Topic 1. Number and Algebra
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shrekTopic 1. Number and Algebra
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shrekInternational Baccalaureate
MATHEMATICS
Analysis and Approaches (SL and HL)
Lecture Notes
Christos Nikolaidis
TOPIC 1
NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
1.1 NUMBERS – ROUNDING ……………………………………..………………………………… 1
1.2 SEQUENCES IN GENERAL – SERIES …………………………………………………… 6
1.3 ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE ………………..…………………………………………………….. 10
1.4 GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE ………………………………………………………………………. 16
1.5 PERCENTAGE CHANGE – FINANCIAL APPLICATIONS …………………….. 24
1.6 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM – (a+b)n ..………………………………………………….. 37
1.7 DEDUCTIVE PROOF …………………………………………………………………….………… 45
Only for HL
1.8 METHODS OF PROOF …………………………………………………………………….……… 51
1.9 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION .………………………………………………………………. 59
1.10 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS ………………………….…………………………… 66
1.11 COMPLEX NUMBERS – BASIC OPERATIONS ……………………………………… 75
1.12 POLYNOMIAL OVER THE COMPLEX FIELD……………………………………………. 81
1.13 THE COMPLEX PLANE …………………………………………..……………………………… 86
1.14 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM ………………………………………………………………………. 93
1.15 ROOTS OF zn=a …………………………………………….……………………………………… 102
December 2024
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1.1 NUMBERS – ROUNDING
NOTATION FOR SETS OF NUMBERS
Remember the following known sets of numbers:
N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …} natural
Z = {0, 1, 2, 3, …} integers
a
Q = { : a,bZ, b≠0} rational (fractions of integers)
b
R = rational + irrational real
Known irrational numbers:
2, 3, 5 and all a where a is not a perfect square
π = 3.14159….
e = 2.7182818…
To indicate particular subsets we use the indices +,-, * as follows:
Z+ = {1, 2, 3, …} positive integers
Z- = {-1, -2, -3, …} negative integers
Z* = {1, 2, 3, …} non-zero integers i.e. Z* = Z–{0}
Similar notations apply for the other sets above.
For intervals of real numbers we use the following notations:
x[a,b] for a ≤x ≤b
x]a,b[ or x(a,b) for a < x< b
x[a,b[ or x[a,b) for a ≤x < b
x[a,+[ or x[a,+) for x≥ a
x]-,a] or x(-,a] for x≤ a
x]-,a][b,+[ for x ≤ a or x ≥ b
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
I have to continue my notes with a – not so pleasant – discussion
about rounding of numbers. The numerical answer to a problem is
not always exact and we have to use some rounding.
DECIMAL PLACES vs SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Consider the number
123.4567
There are two ways to round up the number by using fewer digits:
- To a specific number of decimal places (d.p.)
to 1 d.p. 123.5
to 2 d.p. 123.46
to 3 d.p. 123.457
We can also round up before the decimal point:
to the nearest integer 123
to the nearest 10 120
to the nearest 100 100
- To a specific number of significant figures (s.f.): for the position
of rounding, we start counting from the first non-zero digit:
to 4 s.f. 123.5
to 5 s.f. 123.46
to 6 s.f. 123.457
But also
to 2 s.f. 120
to 1 s.f. 100
Notice that the number at the critical position
remains as it is if the following digit is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
Increases by 1 if the following digit is 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the number
0.04362018
to decimal places to significant figures
to 2 d.p. 0.04 to 2 s.f. 0.044
to 3 d.p. 0.044 to 3 s.f. 0.0436
to 4 d.p. 0.0436 to 4 s.f. 0.04362
to 6 d.p. 0.043620 to 5 s.f. 0.043620
Important remark: In the final IB exams the requirement is to give
the answers either in exact form or to 3 s.f. . For example
exact form to 3sf
2 1.41
2π 6.28
12348 12300
THE SCIENTIFIC FORM a×10k
Any number can be written in the form
a×10k where 1 ≤ a < 10
We simply move the decimal point after the first non-zero digit.
For example, the number
123.4567 can be written as 1.234567×102
Indeed,
1.234567×102 = 1.234567×100 = 123.4567
Notice that
we moved the decimal point 2 positions to the left
k= 2
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Even for a “small” number, say
0.000012345
we can find such an expression:
1.2345×10-5
Notice that
we moved the decimal point 5 positions to the right
k = -5
NOTICE:
They may ask us to give the number in scientific form but also
to 3 s.f. Then
1.2345×102 1.23×102
1.2345×10-5 1.23×10-5
Many calculators use the symbol E±-- for the scientific notation:
The notation 1.2345E+02 means 1.2345×102
The notation 1.2345E-05 means 1.2345×10-5
EXAMPLE 2
(a) Give the scientific form of the numbers
x = 100000 y = 0.00001 z = 4057.52 w = 0.00107
(b) Give the standard form of the numbers
s = 4.501×107 t = 4.501×10-7
Solution
(a) x = 1×105
y = 1×10-5
z = 4.05752×103
w = 1.07×10-3
(b) s = 45010000
t = 0.0000004501
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the numbers
x = 3×107 and y = 4×107
Give x+y and xy in scientific form.
Solution
x+y = 7×107 [add 3+4]
[keep the same exponent]
xy = 12×1014 [multiply 3×4]
[add exponents]
= 1.2×1015 [modify a so that 1 ≤ a < 10]
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the numbers
x = 3×107 and y = 4×109
Give x+y and xy in scientific form.
Solution
For addition we must modify y (or x) in order to achieve similar
forms
x = 3×107
y = 4×109 = 400×107
x+y = 403×107 [add 3+400]
[keep the same exponent]
= 4.03×109 [modify a so that 1 ≤ a < 10]
For multiplication there is no need to modify y:
xy = 12×1016 [multiply 3×4]
[add exponents]
= 1.2×1017 [modify a so that 1 ≤ a < 10]
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1.2 SEQUENCES IN GENERAL – SERIES
SEQUENCE
A sequence is just an ordered list of numbers (terms in a definite
order). For example
2, 5, 13, 5, -4, …
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
term term term term term
Usually, the terms of a sequence follow a specific pattern, for
example
0,2,4,6,8,10,… (even numbers)
1,3,5,7,9,11,… (odd numbers)
5,10,15,20,25,… (positive multiples of 5)
2,4,8,16,32,… (powers of 2)
We use the notation un to describe the n-th term. Thus, the terms
of the sequence are denoted by
u1 , u 2 , u3 , u 4 , u5 , …
SERIES
A series is just a sum of terms:
S n = u1 u 2 u 3 ⋯ u n (the sum of the first n terms)
S = u1 u 2 u 3 ⋯ (the sum of all terms, terms)
We say that S∞ is an infinite series, while the finite sums S1, S2, S3,…
are called partial sums.
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the sequence
1,3,5,7,9,11,… (odd numbers)
Some of the terms are the following
u1 =1, u 2 =3, u3 =5, u6 =11, u10 =19
Also,
S1 =1,
S 2 =1+3=4,
S3 =1+3+5=9,
S 4 =1+3+5+7=16
Finally,
S =1+3+5+7 ⋯ (in this case the result is + )
k
SIGMA NOTATION ( )
n 1
Instead of writing
u1 u 2 u3 u 4 u5 u6 u7 u8 u9
we may write
9
u
n 1
n
It stands for the sum of all terms un , where n ranges from 1 to 9.
In general,
u
n 1
n
expresses the sum of all terms un , where n ranges from 1 to k.
9
We may also start with another value for n, instead of 1, e.g. u
n 4
n
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
3
2
n 1
n
= 2 1 2 2 2 3 = 2+4+8 = 14
4
1 1 1 1 12 6 4 3 25
n
n 1
=1
2 3 4 12
12
3
1 1 1 1 4 21 7
2
k 1
k
=
2 4 8 8
8
6
(2n 1)
n 3
= 7+9+11+13 = 40
20
x 3 4 5 20
x2
x 3
= ⋯
5 6 7 22
= … whatever that is, I don’t mind!!!
We can also express an infinite sum as follows
1 1 1 1 1
2
n 1
n
=
2 4 8 16
⋯ (it never finishes!)
The result is 1. (I know it looks strange, but believe me, it is right!)
NOTICE
There are two basic ways to describe a sequence
A) by a GENERAL FORMULA
We just describe the general term un in terms of n.
For example, un 2n (It gives u1 = 2, u 2 = 4, u3 = 6, … )
It is the sequence 2,4,6,8,10,…
EXAMPLE 3
un n 2 is the sequence 12 , 2 2 , 32 , 4 2 , 5 2 , …
that is 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, …
un 2 n is the sequence 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
B) by a RECURSIVE RELATION (mainly for Math HL)
Given: u1 , the first term
un 1 in terms of u n
For example,
u1 = 10
u n 1 = u n + 2
This says that the first term is 10 and then
u 2 = u1 +2
u3 = u 2 +2
u 4 = u3 +2 and so on.
In simple words, begin with 10 and keep adding 2 in order to find
the following term.
It is the sequence 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, …
EXAMPLE 4
u1 = 3 u n 1 = 2 u n + 5
It is the sequence 3, 11, 27, 59, …
EXAMPLE 5
Sometimes, we are given the first two terms u1 , u 2 and then a
recursive formula for u n 1 in terms of un and u n 1 .
The most famous sequence of this form is the Fibonacci sequence
u1 = 1, u 2 = 1
un 1 = un + u n 1
In other words,
we add u1 , u 2 in order to obtain u3 ,
we add u 2 , u3 in order to obtain u 4 , and so on.
It is the sequence
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, …
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1.3 ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE (A.S.)
THE DEFINITION
Let’s start with an example! I give you the first term of a sequence,
say u1 =5, and I always ask you to add a fixed value, say d=3, in
order to find the next term. The following sequence is generated
5, 8, 11, 14, 17, …
Such a sequence is called arithmetic. That is, in an arithmetic
sequence the difference between any two consecutive terms is
constant.
We only need
The first term u1
The common difference d
EXAMPLE 1
If u1 =1, d=2 the sequence is 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
If u1 =2, d=2 the sequence is 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, …
If u1 =-10, d=5 the sequence is -10, -5, 0, 5, 10, …
If u1 =10, d=-3 the sequence is 10, 7, 4, 1, -2, …
Notice that the common difference d may also be negative!
QUESTION A: What is the general formula for un ?
If we know u1 and d, then
un u1 (n 1)d
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Indeed, let us think:
In order to find u5 , we start from u1 and then add 4 times the
difference d
u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , u5
d d d d
Hence, u5 u1 4d
Similarly, u10 u1 9d
u50 u1 49d
In general, u n u1 (n 1)d
EXAMPLE 2
In an arithmetic sequence let u1 =3 and d=5. Find
(a) the first four terms (b) the 100th term
Solution
(a) 3, 8, 13, 18
(b) Now we need the general formula
u100 u1 99d 3 99 5 498
EXAMPLE 3
In an arithmetic sequence let u1 =100 and u16 145 . Find u7
Solution
We know u1 , we need d. We exploit the information for u16 first.
u16 u1 15d
145 = 100 + 15d
45 = 15d
d=3
Therefore, u7 u1 6d 100 6 3 118
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
REMEMBER: Usually, our first task in an A.S. is to find the basic
elements, u1 and d, and then everything else!
EXAMPLE 4
In an arithmetic sequence let u10 =42 and u19 87 . Find u100
Solution
The formula for u10 and u19 takes the form
u10 u1 9d thus u1 9d 42 (a)
u19 u1 18d u1 18d 87 (b)
Subtract (b)-(a): 18d - 9d = 87- 42
9d=45
d = 5
Then, (a) gives u1 42 - 9d
42 9 5
3
Since we know u1 3 and d = 5 we are able to find any term we
like! Thus,
u100 u1 99d -3 99 5 492
QUESTION B: What is the sum S n of the first n terms?
It is directly given by
n
Sn (u1 un ) (1)
2
or otherwise by
n
Sn [2u 1 (n 1)d] (2)
2
NOTICE: Use (1) if you know u1 and the last term un
Use (2) if you know u1 and d (the basic elements)
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
For the A.S. 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, … find S3 and S101
Solution
We have u1 =3 and d=2. For S3 the result is direct:
S3 = 3+5+7 = 15
[check though that formulas (1), (2) give the same result for S3 ]
For S101 we use formula (2)
101 101
S101 [2u 1 100d] = 206 10403
2 2
EXAMPLE 6
Find 10 + 20 + 30 + … + 200
Solution
We have an arithmetic sequence with u1 =10 and d=10.
The number of terms is clearly 20 and u 20 =200
20
S 20 (u1 u 20 ) = 10 (10+200) = 2100
2
EXAMPLE 7
Show that n(n 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + …+ n =
2
Solution
This is the simplest arithmetic series with u1 =1 and d=1.
We ask for Sn
n n n(n 1)
Sn (u1 un ) = (1 n) =
2 2 2
For example,
100 101
1+2+3+ … + 100 = 5050
2
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 8
The 3rd term of an A.S. is zero while the sum of the first 15 terms
is -300. Find the first term and the sum of the first ten terms.
Solution
Well, too much information!!! Let us organize our data:
GIVEN: u3 =0 S15 300
ASK FOR: u1 S10
The formulas for u3 and S15 give
u3 = u1 2d 0 u1 2d
15
S15 (2u1 14d) - 300 15u 1 105d
2
We solve the system
u1 2d 0
15u 1 105d -300
And obtain u1 8 and d -4 .
