General Chemistry I_CHM 101

Lecture 2:
Atoms, Ions, and
Molecules
Chapter 2 in Chemistry by Chang
02 September 2024

1
The Atomic Theory

2
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
• Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms

• All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass
and chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the
atoms of all other elements

• Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any

compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements
present is either an integer or a simple fraction

• A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or

rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction

3
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
Law of Conservation of Mass Law of Multiple Proportions

16 X + 8 Y → 8X 2 Y

4
 The Electron: Cathode Ray Tube
• In the cathode ray, the beam (shown in red) comes from the cathode and
is accelerated past the anode toward a fluorescent scale at the end of the
tube. Simultaneous deflections by applied electric and magnetic fields
permitted Thomson to calculate the mass-to-charge ratio of the particles
composing the cathode ray
A: In the presence of a
magnetic field

B: No external filed present

C: In the presence of an
electric field

5
The Electron: Cathode Ray Tube

6
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

Millikan created microscopic oil droplets, which could be electrically charged by friction as
they formed or by using X-rays. These droplets initially fell due to gravity, but their
downward progress could be slowed or even reversed by an electric field lower in the
apparatus. By adjusting the electric field strength and making careful measurements and
appropriate calculations, Millikan was able to determine the charge on individual drops,
which is always a whole number multiple of a specific charge, 1.6×10−19 C. Millikan
concluded that this value must therefore be a fundamental charge—the charge of a single
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electron
Millikan’s Experiment
Measured mass of e−
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Mass of an electron = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 /( )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

e− charge = −1.60 × 10−19 C

Thompson′ s chargeΤmass of e− = −1.76 × 108 CΤg

e− mass = 9.10 × 10−28 g
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Types of Radioactivity

9
Thomson’s Model

10
Rutherford’s Experiment
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

∝ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ~ 1.4 × 107 𝑚Τ𝑠

(~5% 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
1. Atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus
2. Proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. Mass of p is 1840 × mass of e− (1.67 × 10−24 g)

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Rutherford’s Model of the Atom
atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 × 10−10 m
nuclear radius ~ 5 × 10−3 pm = 5 × 10−15 m

“If the atom is the Houston Astrodome,

then the nucleus is a marble on the 50-
yard line.”

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Chadwick’s Experiment (1932)
(1935 Noble Prize in Physics)

H atoms: 1 p; He atoms: 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4

∝ +9Be → 1n + 12C + energy

neutron (n) is neutral charge = 0

n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 × 10−24 g
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Properties of Subatomic Particles

*More refined measurements have given us a more accurate value of an electron's mass than Millikan's.

mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 × mass e−

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Atomic Number, Mass Number, and
Isotopes
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 →A
𝐀𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 → Z X ← 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐒𝐲𝐦𝐛𝐨𝐥

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus

Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

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Modern Periodic Table

16
Noble Gas
17

Halogen
Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
 Molecules
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite
arrangement held together by chemical forces.

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms:

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

diatomic elements

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms:

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

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Ions
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive or
negative charge

cation – ion with a positive charge

If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons it becomes a cation

• 11 protons • 11 protons
Na Na+
• 11 electrons • 10 electrons
anion – ion with a negative charge
If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons it becomes an anion

• 17 protons • 17 protons
Cl Cl−
• 17 electrons • 18 electrons
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Types of Ions
A monatomic ion contains only one atom:
Na+ , Cl− , Ca2+ , O2− , Al3+ , N3−

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom:

OH − , CN− , NH4+ , NO−
3

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Formulas and Models

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Types of Formulas
A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance
An empirical formula shows the simplest
whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance

Molecular Empirical
H2 O H2 O
C6 H12 O6 CH2 O
O3 O
N2 H4 NH2 22
Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations and
anions

The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula

The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each
formula unit must equal zero
The ionic compound NaCl

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 Relative Elements

The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive

nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds

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Formulas of Ionic Compounds

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Naming Monatomic Anions
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Table 2.2 The "-ide" Nomenclature of Some Common Monatomic Anions

According to Their Positions in the Periodic Table
Group 4A Group 5A Group 6A Group 7A
C carbide C 4− * N nitride N 3− O oxide O2− F fluoride F −
Si silicide Si4− P phosphide S sulfide S 2− CI chloride Cl−
P 3−
Se selenide Br bromide (Br − )
Se2−
Te telluride Te2− I iodide (I − )

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 Chemical Nomenclature
Ionic Compounds
• Often a metal + nonmetal
• Anion (nonmetal), add “-ide” to element name

Monoatomic Ion
BaCl2 barium chloride
K2O potassium oxide
Polyatomic Ion
Mg(OH)2
KNO3

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Polyatomic Ion (recall)
An ion consisting of two or more atoms chemically
bonded together and carrying an electrical charge.

