum physics
and is a cornerstone of the wave-particle duality of particles.
De Broglie's hypothesis can be summarized as follows:

1. Particles Have Wave Properties: De Broglie suggested that all particles, not just
photons (which were already known to exhibit wave-like behavior), should also
exhibit wave-like properties. He proposed that particles with mass, such as
electrons, protons, and atoms, should have associated wave characteristics.
2. Wavelength and Momentum: De Broglie introduced a formula that relates the
wavelength (λ) of a particle's matter wave to its momentum (p). This
relationship is given by:
λ=h/p
Where:

• λ is the wavelength of the matter wave.

• h is the Planck constant (a fundamental constant in physics). •
p is the momentum of the particle.
3. Dual Nature of Particles: De Broglie's hypothesis implies that particles can
exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behavior, depending on the
circumstances. When particles have high momentum (e.g., when they are
moving at high speeds), their wavelength is very short, and they behave more
like classical particles. However, when particles have low momentum (e.g., in
the microscopic world of quantum mechanics), their wavelength becomes
significant, and they display wave-like characteristics, such as interference and
diffraction.
The wavelength of an electron is obtained from de-Broglie
equation. λ=mvh
=9.11×10−31kg×2×107m/s6.626×10−34Js
=3.55×10−11m
b)
c) Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle, formulated by the German physicist
Werner Heisenberg in 1927, is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. It
states that it is impossible to simultaneously and precisely know both the position
and momentum (or velocity) of a subatomic particle with arbitrary accuracy. In
mathematical terms, the principle can be expressed as:
Δx * Δp ≥ ħ / 2
Where:
• Δx represents the uncertainty in position.
• Δp represents the uncertainty in momentum.
• ħ (h-bar) is the reduced Planck constant, approximately equal to
1.0545718 x 10^-34 joule-seconds.
Proof of Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: The proof of the Uncertainty
Principle involves properties of wave functions and the mathematical framework
of quantum mechanics. One way to illustrate it is through the position and
momentum operators.
Consider the position operator (x) and the momentum operator (p). The
commutation relation between these operators is given by:
[x, p] = xp - px
It turns out that the commutator [x, p] is equal to iħ, where i is the imaginary unit.
This result is a fundamental relationship in quantum mechanics. To understand
the Uncertainty Principle, we can use this commutation relation and the
properties of wave functions.
Let's define a wave function Ψ(x) that represents the state of a particle. The
standard deviation (σ) of Ψ(x) squared is related to the uncertainty in position
(Δx):
Δx = σ
The standard deviation of the momentum is related to the uncertainty in
momentum (Δp):
Δp = σ_p
Now, using the commutation relation and properties of wave functions, we can
derive the Uncertainty Principle:
Δx * Δp = σ * σ_p ≥ (1/2)|[x, p]| = (1/2)|iħ| = ħ/2
So, the product of the uncertainties in position and momentum is greater than or
equal to ħ/2.
Consequences of the Uncertainty Principle:
Limit to Precision: The Uncertainty Principle imposes a fundamental limit on how
precisely we can know the position and momentum of a particle. The more
precisely we know one, the less precisely we can know the other.
Wave-Particle Duality: The Uncertainty Principle is a key aspect of the wave
particle duality of particles. It implies that particles exhibit both particle-like and
wave-like behaviors. As you try to pin down a particle's position with high
accuracy, its momentum becomes more uncertain, and vice versa.
Quantum Mechanics: The Uncertainty Principle is one of the foundations of
quantum mechanics. It challenges the classical concept of deterministic physics
and introduces probabilistic behavior at the quantum level.
Example: Consider an electron moving within an atom. If you want to know the
electron's position very precisely, you would need to use a tiny region in space (Δx
is small), but this would lead to a large uncertainty in its momentum (Δp is large).
Conversely, if you want to know the electron's momentum very precisely, you
would need to use a high-energy measurement (Δp is small), but this would lead
to a large uncertainty in its position (Δx is large). The Uncertainty Principle
illustrates the inherent limitations in our ability to know both the position and
momentum of the electron simultaneously, which is a characteristic feature of
quantum systems.
d.(i)Known parameters given in the problem are:
p=1.50×10−27kgms−1
And Plank’s constant, h=6.63×10−34Js
The de Broglie wavelength of the photon can be computed using the
formula: λ=hp