Finally,
10
S10 (2u1 9d) 5(16 - 36) -100
2
NOTICE FOR CONSECUTIVE TERMS
Let
a, x, b
be consecutive terms of an arithmetic sequence (we don’t mind if
these are the first three terms or some other three consecutive
terms). The common difference is equal to
x – a = b– x
ab
Hence, 2x=a+b, that is x = (x is the mean of a and b)
2
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 9
Let x+1, 3x, 6x-5 be consecutive terms of an A.S. Find x.
Solution
It holds (3x)-(x+1) = (6x-5)-(3x)
2x-1 = 3x-5
x = 4
(Indeed, the three terns are 5, 12, 19)
EXAMPLE 10
Let a, 10, b, a+b be consecutive terms of an A.S. Find a and b
Solution
Clearly 10-a = b-10 = (a+b)-b
that is 10-a = b-10 = a
Hence,
10-a = a 2a = 10 a = 5
b-10 = a b-10 = 5 b = 15
EXAMPLE 11
Let 100, a, b, c, 200 be consecutive terms of an A.S. Find the
values of a, b and c.
Solution
Notice that 100, b, 200 are also in arithmetic sequence.
Thus b is the mean of 100 and 200, that is b=150
Now
a is the mean of 100 and 150, that is a = 125
c is the mean of 150 and 200, that is c = 175
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1.4 GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE (G.S.)
THE DEFINITION
I give you the first term of a sequence, say u1 =5 and this time I
ask you to multiply by a fixed number, say r =2, in order to find
the next term. The following sequence is generated
5, 10, 20, 40, 80, …
Such a sequence is called geometric. That is, in a geometric
sequence the ratio between any two consecutive terms is constant.
We only need
The first term u1
The common ratio r
EXAMPLE 1
(a) u1 =1, r =2 the sequence is 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, …
(b) u1 =5, r = 10 the sequence is 5, 50, 500, 5000, …
(c) u1 =1, r = -2 the sequence is 1,-2, 4,-8, 16, …
1 1 1 1 1 1
(d) u1 =1, r = the sequence is 1, , , , , , …
2 2 4 8 16 32
1 1 1 1 1 1
(e) u1 =1, r = - the sequence is 1,- , ,- , ,- ,…
2 2 4 8 16 32
NOTICE:
The common ratio r may also be negative! In this case the signs
alternate (+, -, +, -, …) [see (c) and (e) above].
The common ratio r may be between -1 and 1, that is |r|<1. In
such a sequence the terms approach 0 [see (d) and (e) above].
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
QUESTION A: What is the general formula for un ?
If we know u1 and r, then
u n u 1 r n 1
Indeed, let us think:
In order to find u5 , we start from u1 and then multiply 4 times
by the ratio r
u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , u5
r r r r
Hence, u5 u1 r 4
Similarly, u10 u1r 9 , u50 u1r 49 . In general, un u1r n 1
EXAMPLE 2
In a geometric sequence let u1 =3 and r =2. Find
(a) the first four terms (b) the 100th term
Solution
(a) 3, 6, 12, 24
(b) Now we need the general formula
u100 u1r 99 3 2 99 (too big! This answer is enough!)
EXAMPLE 3
In a geometric sequence let u1 =10 and u10 196830 . Find u3
Solution
We know u1 , we need r. We exploit the information for u10 first.
u10 u1r 9 196830 10 r 9
r 9 19683
r 9 19683 =3
Therefore, u3 u1r 2 10 3 2 90
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
REMEMBER: Our first task in a G.S. is to find the basic elements,
u1 and r, and then everything else!
EXAMPLE 4
A geometric sequence has a fifth term of 3 and a seventh term of
0.75. Find
a) the first term u1 and the common ratio r
b) the tenth term.
Solution
We know that u5 3 and u7 0.75.
a) The formula for u5 and u7 takes the form
u5 u1 r 4
u7 u1r 6
u7 u r6
Divide u7 by u5 : = 1 4
u5 u 1r
0.75
= r2
3
2
r = 0.25
r = 0.5
Then, the first equation gives u5 u1 r 4
3 u1 0.0625
3
u1 48
0.0625
b) It is u10 u1r 9
If r = 0.5 then u10 48(0.5)9 = 0.09375
If r = -0.5 then u10 48(-0.5) 9 = - 0.09375
Notice: there are two sequences that satisfy our criteria:
1st : 48, 24, 12, 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, … (r = 0.5)
2nd : 48,-24, 12,-6, 3,-1.5, 0.75, … (r = -0.5)
u5 u7
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
QUESTION B: What is the sum S n of the first n terms?
Given that r 1 , the result is given by
u1 (r n 1) u1 (1 - r n )
Sn or Sn
r- 1 1- r
Proof (mainly for Math HL)
By definition
S n u1 u1r u1r 2 ⋯ u1r n- 2 u1r n-1 (1)
2 3 n-1 n
r S n u 1 r u 1 r u 1 r ⋯ u1 r u 1r (2)
Hence, (2)-(1) gives
r S n S n u 1r n - u1
(r 1) S n u1 (r n 1)
u1 (r n 1)
and finally, Sn
r-1
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the sum 2+ 2 2 2 3 ⋯ 2 10
It is a geometric series of 10 terms with u1 =2 and r =2
Hence, the sum is
u1 (r 10 1) 2(2 10 1)
S10 =2046
r- 1 2- 1
EXAMPLE 6
1 1 1 1
Consider the sum 1+ ⋯ 10
2 4 8 2
It is a geometric series of 11 terms with u1 =1 and r =1/2
Hence, the sum is given by (prefer the second version of S n )
11
1 1
1 (1 - ) 1
u1 (1 - r 11 ) 2 2048 2047
S11
1- r 1 1 1024
1
2 2
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 7
In a G.S. u 2 =-30 and S 2 =-15. Find u1 and r.
S 2 = u1 + u 2 -15 = u1 -30 u1 = 15
u 2 - 30
Since u1 = 15 and u 2 =-30, we obtain r = = =-2
u1 15
[Indeed, it is the G.S. 15,-30,60,-120,… with u 2 =-30, S 2 =-15]
NOTICE FOR CONSECUTIVE TERMS
Let
a, x, b
be consecutive terms of a geometric sequence (we don’t mind if
these are the first three terms or some other three consecutive
terms). The common ratio is equal to
x b
a x
For example, if 10, x, 90 are consecutive terms in a G.S.
x 90
x 2 900 x 30 (two solutions)
10 x
THE SUM OF TERMS IN A G.S
Consider the sum of the infinite geometric sequence
S u1 u 2 u3 ⋯ (it never stops!)
The result exists only if -1< r <1. It is given by the formula
u1
S
1r
In this case we say that the series converges.
Otherwise (that is if |r|>1) we say that the series diverges.
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Three Proofs of the formula (mainly for Math HL)
(a) Consider the formula for S n :
u1 (r n 1)
Sn
r-1
If n∞ (i.e. n tends to infinity) then rn 0 (since -1< r <1)
and
u1 (0 1) u1
Sn
r- 1 1r
(b) An alternative proof is similar to that for S n .
S u 1 u1 r u 1 r 2 u1 r 3 ⋯ (1)
2 3
r S u1r u 1r u 1r ⋯ (2)
Assuming that S exists, we may subtract (1)-(2)
S - r S u1
(1 r) S u1
and finally,
u1
S
1- r
(c) A slight modification of proof (b):
S u1 u1r u 1r 2 u 1r 3 ⋯
u 1 r ( u 1 u 1 r u 1 r 2 u1 r 3 ⋯ )
u1 r S
Hence, (assuming again that S exists)
S u1 r S
S - r S u1
(1 r) S u1
and finally,
u1
S
1- r
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 8
1 1 1 1
Show that ⋯ = 1 (*)
2 4 8 16
Solution
1 1
This is an infinite G.S. with u1 = and r = .
2 2
Since |r|<1 we obtain
1 1
u 2
S 1 2 1
1r 1 1
1
2 2
EXAMPLE 9
1 1 1 1
Show that 1+ ⋯ =2
2 4 8 16
Solution
Method A: We just add 1 on both sides of the equation (*) above!
Method B: It is an infinite G.S. with u1 =1 and r =1/2. Hence,
u1 1 1
S 2
1r 1 1
1
2 2
EXAMPLE 10
1
We will show that 0.3333… =
3
We can write
0.3333… = 0.3 + 0.03 + 0.003 ⋯
We have in fact an infinite G.S. with u1 =0.3 and r =0.1. Hence,
u1 0.3 0.3 1
0.3333…
1r 1 0.1 0.9 3
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 11
Did you know that 0.9999… = 1 ?
Indeed,
u1 0.9 0.9
0.9999… = 0.9+0.09+0.009 ⋯ 1
1r 1 0.1 0.9
If you are not persuaded, look at two alternative proofs:
We know that
1
0.3333… =
3
If we multiply both sides by 3 then
3
0.9999… = =1
3
Let x=0.9999… (1)
Then 10x=9.9999… (2)
We subtract (2)-(1)
10x-x = 9
9x = 9
x= 1 (3)
Thus, (1) and (3) give 0.9999… = 1.
Surprising, isn’t it?
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1.5 PERCENTAGE CHANGE – FINANCIAL APPLICATIONS
In problems with
Interest rates r%
Population growth r%, etc
where
some initial quantity (present value PV)
increases by r% (per year, per month or per any period)
the future value FV after n periods is given by
n
r
FV=PV 1
100
If the present value PV decreases by r% per period, the formula
takes the form
n
r
FV=PV 1
100
EXAMPLE 1
(a) An amount of 2000 euros is invested at 8% per year.
Find the value of the investment after 10 years?
(b) An amount of 2000 euros is depreciated by 8% every year.
Find the amount returned after 10 years?
Solution
For both problems PV=2000, r=8, n=10
n 10
r 8
(a) FV=PV 1 =2000 1 =2000(1.08)10 4317.85
100 100
n 10
r 8
(b) FV=PV 1 =2000 1 =2000(0.92)10 868.78
100 100
Remark: In financial mathematics we usually answer in 2dp.
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Notice: Using GDC (Casio) for Exercise 1
MENU - Financial - F2: [Compound Interest]
n = 10
I% = 8
PV = -2000 (use “-” because we pay)
PMT=0
FV = ?
P/Y=1
C/Y=1
Press F5: [FV] and you obtain FV=4317.85
For question (b), set I% =-8. You obtain FV=868.78
r
In fact, this is a geometric sequence with common ratio R=1+
100
Explanation for the common ratio R
Suppose we invest an amount PV for r% per year.
In our example: PV = 2000 r = 8%
In general In our example
Present Value PV 2000
r 8
Interest PV× 2000×
100 100
r 8
PV+PV 2000+2000×
100 100
After 1 year
r 8
= PV 1 2000 1
100 100
r
That is, if an amount increases by r%, we multiply by R=1+
100
2
r
After two years we multiply again by R. Thus FV=PV 1
100
n
r
Thus, after n years: FV=PV 1
100
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
The rate r% is translated into a common ratio as follows:
(increasing ratio) (decreasing ratio)
r% r r
R=1+ R=1-
100 100
12% R = 1.12 R = 0.88
20% R = 1.20 R = 0.80
5% R = 1.05 R = 0.95
Mind the following slight difference between the formulas
n
r
FV=PV 1 and un = u1r n-1
100
Is the initial amount given in “year 1” or “today”?
Suppose that the interest rate is 12%, so that R=1.12
PROBLEM 1 PROBLEM 2
Amount in year 1: u1 =1000. Present value: PV=1000.
Find the amount in year n. Find the amount after n years.
Then Then
In year 2 u 2 =1000×(1.12) After 1 year 1000×(1.12)
In year 3 u3 =1000×(1.12)2 After 2 years 1000×(1.12)2
In year n un =1000×(1.12)n-1 After n years FV=1000×(1.12)n
(Mind that the exponent in Problem 2 is n and not n-1)
In both cases the growth is exponential (geometric sequence)
EXAMPLE 2
At the beginning of 2024, we invest an amount of 5000€, with
an interest rate of 8%. Find the calue of the investment at the
beginning of 2031.
Solution
7
8
Here n=7 (after 7 years). So FV=5000 1 =8569.12
100
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Sometimes the question is about the number of years to reach
future value.
EXAMPLE 3
An amount of 2000 euros is invested at 8% per year. The
investment exceeds 5000 after n complete years. Find n.
Solution
n
8
FV=2000 1 >5000
100
Method A (trial and error): We check several values for n by GDC
and realize that
for n=11 FV = 4663.27
for n=12 FV = 5036.34
Therefore, n = 12
Method B (by using SolveN in the GDC):
n
8
5000 = 2000 1
100
The solution is n 11.9. Thus n = 12
Method C (by using GDC-Financial mode):
I% = 8
PV = -2000
PMT= 0
FV = 5000
P/Y= 1
C/Y= 1
Press F1: [n] and you obtain n=11.9
Since we are looking for complete years we accept the first integer
above 11.9, that is n = 12
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
The current population of a city is 800 000.
The population increases by 5.2% every year.
(a) Find the population of the city after 7 years;
(b) Find the population of the city 7 years ago;
(c) The population doubles after n full years. Find n.
Solution
(a) We have an exponential growth with PV=800,000 and r=8%
The population of the city after 7 years is
7
5.2
FV=800,000 1 1,140,775
100
(b) The formula works for the past as well!