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Chemical Nomenclature
Ionic Compounds
• Often a metal + nonmetal
• Anion (nonmetal), add “-ide” to element name

Binary compounds
BaCl2 barium chloride
K2O potassium oxide
Ternary compounds
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
KNO3 potassium nitrate

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Naming Transition Metal Ionic
Compounds

𝐅𝐞𝐂𝐥𝟐 𝐅𝐞𝐂𝒍𝟑

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Common Inorganic Ions

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Molecular Compounds
Mostly non-metals or nonmetals + metalloids
Common names : H2 O, NH3 , CH4

- First element in the formula is named first

- Second element is named as if it were an anion (ends in ide)

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required tor

Example: SiC silicon carbide reproduction or displa

Prefix Meaning
mono- 1
Use prefixes to indicate number of each kind of atom di- 2
Never use mono- for the first element tri- 3
For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefix is omitted tetra- 4
penta- 5
P2O5 = diphosphorus pentoxide
hexa- 6
hepta- 7
octa- 8
nona- 9
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deca- 10
Examples of Molecular Compounds

Hl hydrogen iodide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2 Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

N2 O dinitrogen monoxide

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Flowchart for Naming Compounds

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Acids
An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions H + when dissolved in water

Example: HCl gas and HCl in water

•Pure substance, hydrogen chloride

• Dissolved in water (H3 O+ and Cl− ),

hydrochloric acid

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 Naming Simple Acids
Naming acids depends on whether the anion contain oxygen

Anion does not contain oxygen then use the prefix hydro-
and the suffix –ic and add the word acid

HCN(aq) hydrocyanic acid H2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Acid Corresponding Anion

HF (hydrofluoric acid) F − (fluoride)
HCl (hydrochloric acid) Cl− (chloride)
HBr (hydrobromic acid) Br − (bromide)
HI (hydroiodic acid) I − (iodide)
HCN (hydrocyanic acid) CN − (cyanide)
H2 S (hydrosulfuric acid) S 2− (sulfide)
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Oxoacids
An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and another element.

HNO3 nitric acid

H2 CO3 carbonic acid

H3 PO4 phosphoric acid

37
Naming Oxoanions
The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of
oxoacids:
Anion does contain oxygen then the acidic name is formed from the
root of the anion with a suffix of –ic or -ous, depends on the name
of the anion.

Anion suffix acid suffix

-ate -ic
-ite -ous

H2SO4 SO42- (sulfate) sulfuric acid

H2SO3 SO32- (sulfite) sulfurous acid

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 Naming Oxoanions
Addition of one O atom to the –ic acids, then becomes “per…-
ic” acid
HClO3 chloric acid HClO4 perchloric acid

Removal of one O atom from the –ic, then becomes “ous”

HClO3 chloric acid HClO2 chlorous acid

Removal of two O atom from the –ic, then becomes

“hypo…-ous”

HClO3 chloric acid HClO hypochlorous acid

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 Naming Oxoanions
The names of anions in which one or more but not all the hydrogen
ions have been removed must indicate the number of H ions
present.

For example: H3 PO4 phosphoric Acid

H2 PO−4 dihydrogen phosphate

2−
HPO4 hydrogen phosphate
PO3−
4 phosphate

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Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions

HClO4 perchloric acid ClO4- perchlorate

HClO3 chloric acid ClO3- chlorate

HClO2 chlorous acid ClO2- chlorite

HClO hypochlorous acid ClO- hypochlorite

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42
Chlorine-Containing Oxoacids and
Oxoanions

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Table 2.6 Names of Oxoacids and Oxoanions That Contain Chlorine

Acid Corresponding Anion
HClO4 (perchloric acid) ClO−
4 (perchlorate)
HClO3 (chloric acid) ClO−
3 (chlorate)
HClO2 (chlorous acid) ClO−
2 (chlorite)
HClO (hypochlorous acid) ClO− (hypochlorite)

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Bases
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions OH − when dissolved in water

NaOH sodium hydroxide

KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba OH 2 barium hydroxide

What about other bases like Ammonia?

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Hydrates
Hydrates are compounds that have a specific
number of water molecules attached to them

BaCl2 ∙ 2H2 O barium chloride dihydrate

LiCl ∙ H2 O lithium chloride monohydrate
MgSO4 ∙ 7H2 O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Sr NO3 2 ∙ 4 H2 O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO4 ∙ 5H2 O → ← CuSO4

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Common and Systematic Names
Copyright© McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Formula Common Name Systematic Name

H2 O Water Dihydrogen monoxide
NH3 Ammonia Trihydrogen nitride
CO2 Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide
NaCl Table salt Sodium chloride
N2 O Laughing gas Dinitrogen monoxide
CaCO3 Marble, chalk, limestone Calcium carbonate

CaO Quicklime Calcium oxide

Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide
NaHCO3 Baking soda Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Na2 CO3 . 10H2 O Washing soda Sodium carbonate decahydrate
MgSO4 . 7H2 O Epsom salt Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Mg(OH)2 Milk of magnesia Magnesium hydroxide
CaSO4. 2H2 O Gypsum Calcium sulfate dehydrate

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 Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with
carbon compounds
Functional Groups:

H H H O

H C OH H C NH2 H C C OH

H H H
methanol methylamine acetic acid

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Ten Straight-Chain Alkanes

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