= 6.63×10−341.50×10−27
= 4.42 ×10−7
= 442 ×10−9
= 442 Nano meter.
Therefore, the de Broglie wavelength of the photon will be 442 nm. This
wavelength will be in the blue-violet part of the visible light spectrum.
ii) Δx=10−5m
m=0.025 kg
Δx×Δp=4πh

Δx×mΔv=4πh
Δv=4×3.14×10−5×0.0256.6×10−34
Δv=2.1×10−28 m/sec

UNIT-III

a) An electron in a periodic potential refers to the behavior of an electron when it

is placed within a crystalline lattice structure, such as a solid material. In such a
structure, the atoms are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern. This
arrangement creates a periodic potential energy landscape for the electrons
within the material.
Here's an explanation of how electrons interact with this periodic potential:

1. Periodic Potential Energy: Within the crystal lattice, the positively charged
atomic nuclei create a regular array of potential energy wells. These wells
are separated by regions of high potential energy where the electrons are
strongly attracted to the positively charged nuclei.
2. Wave-Particle Duality: Electrons exhibit both particle-like and wave-like
 behaviors. In the context of a periodic potential, it's useful to consider
electrons as matter waves, described by wave functions. These wave
functions can be thought of as the probability distributions of where the
electron is likely to be found within the crystal lattice.
3. Bloch's Theorem: A fundamental result in solid-state physics is Bloch's
theorem. It states that within a periodic potential, the wave functions for
electrons take on a special form known as Bloch wave functions. These
wave functions have two components:
• A plane wave component, which represents the free electron's behavior in a
uniform potential.
• A periodic component, which accounts for the influence of the periodic
potential in the crystal lattice.
4. Energy Bands: The allowed energy levels for electrons in a periodic
potential form energy bands. There are two primary types of bands: • Valence
Band: The valence band contains the highest energy electrons and is typically
fully or partially filled. Electrons in this band are bound to their respective
atoms.
• Conduction Band: The conduction band lies above the valence band and
contains unbound electrons. Electrons in the conduction band are free to
move and contribute to electrical conductivity.
5. Energy Gaps: In between the valence and conduction bands, there may be
an energy gap. Electrons in the valence band cannot easily move to the
conduction band without acquiring a minimum amount of energy equal to
or greater than the size of this gap. This energy gap is an important factor
in determining the electrical behavior of the material. Materials with a
small or no energy gap (semimetals and metals) conduct electricity well,
while insulators have a large energy gap.
Fermi Energy:

The Fermi energy, often denoted as "E_F," is a fundamental concept in solid-state

physics and quantum mechanics. It represents the highest energy level within a
solid material at absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin, or -273.15 degrees Celsius)
that is occupied by electrons. In other words, it is the energy level below which all
available electron states are filled with electrons, and above which all states are
empty.
Key points about Fermi energy:

1. At Absolute Zero: The Fermi energy is defined at absolute zero temperature

because it relates to the ground state of a material when thermal energy is
minimized.
2. Fermi-Dirac Distribution: The distribution of electrons in a solid follows the
Fermi-Dirac distribution function. At absolute zero, electrons fill up energy
states from the lowest energy (ground state) up to the Fermi energy level.
3. Valence and Conduction Bands: The Fermi energy is often located within
the band structure of the material, and its position relative to the energy
bands (valence and conduction bands) determines whether the material is
a conductor, semiconductor, or insulator.
Valence Band:
The valence band is a range of energy levels in a solid material that is filled with
electrons at absolute zero temperature. These electrons are tightly bound to their
respective atoms or ions within the crystal lattice. The valence band is responsible
for the electrical and thermal properties of the material, and its electrons do not
typically contribute to electrical conductivity because they are tightly held in their
positions.
Key points about the valence band:
1. Filled with Electrons: The valence band is completely filled with electrons
at absolute zero temperature. These electrons are often involved in
chemical bonding and are referred to as valence electrons.
2. Lower Energy Levels: The valence band is located at lower energy levels
compared to the Fermi energy and the conduction band.
3. Energy Gap: In insulators and semiconductors, the valence band is
separated from the conduction band by an energy gap. The size of this
energy gap determines the electrical behavior of the material.
Conduction Band:
The conduction band is a range of energy levels in a solid material that is empty at
absolute zero temperature. Electrons in the conduction band are not bound to
specific atoms and are free to move through the material, contributing to
electrical conductivity. The conduction band is responsible for the conducting
properties of a material, particularly in conductors, semiconductors, and some
types of semimetals.
Key points about the conduction band:

1. Empty at Absolute Zero: The conduction band is unoccupied by electrons at

absolute zero temperature. Electrons in this band are not associated with
specific atoms and are relatively free to move throughout the material.
2. Higher Energy Levels: The conduction band is located at higher energy
levels compared to the valence band and the Fermi energy.
3. Energy Gap: In conductors, there is typically no energy gap between the
valence and conduction bands. In semiconductors, the energy gap is small,
allowing for some electrons to transition to the conduction band with
added energy, often through thermal excitation or by other means.
c) Energy bands in solids
1. Band theory describes the arrangement of electrons in the solid. 2. The
electrons have energy which is specified in a certain range. 3. The range of
allowed energy of electrons in a solid is called energy band energy.
4. The band theory states about the thermodynamic and electrical properties
of solid.
There are three energy bands in solids
1. Valence band: It is the highest energy level associated with the electron. 2.
Conduction band: Empty space in an atom broadens to form a band called
conduction band, they are generally empty.
3. Forbidden band: The gap between valence band and conduction band is
 called Forbidden band.
When atoms are brought closer together to form solid, they combine to form
molecular orbital with discrete energy level, filling of electrons in the energy band
follows Pauli’s exclusion principle. These energy band are used to distinguish
between a metal, a semiconductor and an insulator.
Difference between a metal, a semiconductor and an insulator.

Metals Semiconductors Insulators

1. Metals are good solid with conductivity conduct electricity.

conductors of heat and lying in between metals 1. They are poor
electricity. and insulators. conductors of heat and
electricity.
2. In semiconductors,
2. In metals, conduction valence band and 2. In Insulators, the
band overlaps the valence conduction bands are energy gap between
band. filled, and there is less valence band and
energy gap between conduction bands are
valence band and high.
3. Due to overlap conduction bands.
between the bands the 3. Due to high gap
movement of electrons is between the bands no
high therefore, it is a good 3. Due to small gap moment of electrons are
conductor of between the bands partial possible. Hence, they are
electricity. moment of electrons are poor
1. They are crystalline possible. Hence, they conductors.

4. Example: Copper 4. Example: Silicon 4. Example: Wood

d.(i)
The minimum energy of a particle in a one-dimensional box can be found using
the formula for the energy levels of a particle in a box, which is derived from the
Schrödinger equation for a particle constrained within a box.
The formula for the energy levels of a particle in a one-dimensional box

is:
Where:

• En is the energy of the nth energy level.

• n is the quantum number (n = 1, 2, 3, ...).
• h is the Planck's constant (given as 6.62×10−346.62×10−34 J-s). •
m is the mass of the electron (9.1×10−319.1×10−31 kg).
• L is the width of the box (given as 0.2×10−90.2×10−9 m).
We are looking for the minimum energy, which corresponds to the ground state
(n=1) of the electron in the box.
Substituting the given values into the formula:

Let's calculate this:

Therefore, the minimum energy of the free electron trapped in a one-dimensional

box of width 0.20.2 nm is approximately 1.89×10−181.89×10−18 joules.
ii) In a solid, the Fermi level represents the highest energy level occupied by
electrons at absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin or -273.15°C). The probability of
an energy level being occupied by an electron is determined by the Fermi-Dirac
distribution function.
Given that there's an energy level lying 0.01 eV below the Fermi level, let's denote
the temperature as T (in Kelvin) and the energy level as E. The Fermi-Dirac
distribution function f(E) represents the probability of an energy level being
occupied by electrons at a given temperature:

Where:

• E is the energy of the level below the Fermi level.

• EF is the Fermi energy level.
• k is the Boltzmann constant (8.617×10−58.617×10−5 eV/K at room
temperature).
Given that the energy level is 0.01 eV below the Fermi level, and we want to find
the probability of this level not being occupied by an electron, let's calculate this
using the Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
Substituting the values:

If the level is not occupied, the probability is the complement of the probability
that it is occupied:
Probability not occupied=1−f(E)
Now, if we want to find the probability of this level not being occupied at a specific
temperature, we need to know the temperature at which this calculation is being
made. Let's assume room temperature (T=300 K) for the calculation:
Now, we can calculate this probability:

Probability not occupied≈0.3775Probability not occupied≈0.3775

Therefore, at room temperature, the probability of the energy level lying 0.01 eV
below the Fermi level not being occupied by an electron is approximately
0.37750.3775 or 37.7537.75.