The population of the city 7 years ago was
-7
5.2
FV=800,000 1 561,022
100
[short explanation:
for the future we multiply by 1.052 every year
for the past we divide by 1.052 every year, or otherwise we
1
multiply by 1.052-1 every year]
1.052
(c) The future value is FV=2800 000 = 1 600 000
Hence
n
5.2
800 000 1 = 1 600 000
100
By using a GDC we find n=13.7
Therefore, the population doubles after 14 complete years.
Notice
You may also use the financial mode of the GDC to obtain the
results.
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
INTEREST COMPOUNDED IN k TIME PERIODS
Suppose that an initial amount PV=1000€ is invested with an
interest rate 12% per year. We have seen what happens if the
interest is compounded yearly.
However, the interest may be compounded in k periods per year:
Semiannually (half-yearly): k=2
Quarterly: k=4
Monthly: k=12
For example, if the interest is compounded twice per year
(semiannually), the interest rate for the 6-month period is 6% and
Amount after 1 year = 1000×(1.06)2 (1 year = 2 time periods)
In general, the FV formula takes the form
kn
r
FV=PV 1
100k
For our example of PV = 1000:
Compounded After 5 years
5
12
yearly (k=1) FV=1000 1 = 1762
100
25
12
half-yearly (k=2) FV=1000 1 = 1791
100 2
45
12
quarterly (k=4) FV=1000 1 = 1806
100 4
125
12
monthly (k=12) FV=1000 1 = 1817
100 12
NOTICE for GDC-Financial mode
C/Y stands for the number k of periods per year. Check FV for
n = 5 PMT=0
I% = 12 P/Y =1
PV = -1000 C/Y = 1, 2, 4, 12 respectively
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
INVESTMENT WITH EXTRA REGULAR PAYMENTS
PV is invested with an annual interest rate r% .
An extra payment (PMT) is added at the end of each year
In this case we strongly suggest GDC-Financial mode.
EXAMPLE 5
An amount of 1000€ is invested (at the beginning of some year)
with an interest rate 12% compounded yearly. An extra payment
of 300€ is added at the end of each year. Find the value of the
investment after 7 years.
By using GDC–Financial mode
n = 7 PMT= -300 [“-“ as we pay]
I% = 12 P/Y =1
PV = -1000 C/Y = 1
FV gives 5237.38.
------------------
Remark: If we want to exclude the last payment, we subtract one PMT from FV:
Value = FV-PMT = 5237.38-300 = 4937.38
You may find that situation in some old past papers where payments were made
at the beginning of each year. Since 2021, the IB has clarified that
Payments (PMT) are made at the end of each year/period,
FV is calculated at the beginning of the year/period (i.e. next day)
Thus, FV always includes the last payment!
EXAMPLE 6
An initial amount of 1000€ and then an extra amount of 1000€
at the end of each year are invested with an interest rate 12%
compounded yearly. Find the value of the investment after 7 years.
By using GDC–Financial mode
n = 7 PMT= -1000
I% = 12 P/Y =1
PV = -1000 C/Y = 1
FV gives 12299.69.
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 7
An amount of 1000€ is invested with an interest rate 12%
compounded monthly. An extra payment of 300€ is added at the
end of each year. Find the value of the investment after 7 years.
By using GDC–Financial mode
n = 7 PMT= -300
I% = 12 P/Y =1
PV = -1000 C/Y = 12
FV gives 5397.73.
NOTICE.
If the regular payments take place yearly then
P/Y = 1
But if they are made in m periods per year, then
P/Y = m
(payments per year)
But now n is the total number of periods, i.e. n=P/Y(years).
EXAMPLE 8
An amount of 1000€ is invested with an interest rate 12%
compounded monthly. An extra payment of 300€ is added at the
end of each month. Find the value of the investment after 7 years.
By using GDC–Financial mode
n = 712 = 84
I% = 12
PV = -1000
PMT= -300
P/Y= 12
C/Y= 12
FV gives 41508.41.
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
ANNUITY – AMORTIZATION
We invest PV but now, we regularly withdraw an amount PMT.
Notice for GDC–Financial mode
We insert the payment PMT as a positive value [we receive]
Here, the last payment is always included.
EXAMPLE 9
An amount of 1000€ euros is invested with an interest rate 12%
compounded monthly. A withdrawal of 150€ is made at the end
of each year. Find the value of the investment after 7 years.
By using GDC–Financial mode
n =7
I% = 12
PV = -1000
PMT= 150
P/Y= 1
C/Y= 12
FV gives 761.22.
In Example 9, the Future value after 1 year is
12
12
FV=1000 1 = 1126.83
100 12
So the annual interest is 126.83. Since our withdrawal of 150 is
greater that this interest, FV will be zeroed out after a certain
time. Amortization refers to the time needed for this to occur.
By using GDC–Financial mode in our example above:
Set FV =0 and press n.
We obtain n=15.64, so n=16
For n=15, the GDC gives FV=87.11
For n=16, the GDC gives FV=-51.84
Therefore, the amount left for the last withdrawal is
150-51.84=98.16 euros.
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
INFLATION – REAL VALUE OF THE INVESTEMENT
In some problems the inflation is also taken into account. Apart
from the interest rate r% they also give us the inflation rate a%.
Then
the future value (FV) of the investment
is translated into
the real value (RV) of the investment
Method 1 (the simplistic one):
We subtract the rates: r ' = r – a
n
r'
Real value: RV = PV 1 +
100
But this is an approximation, (IB sometimes accepts it!!)
Method 2 (the correct one!):
n
r
We find the future value as usual: FV = PV 1 +
100
n
a
For the real value RV, we divide the FV by 1 + .
100
EXAMPLE 10
An amount of 1000€ euros is invested with
an interest rate 5% per year (r = 5%)
an inflation rate 2% per year. (a = 2%)
Find the real value of the investment after 10 years.
Method 1: r ' = 5%-2% = 3%
10
3
Real value: RV = 1000 1 + = 1343.92
100
Method 2: We find FV first
10
5
FV = 1000 1 + = 1628.89
100
FV 1628.89
Real value: RV = 10
= 10
= 1336.26
2 1.02
1+
100
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXPLANATION FOR PROBLEMS WITH PMT (mainly for HL)
You may ignore the remaining of this paragraph!
If the question involves payments (PMT), use the financial mode of GDC
which yields immediate results as shown earlier. In the following 3 pages,
we explain how FV is calculated in detail, for those who are interested.
If the annual interest rate is r%, the ratio of the geom. sequence is:
r
R 1
100
The value of the investment after n years is given by
Rn 1
FV PV Rn PMT
R 1
Indeed,
n
r
- PV is invested for n years: PV 1 [1st box]
100
n-1
r
- 1st PMT is invested for n-1 years: PMT 1
100
n-2
r
- 2nd PMT is invested for n-2 years: PMT 1
100
… …
r
- last but one PMT is invested for 1 year: PMT 1
100
- the last payment is just PMT PMT
The sum of the last n terms is a G.S. with
r
u 1 PMT , ratio: R = 1 +
100
n
R 1
Thus S n = PMT [2nd box].
R 1
If each payment is equal to the present value (PMT=PV) we obtain
in fact a G.S. of n+1 terms:
R n 1 1
FV = PV
R 1
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Let us revisit the examples of this paragraph.
In EXAMPLE 5
PV = 1000€, PMT = 300€ at the end of each year
r=12% compounded yearly (so R=1.12).
The value of the investment after 7 years is
1.12 7 1
FV 1000 1.127 300 5237.38
1.12 1
In EXAMPLE 6
PV = 1000€, PMT = 1000€ at the end of each year
r=12% compounded yearly (so R=1.12).
The value of the investment after 7 years is
1.128 1
FV 1000 12299.69
1.12 1
NOTICE. If
the annual interest rate r% is compounded in k periods
the payments occur yearly
k
r
then the ratio for 1 year is: R 1
100k
In EXAMPLE 7
PV = 1000€, PMT = 300€ at the end of each year
r=12% compounded monthly. Now the ratio for 1 year is
12
12
R 1 =1.0112
100 12
The value of the investment after 7 years is
R7 1
FV 1000R7 300 5397.73
R 1
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE. If
the annual interest rate r% is compounded in k periods
the payments also occur in k periods
r
then the ratio for 1 period is: R 1
100k
But now n is the total number of periods, i.e. n=k(years).
In EXAMPLE 8
PV = 1000€, PMT = 300€ at the end of each month.
r=12% compounded monthly. Now the ratio for 1 month is
12
R 1 =1.01
100 12
The value of the investment after 7 years (so n=712=84) is
1.0184 1
FV 1000R84 300 41508.41
1.01 1
For amortization, the only difference is that we subtract the part
of the payments.
Rn 1
FV PV R n PMT
R 1
In EXAMPLE 9
12
12
The ratio for 1 year is R 1 =1.0112
100 12
The value of the investment after 7 years is
R7 1
FV 1000R7 150 761.22
R 1
For Amortization we solve for n the equation FV=0, i.e.
Rn 1
1000Rn 150
R 1
The solution is 15.64 so the last withdrawal will take place after
16 years.
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1.6 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM – (a b) n
THE SYMBOL n!
A new symbol called “n factorial”, is defined by
n! = 1 2 3⋯ n
For example
1!= 1
2!= 1 2 2
3! = 1 2 3 6
4! = 1 2 3 4 24
5! = 1 2 3 4 5 120
We also agree that 0! = 1
(it looks peculiar, I know! Please accept it!)
NOTICE: GDC can be used for the calculation of x!
Select RUN in the MENU: OPTN – PROB – x!
n
THE SYMBOL nCr OR
r
This symbol is read “n choose r”; it is given by the formula
n n!
=
r r!(n r)!
For example,
5 5!
“5 choose 2” or 5C2 is = =10
2 2!3!
10 10!
“10 choose 3” or 10C3 is = =120
3 3!7!
NOTICE: GDC can be used for the calculation of nCr.
Select RUN in the MENU: OPTN – PROB – nCr
For example, for 5C2, press 5, then nCr, then 2. The result is 10
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE:
5
In fact is the number of ways to choose 2 items out of 5:
2
Consider 5 items
A, B, C, D, E.
How many combinations of 2 items are there?
AB AC AD AE BC BD BE CD CD DE
The answer is 10. That is why 5C2=10 (5 choose 2 equals 10)
THE BINOMIAL THEOREM (a b) n (PRACTICALLY)
We already know
(a b) 2 = a 2 2ab b 2
(a b) 3 = a 3 3a 2 b 3ab 2 b 3
(a b) 4 = a 4 4a 3b 6a 2 b 2 4ab 3 b 4
The coefficients may be obtained by Pascal’s Triangle below
1
1 1 coefficients of (a b) 1
1 2 1 coefficients of (a b) 2
1 3 3 1 coefficients of (a b)3
1 4 6 4 1 coefficients of (a b) 4
1 5 10 10 5 1 coefficients of (a b) 5
etc
[Start with 1
1 1
the outboard numbers are always 1;
under a pair of numbers x y write down their sum x+y: x y
x+y
So the next line is 1 2 1; Carry on]
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Can you now guess the formula for (a b) 5 ?
STEP 1: Write down the six terms
a5 b 0 a 4b 1 a 3b 2 a 2b 3 a 1b 4 a 0b5
exponents of a decrease from 5 to 0
exponents of b increase from 0 to 5
the sum of the exponents is always 5
STEP 2: Obtain the coefficients from Pascal’s triangle above
1 5 10 10 5 1
Therefore, the expansion of (a b) 5 is
(a b) 5 = 1 a 5 b 0 +5 a 4 b 1 +10 a 3b 2 +10 a 2 b 3 +5 a 1 b 4 +1 a 0 b 5
that is
(a b) 5 = a 5 +5 a 4 b +10 a 3b 2 +10 a 2 b 3 +5 ab 4 + b 5
THE BINOMIAL THEOREM (a b) n (FORMALLY)
n
Another way to obtain the coefficients is by using the symbol
r
5 5 5 5 5 5
For (a b) 5 :
0 1 2 3 4 5
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 5 10 10 5 1
In general,
n n n n
(a b) n = a n b 0 + a n-1 b 1 + a n- 2 b 2 ⋯ a 0 b n
0 1 2 n
Notice that the general term is
n n-r r
a b
r
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Find the expansions of (2x 3) 3 and (2x 3) 3
Solution
At the beginning we apply the binomial theorem to express (a b) 3
3 3 3 3
(a b) 3 = a 3b 0 + a 2 b 1 + a 1 b 2 + a 0 b 3
0 1 2 3
i.e.
(a b) 3 = a 3 +3 a 2 b +3 ab 2 + b 3
Then
(2x 3) 3 = (2x) 3 +3 (2x) 2 3 +3 (2x)3 2 + 33
= 8x3 +36x2+54x+27
For (2x 3) 3 , we simply use the substitution a=2x and b=-3
(2x 3) 3 = (2x) 3 +3 (2x) 2 (-3) +3 (2x)(-3) 2 + (-3) 3
= 8x3 - 36x2 +54x -27
Notice: if we have (a b) n the signs +/- alternate. It is more
practical then to use the formula
(a b) 3 = a 3 -3 a 2 b +3 ab 2 - b 3
Similarly
(a b) 4 = a 4 4a 3b 6a 2 b 2 4ab 3 b 4
(a b) 5 = a 5 -5 a 4 b +10 a 3b 2 -10 a 2 b 3 +5 ab 4 - b 5
EXAMPLE 2
Expand (2x 3) 4
Solution
We apply the formula for (a b) 4
Thus
(2x 3) 4 = (2x) 4 - 4 (2x) 3 (3) + 6 (2x) 2 (3) 2 - 4 (2x)(3) 3 + 3 4
= 16x 4 - 96x 3 + 216x 2 - 216x+ 81
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
They usually ask us to find only a particular term instead of the
whole expansion.
EXAMPLE 3
In the expansion of (2x 3) 4 find the term of x3
Solution
The term is
4
(2x) 3 ( 3) 1
1
We actually follow three steps
STEP 1: Write down the two terms a and b: (2x)(3)
STEP 2: Split the exponent n=4 in two parts
appropriately according to question
(we expect x3) (2x) 3 ( 3) 1
n
STEP 3: Attach the coefficient
r
4
(n=4 and r=1 is the exponent of b) (2x) 3 ( 3) 1
1
Hence, the result is
4
(2x) 3 ( 3) 1 = 4(8x3)(-3) = -96x3
1
EXAMPLE 4
Find the term of x5 in the expansion of (2x 3)7
Solution
The term is
7
(2x) 5 ( 3) 2
2
That is, 21(2)5(-3)2x5 = 6048x5
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
In the expansion of (2x 2 1)8 find the coefficient of x10
Solution
The term is
8
(2x 2 ) 5 (1) 3
3
[Remember
2
Step 1: the terms: (2x )(1)
2 5 3
Step 2: split 8 appropriately in order to obtain x10: (2x ) (1)
n 8
the coefficient : (2x ) (1) ]
2 5 3
Step 3:
r 3
Thus, the term is
56(25)(1)3x10 = 1792 x10
The coefficient is 1792.
EXAMPLE 6
1 6
In the expansion of (2x ) find
x
(a) the coefficient of x2 (b) the constant term
Solution
(a) The term is
6 1 x4
(2x) 4 ( ) 2 = 15(24) 2 = 240x2
2 x x
Thus the coefficient is 240.
(b) The constant term is in fact the coefficient of x0.
In order to eliminate x’s we must split n=6 into 3 and 3.
6 1 x3
(2x) 3 ( ) 3 = 20(23) 3 = 160
3 x x
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 7
3 12
Find the constant term in the expansion of (2x 2 )
x
Solution
3
Step 1 (2x 2 )(- )
x
3 8
Step 2 (2x 2 ) 4 (- ) [in order to eliminate x’s]
x
12 3
Step 3 (2x 2 ) 4 (- )8
8 x
The constant term is
x8
495(24)(-3)8 = 51963120
x8
EXAMPLE 8
Find the term of x5 in the expansion of (2x 3) (4x 1)7
Solution
In the expansion of (4x 1)7 we need two terms:
the term of x4 (to be combined with 2x)
the term of x5 (to be combined with 3)
We respectively find
7
(4x) 4 (1) 3 = 35(44)x4 = 8960x4
3
7
(4x) 5 (1) 2 = 21(45)x5 = 21504x5
2
Therefore, the final term of x5 is
2x(8960x4) + 3(21504x5) = 17920x5+ 64512x5 = 82432x5
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 9 (mainly for HL)
(a) Verify that 2x2-3x-2= (2x+1)(x-2)
(b) Find the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of (2x2-3x-2)5
Solution
(a) (2x+1)(x-2) = 2x2-4x+x-2 = 2x2-3x-2
(b) In fact, we will find the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of
(2x+1)5(x-2)5
We expand each factor up to the term x2
5
(1+2x)5 = 15 + 5(1)4(2x) + (1)3(2x)2 + ⋯ = 1+10x+40x2+ ⋯
2
5
(-2+x)5= (-2)5 + 5(-2)4x + (-2)3x2 + ⋯ =-32+80x-80x2+ ⋯
2
Therefore
(2x+1)5(x-2)5= (1+10x+40x2+ ⋯ )(-32 +80x-80x2+ ⋯ )
The term of x2 is
1 ( 80x 2 ) + (10x)(80x) + 40x 2 ( 32) = -560x2
Thus, the coefficient of x2 is -560.
Later on, in another chapter, we will study an extended version of
the binomial theorem, that is (a b) n for rational exponents n.
44
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1.7 SIMPLE DEDUCTIVE PROOF
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SYMBOLS = AND
We claim that the following relation is always true:
1 1 1
2 (*)
m 1 m m m
It is easy to check this relation for m=1:
1 1 1 1 1
LHS = 2 = =1 RHS = =1
1+1 1 +1 2 2 1
Let us also check (*) for m=2:
1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1
LHS = = = = = RHS =
2 + 1 22 + 2 3 6 6 6 6 2 2
and for m=3:
1 1 1 1 3 1 4 1 1
LHS = 2 = = = = RHS =
3 + 1 3 + 3 4 12 12 12 12 3 3
I assure you that (*) is true for any value of m (we will show the
proof in a while!)
We say that this general result is an identity to emphasize that it
holds for any real value of m. In this case we use the notation “”
1 1 1
2
m 1 m m m
[of course it is not a mistake to use “=” instead of “” since the
equality holds anyway, we only emphasize the “stronger” relation].
Let us explain this difference by another couple of relations:
3x = 6
2(x+3) 2x+6
The first is an “equation”: it holds for a particular value of x, x=2
The second is an “identity”: it holds for any value of x.
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
In this paragraph we show mathematical results by using a simple
deductive proof. That is, we start from some premise (or premises)
and follow logical steps to draw a conclusion.
PROOF OF AN EQUALITY (OR IDENTITY)
Suppose we have to prove an equality [or identity] of the form
A = B or A B
We will show 3 different techniques
Method A: LHS to RHS or RHS to LHS
A =… =…=… =B
Let us prove the identity
(a b) 3 a 3 3a 2 b 3ab 2 b 3
Here it is more convenient to start from the LHS and expand. The
aim is to obtain the RHS:
(a b)3 (a b) 2 (a b)
(a 2 2ab b 2 )(a b)
a 3 a 2 b 2a 2 b 2ab 2 ab 2 b 3
a3 3a 2b 3ab 2 b3
Method B: LHS to some result and RHS to the same result
A =… =… =… =C
B=… =…=… =C
Let us prove the identity
(2a b) 2 4a 2 b 2 (a b) 2 (a b) 2
It is more convenient to work independently on each side.
LHS = 4a 2 4ab b 2 4a 2 b 2 4ab
RHS = (a 2 2ab b 2 ) (a 2 2ab b 2 ) 4ab
Therefore, LHS = RHS
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Method C: Transform LHS = RHS to an equivalent true statement
A = B … … something true
Show that
a 2b a 2 ab 2b 2
(given that a b )
ab a2 b2
Here, we cannot easily elaborate on either side, neither the LHS
nor the RHS. Thus, we work on the whole relation as follows
a 2b a 2 ab 2b 2
ab a2 b2
(a 2b)(a 2 b 2 ) (a b)(a 2 ab 2b 2 )
a 3 ab 2 2a 2 b 2b 3 a 3 a 2 b 2ab 2 a 2 b ab 2 2b 3
00
which is true.
Hence, the original relation is true.
Let us prove the identity (*) in the introduction of this paragraph.
EXAMPLE 1
Prove the identity
1 1 1
2
m 1 m m m
Solution
We follow the LHS to RHS proof:
1 1 1 1
2
m 1 m m m 1 m(m 1)
m 1
m(m 1) m(m 1)
m 1
m(m 1)
1
m
[provided of course that m≠0 and m+1≠0]
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EXAMPLE 2
Show that
2x 2 12x 19 2(x 3) 2 1
Solution
It is more convenient to use RHS to LHS proof:
2(x 3) 2 1 2(x 2 6x 9) 1 2x 2 12x 19
Have in mind that
ax 2 bx c ax 2 bx c
implies that the two quadratics are identical, that is
a = a b = b c = c
Let us use this fact to see another version of Example 2.
EXAMPLE 3
Express 2x 2 12x 19 in the form a(x b)2 c
[Remark: When studying quadratics, we show how we can express
any quadratic in the so-called vertex form. But here we will show a
different technique, just to see how the strong relation “ ” works]
Solution
We expand the required form
a(x b) 2 c a(x 2 2bx b 2 ) c ax 2 2abx ab 2 c
Since
ax 2 2abx (ab 2 c) 2x 2 12x 19
the coefficients of the two expressions must be equal:
a=2
2ab = 12
ab2+c = 19
We obtain: a=2, b=3 and c=1. Thus 2x 2 12x 19 2(x 3) 2 1
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ONLY FOR
HL
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1.8 METHODS OF PROOF (for HL)
Before we present other methods of proof let us explain the terms
CONVERSE and CONTRAPOSITIVE
for a given statement. (Officially, these concepts are not part of the
syllabus, but it is nice to be aware of them)
original statement if A then B (A B)
converse if B then A (B A)
If both the original statement and its converse are true, we write
A B
EXAMPLE 1
For the original statement: x=0 x2=0
converse: x2=0 x=0 [true]
Since both the original statement and its converse are true, we
write
x2=0 x=0
Notice though that for a true statement the converse is not
necessarily true.
EXAMPLE 2
For the original statement: x=1 x2=1
converse: x2=1 x=1 [false]
Thus, we cannot use . However, we can write
x2=1 x=1
since both directions are true!
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Let us also define the term “contrapositive”:
original statement if A then B (A B)
contrapositive if not B then not A (not A not B)
EXAMPLE 3
(a) For the original statement: x=0 x2=0
contrapositive: x2≠0 x≠0 [true]
(b) For the original statement: x=1 x2=1
contrapositive: x2≠1 x≠1 [true]
For the following examples, notice that
the negation of “and” is “or”
the negation of “or” is “and”.
EXAMPLE 4
(a) For the original statement: xy=0 x=0 or y=0
converse: x=0 or y=0 xy=0 [true]
contrapositive: x≠0 and y≠0 xy≠0 [true]
(b) For the original statement: x>0 and y>0 xy>0
converse: xy>0 x>0 and y>0 [false]
contrapositive: xy≤0 x≤0 or y≤0 [true]
It is not an accident that the contrapositive statement is always
true. In fact, any implication and its contrapositive, that is
(A B) and (not B not A)
are equivalent.
For example, x=0 and y=0 xy=0 [true]
is equivalent to xy≠0 x≠0 or y≠0 [true]
Can you think why?
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THREE METHODS OF PROOF
Let us use a non-mathematical example to demonstrate three
methods of proof: deduction – counterexample – contradiction
Deductive proof
The usual process of reasoning is to start from the hypothesis and
reach the result by using logical steps. We have already discussed
this method in the previous paragraph.
Show that:
If X is a Greek city, then X is a European city
Proof. - Assume that X is a Greek city.
- Greece is part of Europe.
- Then X is a European city.
Proof by a counterexample
We use a counterexample to establish that a statement is not true
in general. The converse of the statement above is
If X is a European city, then X is a Greek city.
Show that this statement is not true.
Proof. Let X=Rome. It is a European city but not in Greece! Hence
the statement is not true in general.
Proof by contradiction
The contrapositive of the original statement is true:
If X is a non-European city, then X is not a Greek city.
Proof. Let X be a non-European city.
Assume that the result is false, i.e. X is a Greek city.
But then X would be a European city! Contradiction.
Thus, the statement is correct.
(The principle of contradiction is based on the fact that any
statement is equivalent to its contrapositive statement)
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Let us see some more mathematical examples.
As we know, integers are either
even i.e. of the form 2n (multiples of 2)
or odd i.e. of the form 2n+1
EXAMPLE 5
if a is even then a2 is also even.
Deductive proof
a is even a=2n (nZ)
a2 =4n2 = 2(2n2) (2n2Z)
a2 is even.
We will prove that the converse is also true.
EXAMPLE 6
if a2 is even then a is even.
Proof by contradiction
Suppose that a2 is even.
Assume (for contradiction) that a is not even then a=2n+1 for
some nZ. Then
a2=(2n+1)2=4n2+4n+1=2(2n2+2n)+1
Hence a2 is odd, contradiction.
Therefore, a is even.
NOTICE.
In fact, in the last example, instead of the statement
if a2 is even then a is even.
we have shown the equivalent contrapositive statement
if a is odd then a2 is odd
Let us see what happens with multiples of 4.
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EXAMPLE 7
if a is a multiple of 4 then a2 is also a multiple of 4.
Deductive proof
a is a multiple of 4 a = 4n (nZ)
a2 = 16n2 = 4(4n2) (4n2Z)
a2 is a multiple of 4.
We will prove that the converse is not true.
EXAMPLE 8
a2 is a multiple of 4 does not imply that a is a multiple of 4.
Proof by counterexample
Choose a=6. Then 62=36 is a multiple of 4 while 6 is not.
The following is a typical example of contradiction.
EXAMPLE 9
Show that 2 is irrational.
Proof by contradiction.
a
Assume (for contradiction) that 2 is rational, that is 2
b
where a, b have no common factors [i.e. the fraction is simplified]
Then
a 2 b a 2 2b 2
Thus a2 is even and so a is also even, say a=2c.
Then
(2c) 2 2b 2 4c 2 2b 2 b 2 2c 2
Thus b2 is even and so b is also even. But a, b cannot be both even,
as they have no common factors. Contradiction!
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An equation of the form
ax + by = c
has infinitely many solutions.
An interesting question is if it has integer solutions.
For example
3x+5y = 19
has the integer solutions (x,y)=(3,2) or (x,y)=(-2,5) etc.