UNIT- IV

a) The Fermi level, also known as the chemical potential, is a crucial parameter in
solid-state physics and semiconductor devices. Its position depends on the doping
concentration of the material, which refers to the intentional introduction of
impurities into a semiconductor to alter its electrical properties. The Fermi level
represents the energy level at which there is a 50% probability of finding an
electron, and it plays a significant role in determining the electrical behavior of
the material.
Here's how the Fermi level depends on doping concentration:
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor (undoped): In an intrinsic semiconductor, there are
no intentional impurities added. The Fermi level is located at the mid gap
energy level, where the probability of finding an electron is equal to the
probability of finding a hole. The intrinsic Fermi level is typically in the
middle of the energy bandgap.
2. N-Type Semiconductor (Electron Doping): When you introduce donor
impurities (e.g., phosphorus, arsenic) into a semiconductor, these
impurities have extra electrons in their outer shells. These extra electrons
become conduction electrons and increase the electron concentration. As a
result, the Fermi level shifts closer to the conduction band, making it easier
for electrons to participate in conduction.
 3. P-Type Semiconductor (Hole Doping): In p-type doping, acceptor impurities
(e.g., boron, aluminum) are introduced. These impurities create holes in the
valence band by accepting electrons from neighboring atoms. This increases
the hole concentration, causing the Fermi level to shift closer to the valence
band, making it easier for holes to participate in conduction.
4. Varying Doping Levels: The Fermi level's position within the bandgap
depends on the doping concentration. The higher the doping concentration,
the closer the Fermi level will be to either the conduction or valence band,
depending on whether it's n-type or p-type doping. In heavily doped
materials, the Fermi level can even cross into the conduction or valence
band, making the material effectively behave like a metal.
5. Temperature Effects: It's important to note that the Fermi level also
depends on temperature. At absolute zero, the Fermi-Dirac distribution
function predicts a step function-like behavior, with the Fermi level acting
as a sharp boundary. However, at higher temperatures, the Fermi level
broadens, and carriers (electrons and holes) are distributed across an
energy range around the Fermi level.
c) The Fermi level (EF) is a crucial concept in solid-state physics, especially
concerning semiconductor materials. It represents the energy level up to which
electron states are occupied at a given temperature. Understanding the
dependence of the Fermi level on carrier concentration and temperature is
essential in describing the behavior of semiconductors.
1. Dependence on Carrier Concentration:
• The Fermi level is directly related to the carrier concentration in a
semiconductor. Carrier concentration refers to the density of charge carriers
(electrons for n-type semiconductors or holes for p-type semiconductors)
within the material.
• For an intrinsic semiconductor (neither p-type nor n-type), the Fermi level lies
in the middle of the bandgap. As doping (intentional introduction of
impurities) occurs, additional carriers are introduced into the semiconductor.
For example:
➢ In an n-type semiconductor (where electrons are the majority carriers),
doping introduces extra electrons. The Fermi level shifts closer to the
conduction band to accommodate these extra electrons.
➢ In a p-type semiconductor (where holes are the majority carriers),
doping introduces holes. The Fermi level shifts closer to the valence
band to accommodate these extra holes.
• As the carrier concentration increases due to doping, the Fermi level shifts
accordingly towards the band edge that corresponds to the majority carrier
type, adjusting to maintain charge neutrality.
2. Dependence on Temperature:
• The Fermi level is also influenced by temperature. At absolute zero (0 K), the
Fermi level lies within the bandgap.
• As temperature increases:
➢ Intrinsic semiconductors: More electrons are thermally excited across the
bandgap, causing the Fermi level to move closer to the middle of the
bandgap.
 ➢ Doped semiconductors: Temperature affects the concentration of charge
carriers. For instance, in n-type semiconductors, as temperature rises,
more electrons are thermally excited from the valence band to the
conduction band, increasing the carrier concentration. This shift can
move the Fermi level closer to the conduction band.
➢ Conversely, in p-type semiconductors, as temperature increases, more
holes are thermally generated, causing the Fermi level to shift towards the
valence band.
Electron and Hole Concentration:
1. Electron Concentration:
• In a semiconductor material, electrons can exist in energy states within
the conduction band. The concentration of electrons refers to the
number of free electrons per unit volume that contribute to electrical
conductivity.
• Electron concentration is crucial, particularly in determining the
conductivity of an n-type semiconductor, where electrons are the
majority carriers.
2. Hole Concentration:
• In the context of semiconductors, a hole is essentially the absence of an
electron in a filled valence band state. When an electron leaves its position
in the valence band (by gaining energy), it leaves behind a hole.
• Hole concentration signifies the number of these vacancies or empty
states within the valence band that can behave like positive charge
carriers. Holes play a significant role in p-type semiconductors.
Intrinsic Semiconductor:

• An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor without any

intentional doping. It has an equal number of electrons in the conduction
band and holes in the valence band due to thermal excitation at room
temperature.
• At absolute zero temperature (0 K), the Fermi level lies exactly in the
middle of the energy gap between the valence and conduction bands. •
The concentration of electrons (ni) and holes (pi) in an intrinsic
semiconductor at a specific temperature is governed by the intrinsic
carrier concentration equation:

where Nc and Nv are the effective densities of states in the conduction and valence
bands, Eg is the bandgap energy, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the
temperature in Kelvin.
Extrinsic Semiconductor:

• Extrinsic semiconductors are doped to alter their electrical properties by

intentionally introducing impurities. These impurities can be donors or
acceptors, creating n-type or p-type semiconductors, respectively.
• n-type Semiconductors: Doping with atoms (like phosphorus) that have
more valence electrons than the host material introduces excess electrons,
increasing the electron concentration. Electrons become the majority
 carriers, and the concentration of holes is lower compared to an intrinsic
semiconductor.
• p-type Semiconductors: Doping with atoms (like boron) that have fewer
valence electrons than the host material creates "holes" in the lattice
structure, increasing the hole concentration. Holes become the majority
carriers, and the concentration of electrons is lower compared to an
intrinsic semiconductor.
d)
 UNIT- V
a) Optical fibers are incredibly versatile and have found a wide range of
applications across various fields due to their unique properties that
enable efficient transmission of light signals over long distances. Some of
the main applications of optical fibers include:

1. Telecommunications:
• Long-Distance Communication: Optical fibers form the backbone of modern
communication networks, enabling high-speed data transmission over
vast distances. They are used in telephone, internet, cable television, and
other data transmission services.
• Fiber Optic Internet: They are instrumental in providing high-speed
broadband internet connections, offering faster data rates and higher
bandwidth compared to traditional copper cables.
2. Medicine and Healthcare:
• Endoscopy and Imaging: Optical fibers play a vital role in medical imaging,
such as endoscopy, where thin, flexible fiberscopes are used to visualize
internal organs, enabling minimally invasive diagnostic procedures.
• Surgical and Laser Applications: Fiber optics are used in various medical
lasers for surgical procedures, including treatments like laser eye surgery
(LASIK).
3. Sensing and Instrumentation:
• Fiber Optic Sensors: They are employed in various sensing applications,
including temperature, pressure, strain, and chemical sensing. Fiber optic
sensors offer advantages such as immunity to electromagnetic interference,
high sensitivity, and the ability to operate in harsh environments.
• Industrial and Structural Monitoring: Optical fibers are used in structural
health monitoring of buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure to detect
deformations, cracks, or changes in temperature or strain.
4. Military and Aerospace:
• Secure Communication: Optical fibers provide secure communication
channels for military and governmental applications due to their resistance
to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
• Aviation and Aerospace: They are used in aircraft and spacecraft for data
transmission and avionic systems due to their lightweight nature and
ability to transmit signals over long distances without signal degradation.
b) Construction of ruby laser
A ruby laser consists of three important elements: laser medium, the pump
source, and the optical resonator.
Laser medium or gain medium in ruby laser
In a ruby laser, a single crystal of ruby (Al2O3 : Cr3+) in the form of cylinder acts
as a laser medium or active medium. The laser medium (ruby) in the ruby laser is
made of the host of sapphire (Al2O3) which is doped with small amounts of
chromium ions (Cr3+). The ruby has good thermal properties.