EXAMPLE 10
The equation
6x 15y 100
has no integer solutions.
Proof by contradiction.
Assume it has an integer solution (x, y). Then the LHS is a multiple
of 3 but the RHS is not, contradiction.
The search of integer solutions in general is of particular interest in
real life problems.
EXAMPLE 11
Chris claims that the equation
x 2 y 2 100
has no integer solutions. Investigate his claim.
Proof by counterexample that the statement is false.
The integer values x=6 and y=8 satisfy the equation. Indeed,
x 2 y 2 6 2 8 2 36 64 100
If we add two rational numbers we get a rational number (we will
show that by using a deductive prove).
Is this property true for irrational numbers as well?
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EXAMPLE 12
(a) If we add two rational numbers, we obtain a rational number.
(b) If we add two irrational numbers the result is not necessarily
an irrational number.
Solution
(a) Deductive proof
a c
Let x and y be rational numbers. Suppose that x = , y=
b d
where a, b, c, d are integers. Then
a c ad + bc
x+y= = , where ad + bc and bd are integers
b d bd
Therefore, x+y is a rational number (as a fraction of integers).
(b) Proof by counterexample.
Let x= 2 and y=- 2 . Then x+y = 0 which is rational.
Therefore, the sum of two irrational numbers is not an
irrational number in general.
THE PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE
A classic example of contradiction is the pigeonhole principle:
Suppose that n+1 pigeons are placed in n pigeonholes
Then, there exists a pigeonhole with at least 2 pigeons
Indeed, assuming that all pigeonholes had at most 1 pigeon each,
we would have at most n pigeons, contradiction.
EXAMPLE 13
There are 400 people in a club. Show that at least two of them
have their birthday on the same day.
Proof by contradiction
Assume that all of them have their birthday on different days. We
would have at most 366 people in the club, contradiction.
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A more advanced version of this principle is presented below
EXAMPLE 14
There are 1500 people in a club. Show that there exist at least 5
people in the club having their birthday on the same day.
Proof by contradiction
Assume (for contradiction) that the result is not true, that is at
most 4 people have their birthday on different days. We would
have at most 3664=1464 people in the club, contradiction.
Notice:
we used the fact, that the opposite of “at least 5” is “at most 4”.
EXAMPLE 15
Suppose that 64 pigeons are placed in 7 pigeonholes. Show that
some pigeonhole contains at least 10 pigeons.
Proof by contradiction
Assume (for contradiction) that all the pigeonholes have at most 9
pigeons. We would have at most 7x9=63 pigeons, contradiction.
EXAMPLE 16
Let x, y, z be integers such that x+y+z = 25. Show that at least
one of them is 9.
Proof by contradiction
Assume (for contradiction) that all of them are less than 9. That is
x≤8, y≤8, z≤8
But then x+y+z ≤ 24, contradiction.
Notice: In other words, if you have 25 pigeons in 3 pigeonholes,
then one of the pigeonholes contains at least 9 pigeons!
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1.9 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION (for HL)
DISCUSSION
Induction is a smart technique to prove propositions of the form
“For any nN, it holds … P(n)”
or “For any n 1, it holds … P(n)”
where P(n) is a statement depending on a natural number n.
Let us work on the following example
For any n 1, it holds
n(n 1)
1+2+3 ⋯ n =
2
There are several ways to prove this relation (for example, this is
the sum S n for the arithmetic sequence with u1 =1 and d=1).
However, this is a good example to explain induction.
One way to persuade ourselves about the validity of this relation is
to check for several values of n:
1(1 1)
For n=1, LHS = 1 RHS= =1, the result is true!
2
2(2 1)
For n=2, LHS = 1+2=3 RHS= =3, the result is true!
2
3(3 1)
For n=3, LHS = 1+2+3=6 RHS= =6, the result is true!
2
4(5 1)
For n=4, LHS = 10 RHS= =10, the result is true!
2
But this is not a proof. It is just an indication that the statement is
true for any n.
Instead of that, we use the induction technique which consists of
three steps:
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Induction:
1. We show that the statement is true for n=1
2. We assume that the statement is true for n=k (some k)
3. We prove that the statement is true for n=k+1
based on the assumption of step 2
NOTICE
Roughly speaking, we construct a mechanism
k k+1
which uses the outcome for k, to prove the next outcome for k+1.
Step 1 is necessary to switch on the mechanism!
Hence, we have the initial outcome for n=1
Based on that we obtain the next outcome for n=2
Based on that we obtain the next outcome for n=3
and so on (we automatically obtain the result for any n)
Let us present a complete proof for our first example!
EXAMPLE 1
Prove by mathematical induction that
n(n 1)
1+2+3 ⋯ n = for any n 1
2
Proof
For n=1 the statement is true. Indeed,
1(1 1)
LHS =1, RHS = =1
2
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We assume that the statement is true for n=k, that is
k(k 1)
1+2+3 ⋯ k =
2
We prove that the statement is true for n=k+1, that is
(k 1)(k 2)
1+2+3 ⋯ k+(k+1) =
2
Indeed,
1+2+3 ⋯ k+(k+1) = (1+2+3 ⋯ k) + (k+1) *
k(k 1)
= + (k+1) [by assumption]
2
k(k 1) 2(k 1)
= +
2 2
(k 1)(k 2)
= QED
2
Therefore, by mathematical induction, the statement is true for
any n 1.
Notice: The IB examiners love the following blabbering ending:
The statement is true for n=1 and assuming it is true for n=k, it
also true for n=k+1. Therefore, by mathematical induction, the
statement is true for any n 1.
EXAMPLE 2
The number 6n 1 is divisible by 5, for any n 1.
Proof
For n=1 the statement is true. Indeed,
61 1 5 is divisible by 5.
We assume that the statement is true for n=k, that is
6k 1 is divisible by 5;
*
The main task in step 3 is to embed the assumption inside the proof.
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Say 6k 1 =5m, for some mZ
We prove that the statement is true for n=k+1, that is
6k1 1 is divisible by 5.
Indeed,
6k1 1 = 6 6k 1
= 6 (5m 1) -1 [by assumption]
= 30m+5
= 5(6m+1) which is divisible by 5 (QED).
Therefore, by mathematical induction, the statement is true for
any n 1.
Sometimes the induction does not begin from n=1.
In general, inequalities are trickier! I suggest the following scheme:
EXAMPLE 3
Prove by mathematical induction that
n! > 2n for any n 4
[we may easily verify that the result is not true for n=1,2,3]
Proof
For n=4, the statement is true. Indeed,
LHS =4!=24, RHS =24 =16 and 24>16.
We assume that the statement is true for n=k, that is
k! > 2k
We prove that the statement is true for n=k+1, that is
(k+1)! > 2k+1
Indeed,
(k+1)! = k! (k+1) [by the definition of n!]
> 2k (k+1) [since k!>2k by assumption]
It suffices to show that 2k (k+1) 2k+1:
2k (k+1) 2k+1 k+1 2 k 1 which is true.
Therefore, by induction, the statement is true for any n 4.
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EXAMPLE 4
Consider the sequence u1 =0, u n 1 =2 un +2
a) Find the first six terms of the sequence. Is it an arithmetic or
a geometric sequence?
b) Compare the results with the first powers of 2. What do you
notice? Can you guess a general formula for un in terms of n?
c) Prove that your guess is true by mathematical induction.
Solution
a) the first 5 terms of the sequence are the following
0, 2, 6, 14, 30, 62
[the recursive formula says, begin with 0 and then multiply by 2
and add 2 for each subsequent term]
This sequence is neither arithmetic nor geometric.
b) Look at the first 6 powers of two: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64
It seems that the terms of the sequence can be obtained by the
powers of 2 if we subtract 2. That is
un = 2n-2
c) We will use mathematical induction to prove our guess:
Given u1 =0, un 1 =2 un +2, it holds
un = 2n -2
For n=1, the statement is true. Indeed,
LHS = u1 = 0 RHS = 21 -2 = 0
We assume that the statement is true for n=k, that is
uk = 2k -2
We prove that the statement is true for n=k+1, that is
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uk 1 = 2k+1 -2
Indeed,
uk 1 = 2 u k +2 [by definition]
= 2(2k-2)+2 [by assumption]
= 2k+1- 4+2
= 2k+1 -2 QED
Therefore, by mathematical induction, the statement is true for
any n 1.
NOTICE
Sometimes, we must assume two preceding steps in order to prove
to the next step. These proofs look like
Induction:
1. We show that the statement is true for n=1 and n=2
2. We assume that the statement is true for n=k and n=k+1
3. We prove that the statement is true for n=k+2
based on the assumptions of step 2.
It will be very clear whether we have to follow this proof.
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the Fibonacci sequence
u1 =1, u 2 =1, un 2 = un + un+1
[it is the sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, …]
Prove by induction that
u n < 2n for any n 1
Solution
For n=1 and n=2 the statement is true. Indeed,
u1 =1 < 21 and u 2 =1 < 22
We assume that the statement is true for n=k and n=k+1, i.e.
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uk < 2k uk+1 < 2k+1
We prove that the statement is true for n=k+2, i.e.
uk 2 < 2k+2
Indeed,
uk 2 = u k + uk+1 [by definition]
< 2k + 2k+1 [by assumption]
It suffices to show that 2k + 2k+1 2k+2 :
2k+2k+12k+2 1+24 [just dividing by 2k]
3 4 which is true!
Therefore, by math induction, the statement is true for any n 1.
NOTICE
The critical step is the connection between
the (k+1)-statement and the k-statement,
in order to embed the assumption into the proof. We may use the
following table as a guide:
If the statement involves have in mind that
power an ak+1 = ak.a
of a number a2n a2(k+1) = a2k.a2
n factorial n! (k+1)! = k!.(k+1)
u1+u2 ⋯ un u1+u2 ⋯ uk+1=(u1+u2 ⋯ uk)+uk+1
Sum
of n terms
n k 1
k
ur u r = ur + uk+1
r 1 r 1 r 1
f (n) (x) f (k1) (x) = [f (k) (x)]
nth derivative dn y d k 1 y k
d d y
= ( k)
dx n dx k 1 dx dx
(2n)th derivative f (2n) (x) f (2k 2) (x) = [f (2k) (x)]
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1.10 SYSTEMS OF SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
In this section we will study systems of equations of the form
2x2 system 3x3 system
a1x+b1y=c1 a1x+b1y+c1z=d1
a2x+b2y=c2 a2x+b2y+c2z=d2
a3x+b3y+c3z=d3
For example,
5x+11y-21z =-22
2x+3y=9
x +2y -4z =-4
4x+7y=19
3x -2y +3z =11
For the number of solutions of any nxn system we have the
following three cases:
a unique solution
no solution
infinitely many solutions
A system which has solutions (either unique or infinitely many) is
said to be consistent. Otherwise it is inconsistent.
REMARK. Even for a single linear equation of the form
ax=b
(this is a trivial 1x1 system) we have only those three cases:
b
a 0 Unique solution x= .
a
a=0 and b≠0 No solution 0x=5 has no solution
a=0 and b=0 solutions 0x=0, true for any xєR
The equations 2x=3, 0x=0 are consistent. The equations 0x=5 is not
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2x2 SYSTEMS
Let us see an example for each case.
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the systems
(a) 2x+3y=9 (b) x+2y=1 (c) x+2y=1
4x+7y=19 2x+4y=10 2x+4y=2
The first system has a unique solution. We can easily obtain
(x,y)=(3,1).
The two systems (b) and (c) can take the equivalent forms
(b) x+2y=1 (c) x+2y=1
x+2y=5 x+2y=1
System (b) has no solution (it is inconsistent)
System (c) reduces to one equation only: x+2y=1.
The system is consistent with infinitely many solutions.
Indeed, (1,0), (-1,1), (-3,2), (3,-1) are some of the solutions.
If we set y=λ (a real parameter), the set of solutions is given by
(x,y) = ( 1-2λ,λ) where λϵR.
Notice. For practice, please use your GDC to obtain the answer for
each case above.
3x3 SYSTEMS
Again, for such a system there are exactly three cases
a unique solution
no solution
infinitely many solutions
Let us see an example for each case and what the GDC gives.
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EXAMPLE 2
Consider the systems
(a) 5x+11y-21z=-22 (b) 2x+3y+3z= 3 (c) 2x+3y+3z= 3
x +2y -4z = -4 x+ y-2z= 4 x+ y-2z= 4
3x -2y +3z = 11 5x+7y+4z= 5 5x+7y+4z=10
For system (a) the GDC gives a unique solution
(x,y,z)=(2,-1,1).
For system (b) the GDC gives no solution.
For system (c) the GDC gives an infinite number of solutions:
x = 9+9λ
y =-5-7λ
z= λ (λR free variable)
The general solution of the system is
(x,y,z)=(9+9λ,-5-7λ, λ).
We are going to explain how we obtain the solution for each case by
using the so-called Gaussian elimination. We refer only to the case
of 3x3 systems (the process for any number of equations is similar).
GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
Consider the system (a) above, that is
5x+11y-21z = -22
x +2y -4z = -4
3x -2y +3z = 11
We interchange the first two equations
(it helps to have a leading coefficient 1 in the first equation)
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x +2y -4z = -4
5x+11y-21z = -22
3x -2y +3z = 11
STEP 1: Use equation 1 to eliminate x from equations 2 and 3:
x +2y -4z = -4
y - z = -2 [Equ2 – 5 x Equ1]
-8y +15z = 23 [Equ3 – 3 x Equ1]
STEP 2: Use equation 2 to eliminate y from equation 3:
x + 2y - 4z = -4
y - z = -2
7z = 7 [Equ3 + 8 x Equ2]
In fact, we can repeat this process by working on the augmented
matrix below (where we keep only the coefficients):
1 2 4 -4
5 11 - 21 - 22
3 - 2 3 11
Our target is to eliminate the elements below the main diagonal
(shown in the triangle below)
1 2 4 -4 R1
5 11 - 21 - 22 R2
3 - 2 3 11 R3
We proceed, step by step, to equivalent matrices by performing
appropriate row operations. The equivalence between two matrices
is denoted by the symbol ~ :
1 2 4 - 4 R1
~ 0 1 - 1 - 2 R 2 - 5R 1
0 - 8 15 23 R 3 - 3R 1
1 2 4 - 4 R1
~ 0 1 - 1 - 2 R2
0 0 7 7 R 3 8R 2
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Then we unfold the equations using the so-called back substitution:
The 3rd equation gives: 7z=7 z=1
The 2nd equation gives y-z=-2 y-1=-2 y=-1
The 1st: equation gives x+2y-4z=-4 x-2-4=-4 x=2
Therefore, the unique solution is (x,y,z)=(2,-1,1).
NOTICE
If the last row was (0 0 0 |7), the corresponding equation
would be 0x+0y+0z=7 which is impossible (there is no solution)
If the last row was (0 0 0 |0), the corresponding equation
would be 0x+0y+0z=0. This equation can be eliminated and the
first two equations provide ∞-ly many solutions.
In general, the row operations we may perform in order to obtain
equivalent matrices are the following
Interchange rows (e.g. R1↔R2)
Multiply a row by a scalar (e.g. R1 → 5R1)
Add to a row the multiple of another row (e.g. R1 → R1±3R2)
METHODOLOGY OF AUGMENTED MATRIX FOR 3X3 SYSTEMS
1) We consider the augmented matrix of the system
a1 b1 c 1 d1
a2 b2 c2 d2
a3 b3 c3 d3
2) We transform to equivalent matrices of the form
* * * *
0 * * * by using row R1 to clear out 1st column
0 * * *
* * * *
then 0 * * * by using row R2 to clear out 2nd column
0 0 * *
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3) a) If the system has a UNIQUE SOLUTION we expect an
equivalent matrix of the form
* * *
0 * *
0 0
(all the elements in the main diagonal are nonzero)
Back substitution will provide the unique solution.
Otherwise, we expect an equivalent matrix of the form
* * *
0 * *
0 0 0 d
b) if d≠0 the system has NO SOLUTION
c) if d=0, the system has INFINITELY MANY SOLUTIONS:
We set z=λ (free variable) and back substitution will provide
the general solution.
(if the second row also contains zeros, we have in fact only
one equation: we set z=λ,y=μ (two free variables) and then
express x in terms of λ and μ)
REMARK
Ideally, in step 2 we attempt to have matrices of the form
1 * * * 1 * * *
0 * * * and 0 1 * *
0 * * * 0 0 * *
where the leading coefficient of the selected row is 1.
Let us work now on the system (b) (which had no solutions)
2x +3y +3z = 3
x + y -2z = 4
5x +7y +4z = 5
Working on the augmented matrix we obtain
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2 3 3 3
1 1 - 2 4
5 7 4 5
1 1 2 4 R2
~ 2 3 3 3 R1
5 7 4 5
1 1 2 4 R1
~ 0 1 7 -5 R 2 - 2R 1
0 2 14 - 15 R 3 - 5R 1
1 1 2 4 R1
~ 0 1 7 -5 R2
0 0 0 -5 R 3 - 2R 2
Hence the system has no solution.
Finally, let us work on the system (c) (which had ∞ solutions)
2x +3y +3z = 3
x + y -2z = 4
5x +7y +4z = 10
Working on the augmented matrix we obtain
2 3 3 3
1 1 - 2 4
5 7 4 10
1 1 2 4 R2
~ 2 3 3 3 R1
5 7 4 10
1 1 2 4 R1
~ 0 1 7 - 5 R 2 - 2R 1
0 2 14 - 10 R - 5R
3 1
1 1 2 4 R1
~ 0 1 7 -5 R2
0 0 0 0 R 3 - 2R 2
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Hence the system has infinitely many solutions. We eliminate the
last row
1 1 2 4
0 1 7 -5
Back substitution gives
Set z =λ
R 2: y+7z = -5 y = -5 -7z y = -5-7λ
R 1: x+y-2z = 4 x = 4-y+2z =4-(-5-7λ)+2λ x = 9+9λ
The general solution is
x = 9+9λ
y = -5-7λ
z = λ R (free variable)
NOTICE (Geometrical Intepretation)
An equation of the form
ax+by=c
represents a line in the Cartesian plane.
When we solve a 2x2 system, we are looking in fact for the
intersection of two lines.
Unique solution implies a unique intersection point.
No solution implies that the lines are parallel.
∞ solutions imply that the two lines coincide.
We will see later (in Vectors) that an equation of the form
ax+by+cz=d
represents a plane in 3D space,
When we solve a 3x3 system we are looking in fact for the
intersection of three planes.
Analogous interpretations apply here but let us wait until Vectors.
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EXAMPLE 3
Suppose that the final step after Gaussian elimination is
1 2 3 4
0 1 5 6
0 0 a b
where a and b are parameters to be determined.
The system may have a unique, none or infinitely many solutions.
If a0 there is a unique solution.
Back substitution gives
b
az=b z=
a
b
y+5z=6 y=6-5z y=6-5
a
b b b
x+2y+3z=4 x=4-2y-3z x=4-2(6-5 )-3 x =-8+7
a a a
If a=0 and b0 there is no solution.
If a=0 and b=0 there are infinitely many solutions. The system
becomes
x+2y+3z=4
y+5z=6
We set z=λ and back substitution gives
y=6-5z=6-5λ
x=4-2y-3z=4-2(6-5λ)-3λ = -8 +7λ
The general solution of the system is (x,y,z)=(-8+7λ,6-5λ,λ).
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1.11 COMPLEX NUMBERS – BASIC OPERATIONS (for HL)
As we know, there are no real numbers of the form
1 4 , 9 , 5
However, we agree to accept an imaginary number i such that
i2 = -1
(so, in some way, the definition of i is: i = 1 )
The imaginary numbers mentioned above can be written as follows:
instead of 4 we write 2i
instead of 9 we write 3i
instead of 5 we write 5i
Consider now the equation
x 2 4x 13 0
Since Δ=-36, there are no real solutions. However, if we accept
that Δ i 36 6i we obtain solutions of the following form
4 Δ 4 6i
x= = = 2 3i
2 2
These “new” numbers are known as complex numbers.
In general, if Δ<0 the complex roots of the quadratic are given by
-b i Δ
x=
2a
NOTICE for the GDC - For Casio:
use shift-0 for i
for a quadratic with Δ<0 you may obtain the complex roots if
you use SET UP – Complex mode: a+bi
This gives rise to the following definition.
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THE DEFINITION
A number z of the form z = x yi
where x, y R, is called a complex number. We also say,
the real part of z is x: Re(z)=x
the imaginary part of z is y: Im(z)=y
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C. A real number x is
also complex of the form x+0i (it has no imaginary part).
THE CONJUGATE z
The conjugate complex number of z = x+yi is given by z =x-yi
(Sometimes, the conjugate number of z is denoted by z*)
EXAMPLE 1
For z=3+4i, we write Re(z)=3, Im(z)=4, z =3-4i.
Similarly
Complex number Real part Imaginary part Conjugate
z Re(z) Im(z) z
2+3i 2 3 2-3i
2-3i 2 -3 2+3i
-2+3i -2 3 -2-3i
-2-3i -2 -3 -2+3i
1+i 1 1 1-i
3i 0 3 -3i
2 2 0 2
0 0 0 0
i 0 1 -i
2 3i 1 3 2 3i
4 2 4 4
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THE MODULUS |z|
The modulus of z=x+yi is defined by: |z| = x 2 y2
For example, if z=2+3i, then |z|=|2+3i|= 2 2 3 2 13
Notice
z x+yi
z x-yi
-z -x-yi
-z -x+yi
all have the same modulus x 2 y2
Thus 3+4i, 3-4i, -3-4i, -3+4i have the same modulus
3 2 4 2 25 5
Finally, observe that |3|=3 and |-3|=3. That is, the modulus
generalizes the notion of the absolute value for real numbers.
EQUALITY: z1 = z2
Two complex numbers are equal if they have equal real parts and
equal imaginary parts: Let z1=x1+y1i and z2=x2+y2i
x 1 x 2
z1 = z2
y1 y 2
Thus, the equation of complex number must be thought as a system
of two simultaneous equations.
EXAMPLE 2
Let z1=3+4i and z2=a+(3b-2)i. Find a,b if z1 = z2.
3 a a 3
z1 = z2
4 3b 2 b 2
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ADDITION-SUBTRACTION-MULTIPLICATION-DIVISION
The four operations for complex numbers follow the usual laws of
algebra. We only have in mind that i2=-1.
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the two complex numbers z=7+4i and w=2+3i
z+w =(7+4i)+(2+3i) =9+7i [add real parts; add imaginary parts]
z-w =(7+4i)-(2+3i) = 5+i [similarly]
For multiplication we need some extra work:
zw =(7+4i)(2+3i) = 14+21i+8i+12i2 = 14+21i+8i-12 =2+29i
What about the division?
z 7 4i
The fraction = is also a complex number!
w 2 3i
In order to obtain the usual form x+yi, we multiply both terms by
the conjugate of the denominator i.e. by w 2-3i
z 7 4i 7 4i (2 3i) 14 21i 8i 12 26 13i
= = = = =2-i
w 2 3i 2 3i (2 3i) 13 13
Thus
7 4i
= 2-i
2 3i
(Confirm the result by multiplying (2+3i)(2-i); you must find 7+4i)
NOTICE
|z|2 = z. z
Indeed, both sides are equal to x2+y2: For z = x+yi
|z|2 = x2+y2
z z = (x+yi)(x-yi) = x2-y2i2 = x2+y2
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Get used to the multiplication by a conjugate:
EXAMPLE 4
(3+4i)(3-4i) = 9+16 = 25
(1+i)(1-i) = 1+1 = 2
(2-i)(2+i) = 4+1 = 5
The result is always a real number (the square of the modulus).
EXAMPLE 5
Let us estimate the powers of i:
i0=1 i1=i i2=-1 i3=-i
i4=1 i5=i i6=-1 i7=-i
i8=1 i9=i i10=-1 i11=-i
… and so on
Thus, for example
i35=i32+3=i3=-i
(since 32 is a multiple of 4).
EXAMPLE 6
Calculate
(2 i) 3
(a) z = (2+i)3 (b) w=
1i
Solution
(a) z = (2+i)3 = 23+3.22i+3.2i2+i3 or z = (2+i)2(2+i)
= 8+12i+6i2+i2i = (4+4i+i2)(2+i)
= 8+12i-6-i = (3+4i)(2+i) = 6+3i+8i+4i2
= 2+11i = 2+11i
(2 i) 3 2 11i 2 11i 1 i 2 2i 11i 11i 2
(b) w = = = =
1i 1i 1i 1i 2
9 13i 9 13
= = + i
2 2 2
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EXAMPLE 7
Find z if
z(1-i) = 2+11i
Solution
Method A (Analytical and safe but laborious):
Let z = x+yi. Then
z(1-i) = 2+11i (x+yi)(1-i) = 2+11i
x-xi+yi-yi2 = 2+11i
(x+y)+(y-x)i = 2+11i
x y 2
y x 11
The solution of the system is x =-9/2 and y =13/2
9 13
Hence, z = + i
2 2
Method B (quicker): think as in the equation ax=b
2 11i
z(1-i) = 2+11i z =
1i
= …
9 13
= + i [look at Exercise 6(b)]
2 2
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1.12 POLYNOMIALS OVER THE COMPLEX FIELD (for HL)
THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA
As we know a quadratic may have
two different real roots: f(x)=a(x-r1)(x-r2)
two equal real roots: f(x)=a(x-r1)2
two non-real complex roots: f(x)=irreducible quadratic
We can say in general that
a quadratic has always two roots (in C).
(having in mind that a real number is also complex, and allowing
repetition of a root)
This is in fact a particular case of the so called
Fundamental theorem of algebra
A polynomial of degree n>1 has exactly n roots (in C)
NOTICE
In fact, a first version of this theorem says that
A polynomial of degree n>1 has always a root (in C)
However, if f(x) is a polynomial of degree n and x=r1 is a complex
root, the long division of f(x) by (x-r1) gives
f(x)=(x-r1)q(x)
where q(x) is a polynomial of degree n-1.
But q(x) has also a complex root r2, and so on. By repeating long
divisions we find exactly n roots of f(x).
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FACTORIZATION AND ROOTS OF A POLYNOMIAL
Remember the equation x 2 4x 13 0 has two complex roots
4 Δ 4 6i
x= = = 2 3i
2 2
Thus, a quadratic with Δ<0 has always two complex roots which
are conjugate to each other! This is not accidental. For any
polynomial of any degree,
if z=a+bi is a root then z =a-bi is also a root! (*)
Lemma
For the conjugates of complex numbers we can easily verify that
z1 z 2 z1 z 2
z1 z 2 z1 z 2
zn zn
Proof of (*)
Consider the polynomial
p(x)= a n x n ⋯ a 2 x 2 a1 x a 0
with real coefficients, that is a0,a1,…anR
If z is a root then z is also a root! Indeed,
z is a root a n z n ⋯ a 2 z 2 a1 z a 0 0
a n z n ⋯ a 2 z 2 a1 z a 0 0
a n z n ⋯ a 2 z 2 a1 z a 0 0
a n z n ⋯ a 2 z 2 a1 z a 0 0
a n z n ⋯ a 2 z 2 a1 z a 0 0
z is a root
Therefore, a polynomial has either real roots or non-real complex
roots which always come in pairs of conjugate numbers.
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NOTICE:
Usually, when we consider complex roots a polynomial is written as
p(z)= a n z n ⋯ a 2 z 2 a1 z a 0
If a+bi and a-bi are two conjugate roots then
(z-a-bi) and (z-a+bi)
are two factors of the polynomial.
Then
(z-a-bi)(z-a+bi)=(z-a)2-(bi)2=(z-a)2+b2=z2-2az+(a2+b2)
That is, p(z) has an irreducible quadratic factor of the form
z2+pz+q where p,qR
Let us collect our results: for a polynomial of degree n
the factorization over the set C consists of n linear factors
p(z)=an(z-r1)(z-r2)…(z-rn)
where r1,r2,…,rnC (the n complex roots of the polynomial)
the factorization over the set R consists of
linear factors of the form (z-r)
irreducible quadratic factors of the form z2+pz+q
where r,p,qR
NOTICE:
A cubic function may have one of the following factorizations in R
three real roots: f(x)=a(x-r1)(x-r2)(x-r3)
or f(x)=a(x-r1)2(x-r2)
or f(x)=a(x-r1)3
one real, two non-real roots f(x)=a(x-r1)(x2+px+q)
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EXAMPLE 1
Version 1. Find all the three roots of the cubic function
f(z)=z3-5z2+9z-5
given that z=1 is a real root.
Solution
If we divide f(z) by z-1 we obtain
f(z)=(z-1)(z2-4z+5)
The quadratic factor z2-4z+5 has no real roots. Consequently, this
is the finest factorization over R.
However, if we extend to the complex field C, we find two extra
roots of the quadratic z2-4z+5. Namely
2+i, 2-i
Notice that the factorization over C is
f(z)=(z-1)(z-2+i)(z-2-i)
Version 2. Find all the three roots of the cubic function
f(z)=z3-5z2+9z-5
given that z=2+i is a complex root.
Solution
We immediately know the conjugate root z=2-i.
If we combine the two complex roots we obtain the quadratic
factor
(z-2+i)(z-2-i)=(z-2)2-i2=z2-4z+5
If we divide f(x) by z2-4z+5 we obtain the factor
z-1
Hence, z=1 is the third root of the polynomial.
The factorization of f(z) over C is
f(z)=(z-1)(z-2+i)(z-2-i)
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Version 3. Consider the cubic function
f(z)=z3+az2+bz+c
Given the roots z=1, z=2+i, find the coefficients a,b,c.
Solution
The third root is z=2-i. Hence,
f(z) = (z-1)(z-2+i)(z-2-i)
= (z-1)[(z-2)2-i2]
= (z-1)(z2-4z+5)
This is the finest factorization over R. Finally
f(z) = z3-5z2+9z-5
Therefore, a=-5, b=9, c=-5.
Notice
In the last version, we could also consider the equations
f(1) = 0
f(2+i)=0
which imply three simultaneous equations in a,b,c. But this
approach is much more time-consuming!
NOTICE:
In an analogue way, a polynomial of degree 4 may have
four real roots (not necessarily distinct)
two real roots and two non-real roots;
it will have the factorization
f(x)=a(x-r1)(x-r2)(x2+px+q)
where the quadratic has two conjugate complex roots
four non-real roots: it will have the form
f(x)=a(x2+px+q)(x2+rx+s)
where each quadratic has two conjugate complex roots
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1.13 THE COMPLEX PLANE (for HL)
The complex number z=x+yi can be represented on the Cartesian
plane as follows
y z = x+yi
O x
z=x+yi is the point (x,y) †
Real part = x-coordinate, Imaginary part = y-coordinate
The modulus |z|= x 2 y 2 is in fact the distance from the origin.
EXAMPLE 1
4 3+4i
0+4i
3
2
1
-5 O 1 2 3
3+0i
-2
-5-2i
Notice
|3+4i|= 25 =5, |3|=3, |4i|=4, |-5|=5, |-5-2i|= 29
The modulus is always the distance from the origin.
†
We may also think of z as a vector from the origin to the point (x,y). Compare
x
with vectors in paragraph 3.11
y
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NOTICE
We already know that the sets
N = natural numbers
Z = integers
Q = rational numbers
R = real numbers
can be represented on the real axis. We extend this representation
here to the complex plane (considering an imaginary y-axis).
It also holds
N Z Q R C
EXAMPLE 2
It is interesting to see the representations of z, z ,-z,- z . For
example,
z=3+4i z =3-4i z=-3+4i - z =-3-4i
- z =-3+4i z=3+4i
-z=-3-4i z =3-4i
The modulus of all those is 5 (distance from the origin).
z is symmetric to z about the x axis
-z is symmetric to z about the origin
Think that these observations hold for real numbers as well:
The absolute value of 5 and -5 is 5 (distance from origin)
The conjugate of 5 is 5 itself (symmetric about x-axis)
The opposite of 5 is -5 (symmetric about the origin)
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THE POLAR FORM (MODULUS-ARGUMENT FORM)
We have just seen that a complex number z=x+yi is represented on
the plane by a pair of Cartesian coordinates (x,y).
An alternative way to describe a point on the plane (and thus the
position of z) is the so-called Polar coordinates (r,θ):
We draw a vector (an arrow) from O to the point and consider
r = the length of the vector
θ = the angle between the x-axis and the vector
y z = x+yi
r
θ
O x
Notice:
x y y
cosθ = , sinθ = , tanθ = (*)
r r x
For a complex number z=x+yi
r is in fact the modulus |z|
θ is called argument of z. We write arg(z)=θ
REMARK
Of course, the argument θ is not unique. For example, if θ=30ο is
an argument of z then
36oo+30ο= 390o, 720o+30o= 750o, etc
are also arguments of z.
For the principal argument θ, we agree
-180o<θ 180 o or -π<θ π
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but in our applications, we may consider any equivalent argument.
The relations (*) above give
x=rcosθ and y=rsinθ
Thus, a complex number can be also written as
z = x+yi = (rcosθ)+(rsinθ)i = r (cosθ+isinθ)
The form
z = r (cosθ+isinθ)
is known as the polar form of the complex number z
(or otherwise modulus-argument form or trigonometric form)
TRANSFORMATION FROM z = x+yi TO z = r (cosθ+isinθ)
Given: z = x+yi. We find r and θ by
r = |z| = x 2 y2
y
tanθ = , having in mind the quadrant of x+yi
x
EXAMPLE 3
Find the polar form of z =1+ 3 i and w =3+4i.
Solution
For z =1+ 3 i :
r = 1 3 =2,
3 π
tanθ = = 3 , [1st quadrant] θ=
1 3
π π
Therefore, z = 2(cos +isin ) [or 2 (cos 60 +isin 60 )]
3 3
For w =3+4i :
r = 32 4 2 = 5 ,
4
tanθ = , [1st quadrant] θ = 0.927 (by GDC)
3
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Therefore, w = 5 [cos(0.927)+isin(0.927)]
EXAMPLE 4
Find the polar form of z1 =1+i, z2 =-1-i, z3 = 1-i, z4 =-1+i
Solution
For all of them the modulus is r = 11 = 2
1 π
For z1 =1+i: tanθ = = 1, [1st quadrant] θ =
1 4
π π
Therefore, z1 = 2 (cos +isin )
4 4
1 5π
For z2 =-1-i: tanθ = =1, [3rd quadrant] θ =
-1 4
5π 5π
Therefore, z2 = 2 (cos +isin )
4 4
1 π
For z3 = 1-i: tanθ = =-1, [4th quadrant] θ =
-1 4
π π
Therefore, z3 = 2 (cos +isin )
4 4
-1 3π
For z4 =-1+i: tanθ = =-1, [2nd quadrant] θ =
1 4
3π 3π
Therefore, z4 = 2 (cos +isin )
4 4
TRANSFORMATION FROM z = r (cosθ+isinθ) TO z = x+yi
This is much easier! We just perform the operations! In fact, the
polar form is also Cartesian:
z = r(cosθ+isinθ) = rcosθ + irsinθ x=rcosθ, y=rsinθ
For example,
π π 1 3
the Cartesian form of z = 2(cos +isin ) is 2( +i ) = 1+ 3 i
3 3 2 2
NOTICE for the GDC
GDC transforms one form to another. For Casio use:
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Run-Matrix – OPTN – COMPLEX - ►r<θ or ►a+bi
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CIS FORM: z=rcisθ
There is an abbreviation for the polar form
z = r (cosθ+isinθ).
It is sometimes written as
z = rcisθ.
π π π
For example, z =2(cos +isin ) = 2cis .
3 3 3
EULER’S FORM: z=reiθ
Another abbreviation is due to Euler.
We define‡
eiθ=cosθ+isinθ
Consequently, the trigonometric form z=r(cosθ+isinθ) obtains the
form
z=reiθ
π
π π i
For example, z =2(cos +isin ) = 2 e 3 .
3 3
EXAMPLE 5
Write down all the possible forms of z1=1+i , z2 =3+4i, z3 =3+4i
Cartesian Polar form cis form Euler form
π π π π
1+i 2(cos +isin ) 2 cis 2e
i
4
4 4 4
3+4i 5[cos(0.927)+isin(0.927)] 5cis(0.927) 5 e0.927i
3-4i 5[cos(-0.927)+isin(-0.927)] 5cis(-0.927) 5 e-0.927i
‡ This is not accidental! It can be shown that eiθ follows all known exponential properties
(we will verify that later on)
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NOTICE
Any complex number with modulus 1 has polar form
z = cisθ = cosθ+isinθ
(Indeed, |z|= cos 2 θ sin 2 θ =1)
For any z given in polar form we know |z|. For example,
if z = 23cis3π = 23(cos3π+isin3π) then |z|=23
For real numbers a (on the horizontal, real axis)
the polar form is immediate, since
- the argument of a positive real number is 0
- the argument of a negative real number is π.
1 cis0 ei0 -1 cisπ eiπ
2 2cis0 2 ei0 -2 2cisπ 2 eiπ
3 3cis0 3 ei0 -3 3cisπ 3 eiπ
... ...
For imaginary numbers of the form ai : (on the imaginary axis)
the argument is either π/2 or -π/2.
π π
i cis eiπ/2 -i cis - e-iπ/2
2 2
π π
2i 2cis 2eiπ/2 -2i 2cis - 2e-iπ/2
2 2
π π
3i 3cis 3eiπ/2 -3i 3cis - 3e-iπ/2
2 2
... ...
The conjugate of z = r (cosθ+isinθ) is z = r (cosθ-isinθ)
Attention!! The latter is not in polar form. We must have a (+)
sign in front of i. However, we know that
cos(-θ) = cosθ and sin(-θ) = -sinθ
Hence z = r [cos(-θ)+isin(-θ)]
Indeed, if arg(z)=θ then arg( z )=-θ
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1.14 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM (for HL)
PROPOSITION 1
Let z = r cisθ. Then
1 1
z-1=r-1cis(-θ) i.e. = cis(-θ)
z r
Proof.
Remember that z z =|z|2=r2 and z = r cis(-θ)
Then
1 z rcis( θ) 1
z-1= = = = cis(-θ)
z zz r2 r
PROPOSITION 2
Let z1 = r1cisθ1 and z2 = r2cisθ2
Then z1z2 = r1r2cis(θ1+θ2)
Proof.
z1 z2 = r1cisθ1 r2cisθ2
= r1r2(cosθ1+isinθ1)(cosθ2+i sinθ2)
= r1r2[cosθ1cosθ2-sinθ1sinθ2+i(sinθ1cosθ2+sinθ2cosθ1)]
= r1r2[cos(θ1+θ2)+isin(θ1+θ2)]
= r1r2 cis(θ1+θ2)
PROPOSITION 3
Let z1 = r1cisθ1 and z2 = r2cisθ2
z1 r
Then = 1 cis(θ1-θ2)
z2 r2
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TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Proof.
z1
= z1z2-1
z2
= r1cisθ1 r2-1cis(-θ2) [by Proposition1]
= r1r2-1cis(θ1-θ2) [by Proposition2]
r1
= cis(θ1-θ2)
r2
NOTICE:
By Proposition 2, the modulus of z1z2 is r1r2 : |z1z2|= r1r2
z1 r z1 r
By Proposition 3, the modulus of is 1 : | |= 1
z2 r2 z2 r2
In other words,
z1 z1
|z1z2| = |z1||z2| =
z2 z2
Furthermore,
By Proposition 2, the argument of z1z2 is θ1+θ2 : arg(z1z2)= θ1+θ2
z1 z1
By Proposition 3, the argument of is θ1-θ2: arg( )= θ1-θ2
z2 z2
In other words,
z1
arg(z1z2)=arg(z1)+arg(z2) arg( )=arg(z1)-arg(z2)
z2
In simple words,
the modulus |z| preserves the operations
the argument arg(z) behaves like log(z)
95
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
π π
Let z =2cis and w =cis
6 3
1 3
(In fact, z= 3 +i and w= + i)
2 2
Then
π π 3π π
zw =2.1cis( + ) = 2cis( ) = 2cis( )
6 3 6 2
π π
=2[cos( )+isin( )]=2(0+i)=2i
2 2
z 2 π π π π π
= cis( - ) = 2cis(- ) = 2[cos(- )+isin(- )]
w 1 6 3 6 6 6
3 1
=2( - i)= 3 -i
2 2
π π π π π
z2=zz=2.2 cis( + )=4cis( ) =4(cos +isin )
6 6 3 3 3
1 3
=4( + i)=2+2 3 i
2 2
z 2 zz 2 2 π π π
= = cis( + - ) = 4cis(0) = 4
w w 1 6 6 3
1 1 π 1 π π 1 3 1 3 1
= cis(- )= [cos(- )+isin(- )]= ( - i)= - i
z 2 6 2 6 6 2 2 2 4 4
1 π π π 1 3
= cis(- ) = [cos(- )+isin(- )]= - i
w 3 3 3 2 2
Notice that for z = r cisθ,
z2 = z z = r r cis(θ+θ) = r2 cis(2θ)
z3 = z2z = r2r cis(2θ+θ) = r3 cis(3θ)
and so on.