Pump
source or energy source in ruby laser
The pump source is the element of a ruby laser system that provides energy to the
laser medium. In a ruby laser, population inversion is required to achieve laser
emission. Population inversion is the process of achieving the greater population
of higher energy state than the lower energy state. In order to achieve population
inversion, we need to supply energy to the laser medium (ruby).
In a ruby laser, we use flashtube as the energy source or pump source. The
flashtube supplies energy to the laser medium (ruby). When lower energy state
electrons in the laser medium gain sufficient energy from the flashtube, they jump
into the higher energy state or excited state.
Optical resonator
The ends of the cylindrical ruby rod are flat and parallel. The cylindrical ruby rod
is placed between two mirrors. The optical coating is applied to both the mirrors.
The process of depositing thin layers of metals on glass substrates to make
mirror surfaces is called silvering. Each mirror is coated or silvered differently.
At one end of the rod, the mirror is fully silvered whereas, at another end, the
mirror is partially silvered.
The fully silvered mirror will completely reflect the light whereas the partially
silvered mirror will reflect most part of the light but allows a small portion of light
through it to produce output laser light.
Working of ruby laser
The ruby laser is a three level solid-state laser. In a ruby laser, optical pumping
technique is used to supply energy to the laser medium. Optical pumping is a
technique in which light is used as energy source to raise electrons from lower
energy level to the higher energy level.
Consider a ruby laser medium consisting of three energy levels E1, E2, E3 with N
number of electrons.
We assume that the energy levels will be E1 < E2 < E3. The energy level E1 is
known as ground state or lower energy state, the energy level E2 is known as
metastable state, and the energy level E3 is known as pump state.
Let us assume that initially most of the electrons are in the lower energy state (E1)
and only a tiny number of electrons are in the excited states (E2 and E3)

When light energy is supplied to the laser medium (ruby), the electrons in the
lower energy state or ground state (E1) gains enough energy and jumps into the
pump state (E3).
The lifetime of pump state E3 is very small (10-8 sec) so the electrons in the pump
state do not stay for long period. After a short period, they fall into the metastable
state E2 by releasing radiationless energy. The lifetime of metastable state E2 is
10-3 sec which is much greater than the lifetime of pump state E3. Therefore, the
electrons reach E2 much faster than they leave E2. This results in an increase in
the number of electrons in the metastable state E2 and hence population
inversion is achieved.
After some period, the electrons in the metastable state E2 falls into the lower
energy state E1 by releasing energy in the form of photons. This is called
spontaneous emission of radiation.
When the emitted photon interacts with the electron in the metastable state, it
forcefully makes that electron fall into the ground state E1. As a result, two
photons are emitted. This is called stimulated emission of radiation.
When these emitted photons again interacted with the metastable state electrons,
then 4 photons are produced. Because of this continuous interaction with the
electrons, millions of photons are produced.
In an active medium (ruby), a process called spontaneous emission produces
light. The light produced within the laser medium will bounce back and forth
between the two mirrors. This stimulates other electrons to fall into the ground
state by releasing light energy. This is called stimulated emission. Likewise,
millions of electrons are stimulated to emit light. Thus, the light gain is
achieved.
The amplified light escapes through the partially reflecting mirror to produce
laser light.
c)
 1. Numerical Aperture (NA): NA depends on the refractive indices of the core
and cladding materials and not on the physical dimensions of the fiber. It is
determined solely by the optical properties of the materials involved.
2. Acceptance Angle (acceptθaccept): The acceptance angle is directly related
to the numerical aperture (sin(θaccept)=NAsin(θaccept)=NA). It defines
the maximum angle for which light can be accepted into the fiber, ensuring
total internal reflection within the core.
The key point to note is that both the numerical aperture and acceptance angle
are optical characteristics of the fiber, primarily determined by the refractive
indices of the core and cladding. These properties define the fiber's light
gathering ability and its capability to guide light effectively, regardless of the
physical dimensions (such as diameter) of the fiber.
Therefore, the acceptance angle and numerical aperture remain constant for a
particular fiber composition (refractive indices) and are independent of the
physical dimensions of the optical fiber.

d.(i) The critical angle (θc) is the angle of incidence in a medium where the
refracted ray is at 90∘ to the normal, meaning the refracted ray travels along the
interface between two different materials.
Given:

• Core refractive index (n1) = 1.55

• Cladding refractive index (n2) = 1.50
ii) The population ratio between two energy states in a laser system can be
determined using the Boltzmann distribution, which relates the population of
different energy states to their respective energies and temperature.
For a two-level laser system with energy levels E1 and E2, the population ratio
N2 /N1 between these levels is given by:
Where:

• N1 and N2 are the populations of the lower and higher energy levels,
respectively.
• E1 and E2 are the energies of the lower and higher energy levels,
respectively.
• k is the Boltzmann constant (8.617×10−58.617×10−5 eV/K). •
T is the temperature in Kelvin.
For a helium-neon (He-Ne) laser, the transition typically involves the 6328 Å
(Angstrom) wavelength, corresponding to the energy difference between two
energy levels.
Given that the emission wavelength is 6328 Å and the temperature is 300300 K,
let's calculate the energy difference and the population ratio.