By using mathematical induction, we can easily derive the following
theorem.
96
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM
Let z = rcisθ. For any nZ+, it holds
zn = r ncis(nθ)
Proof (by mathematical induction)
For n=1 the statement is trivially true, since z1=z=r(cisθ)
We assume that the statement is true for n=k, i.e. zk=rk cis(kθ)
We claim that the statement is true for n=k+1, i.e.
zk+1=rk+1cis[(k+1)θ]
Indeed,
zk+1 = zkz = rkcis(kθ) rcisθ [by hypothesis]
= rkr [cos(kθ)+isin(kθ)] [cosθ+isinθ]
= rk+1[cos(kθ+θ)+isin(kθ+θ)] [By Prop.2]
= rk+1[cos(k+1)θ+isin(k+1)θ]
= rk+1 cis[(k+1)θ] Q.E.D.
Therefore, by mathematical induction the statement is true for
any nZ+
NOTICE:
In fact, De Moivre’s theorem is true for any integer exponent nZ.
z5 = r5cis(5θ)
z0 = r0cis(0θ) = cis0 = 1 as expected!
z-1= r-1cis(-θ) as in Proposition 1
1
This is also equal to r-1[cos(-θ)+isin(-θ)]= (cosθ-isinθ)
r
z =r cis(-5θ).
-5 -5
1
This is (cos5θ-isin5θ)
r5
97
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
π π
Let z=2(cos +isin ). This is in fact the number z= 3 +i.
6 6
Then
2π 2π π π
z2=22(cos +isin )=4(cos +isin )=2+2 3 i
6 6 3 3
π π 1 π π 3 1
z-1=2-1[(cos(- )+isin(- )]= (cos -isin )= - i
6 6 2 6 6 4 4
6π 6π
z6=26(cos +isin )=64(cosπ+isinπ)=-64
6 6
Notice that z6=( 3 +i)6 may also be found by using the binomial
theorem but De Moivre’s Theorem gives directly the same result!
For example, ( 3 +i)60 is almost impossible to be estimated by
using the binomial theorem, but De Moivre’s Theorem gives
60π 60π
z60 = 260(cos +isin ) =260 (cos10π+isin10π) =260
6 6
EXAMPLE 3
Find (1+i)10
It is much more convenient to use the polar form of 1+i:
π
r = 2 and tanθ=1 (1st quadrant) θ =
4
π
thus 1+i= 2 cis
4
10π 10π
Then (1+i)10=( 2 )10cis =25cis
4 4
10π π
But =2π+ .
4 2
Then
π
(1+i)10=32cis =32i
2
98
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE:
Remember Euler’s notation
z=reiθ = r(cosθ+isinθ).
De Moivre’s Theorem is in accordance to this notation. Indeed
zn= (reiθ)n = rneinθ = rn[cos(nθ)+isin(nθ)]
which is De Moivre’s statement.
Remember that z=cosθ+isinθ is at the same time in polar and in
Cartesian form.
Dealing in parallel with both these forms gives interesting results.
EXAMPLE 4
Let z=cosθ+isinθ. We calculate z3 in two different ways:
De Moivre’s theorem gives
z3=cos3θ+isin3θ
Binomial theorem gives
z3 =(cosθ+isinθ)3
=cos3θ+3cos2θ(isinθ)+3cosθ(isinθ)2+(isinθ)3
=cos3θ+3icos2θsinθ-3cosθsin2θ-isin3θ
=(cos3θ-3cosθsin2θ) +i(3cos2θsinθ-sin3θ)
By comparing the two results
cos3θ= cos3θ-3cosθsin2θ and sin3θ=3cos2θsinθ-sin3θ
We can express cos3θ in terms of cosines only:
cos3θ= cos3θ-3cosθ(1-cos2θ) = 4cos3θ-3cosθ
Similarly we can obtain
sin3θ=3sinθ-4sin3θ
Remark: Working with z4, z5, etc we obtain similar results for
cos4θ, sin4θ, cos5θ, sin5θ, etc.
99
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
Let z=cosθ+isinθ. Then, by De Moivre’s theorem
zn=cosnθ+isinnθ and z-n=cosnθ-isinnθ
Then
zn+z-n=2cosnθ (*)
zn-z-n=2isinnθ (**)
Let us expand (z+z-1)3 in two different ways:
Relation (*) for n=1 gives
(z+z-1)3 =(2cosθ)3 = 8cos3θ
Binomial theorem gives
(z+z-1)3 = z3+3z+3z-1+z-3
= (z3+z-3)+3(z+z-1)
= 2cos3θ+6cosθ [ (*) for n=3 and n=1]
By comparing the two results
8cos3θ =2cos3θ+6cosθ
and finally
1 3
cos3θ = cos3θ+ cosθ
4 4
Remarks
The expansions of (z+z-1)4, (z+z-1)5, etc
give similar results for cos4θ, cos4θ, etc.
Working similarly with (**),
the expansions of (z-z-1)3, (z-z-1)4, (z-z-1)5, etc
give similar results for sin3θ, sin4θ, sin5θ, etc
100
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF MULTIPLICATION
Let P be the point on the Complex plane which represents
w=2cisθ
- P is on a circle of radius 2 (centre at the origin)
- The line OP forms an angle θ with x-axis.
If we multiply w by z=3, the result is zw=6cisθ.
The image point Q is on a circle of radius 6:
(enlargement by scale factor 3)
101
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
If we multiply w by z= cisφ, the result is zw=2cis(θ+φ).
The image line OQ forms an angle θ+φ with x-axis
(rotation by angle φ)
If we multiply w by z=3cisφ, the result is zw=6cis(θ+φ).
Q is on a circle of radius 6; OQ forms an angle θ+φ with x-axis
(rotation by angle φ and enlargement by scale factor 3)
102
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1.15 ROOTS OF zn=a (for HL)
Let us start with an observation. Equality in complex numbers is a
strong relation: it gives a system of two equations.
x = a
For Cartesian forms: x+yi = a+bi
y = b
r =ρ
For polar forms rcisθ = ρcisφ
θ = φ + 2kπ
n-th ROOTS OF 1
The solutions of z2=1, otherwise the roots of the quadratic z2-1,
are 1 and -1. They are also known as the 2nd roots of 1
In general, the roots of the equation
zn=1
that is of the polynomial zn-1, are known as n-th roots of 1.
Let z=rcisθ be a root. Then
rn = 1 r = 1
zn=1 rncis(nθ) = 1cis0 2kπ
nθ = 0 + 2kπ θ =
n
Hence, the roots have the form
2kπ 2kπ 2kπ
zk = cis =cos +isin
n n n
For k=0,1,2,…,n-1 we obtain the n distinct roots of 1.
EXAMPLE 1
The 3rd roots of 1, that is the solutions of z3=1, are the following
2kπ 2kπ 2kπ
zk= cis =cos +isin , for k=0,1,2
3 3 3
Namely,
2π 2π 4π 4π
z0=1, z1= cos +isin , z2= cos +isin
3 3 3 3
103
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Geometric interpretation:
The modulus of each root is 1, thus the three roots lie on the unit
2π 4π
circle. Since their arguments are 0, , , they divide the unit
3 3
circle in three equal parts.
EXAMPLE 2
The 4th roots of 1, that is the solutions of z4=1, are the following
2kπ
zk= cos , for k=0,1,2,3
4
Namely,
z0=1,
2π π
z1= cis = cis = i,
4 2
4π
z2= cis = cisπ = -1
4
6π 3π
z3= cis = cis = -i
4 2
Geometric interpretation:
The four solutions 1, i, -1, -i divide the unit circle in 4 equal parts.
In general,
the n-th roots of 1 divide the unit circle in n equal parts.
104
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE:
The solutions of zn=1 are
z0=1,
2π
z1=cis ,
n
4π
z2=cis ,
n
6π
z3=cis ,
n
…
Let us denote by w the first non-real root z1, i.e.
2π
w = cis = z1
n
Then, by using De Moivre, we obtain
4π
w2 = cis = z2,
n
6π
w3 = cis = z3,
n
…
In other words, the n-th roots of 1 can be expressed as
1, w, w2, …, wn-1
We can derive the following important result:
The sum of the n-th roots of 1 is always 0
Indeed§,
z0 + z1 + z2 + … + zn-1 = 1 + w + w2 + … + wn-1 [G.S.]
wn 1
= = 0 (since wn=1)
w 1
§ You may also use the identity an 1 (a 1)(1 a a 2 ⋯ an 1 )
105
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
The 3rd roots of 1 are 1, ω and ω2, where
2π 2π 2π 1 3
ω = cis = cos +isin = + i ,
3 3 3 2 2
4π 4π 4π 1 3
ω2 = cis = cos +isin = - i
3 3 3 2 2
We can easily verify that 1 + ω + ω2 = 0
EXAMPLE 4
(a) Write down the 5th roots of 1.
(b) Factorize z5-1
2π 4π 1
(c) Use the sum of the roots to show that cos + =
5 5 2
Solution
(a) The 5th roots of 1 are
z0=1,
2π 2π 2π
z1= cis =cos +isin ,
5 5 5
4π 4π 4π
z2= cis =cos +isin ,
5 5 5
6π 6π 6π
z3= cis =cos +isin ,
5 5 5
8π 8π 8π
z4= cis =cos +isin ,
5 5 5
Notice that z3 may also be written as
- 4π - 4π - 4π 4π 4π
z3= cis =cos +isin =cos -isin ,
5 5 5 5 5
This is the conjugate of z2.
Similarly
2π 2π
z4= cos -isin is the conjugate of z1.
5 5
106
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
(b) The factorization of z5-1 contains
one linear factor, namely (z-1)
two quadratics with complex roots
The first quadratic factor is obtained by
2π 2π 2π 2π
(z-z1)(z-z4) = (z-cos -isin ) (z-cos +isin )
5 5 5 5
2π 2 2π 2
=(z-cos ) –(isin )
5 5
2π 2π 2π
=z2-2zcos + cos2 sin2
5 5 5
2π
=z2-2zcos+ 1
5
Similarly we obtain the second quadratic factor and finally,
2π 4π
z5-1 = (z-1) (z2-2zcos + 1) (z2-2zcos + 1)
5 5
(c) We know that
z0 + z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 = 0
Hence, the sum of the real parts of the roots is also 0:
2π 4π 4π 2π
1+cos + cos + cos +cos =0
5 5 5 5
2π 4π
2cos + 2cos =-1
5 5
2π 4π 1
cos + cos =
5 5 2
Remark for the factorization of zn-1
Working as in EXAMPLE 4, (b) above
If n is odd
By using the 7th roots of 1, we can show that
2π 4π 6π
z7-1 = (z-1)(z2-2zcos +1)(z2-2zcos +1)(z2-2zcos +1)
7 7 7
Can you guess a similar factorization for z9-1 ?
107
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
If n is even
By using the 6th roots of 1 (there are two real roots: ±1) we get
2π 4π
z6-1 = (z-1)(z+1)(z2-2zcos +1) (z2-2zcos +1)
6 6
π 2π
= (z-1)(z+1)(z2-2zcos +1) (z2-2zcos +1)
3 3
= (z-1)(z+1)(z2-z+1) (z2+z+1)
Can you find a similar factorization for z8-1 ?
Remark for the sum of the n-th roots (only when n is odd)
Working as in EXAMPLE 4, (c) above
By using the sum of the 7th roots of 1, we can show that
2π 4π 6π 1
cos + cos + cos =
7 7 7 2
Can you guess a similar formula by using the 9th roots of 1?
n-th ROOTS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER a
Consider now the equation
zn=a
where a is a complex number.
Let z=rcisθ be a root. Then zn = rncis(nθ)
We also express the complex number a in polar form: a=ρcisφ.
Then
rn = ρ r = n ρ
zn=a rncis(nθ) = ρcisφ φ + 2kπ
nθ = φ + 2kπ θ =
n
For k=0,1,2,…,n-1 we obtain the following n roots of a
φ 2kπ
zk= n ρ cis
n
108
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equation z3=8i.
Solution
Let z=r(cosθ+isinθ).
π
The polar form of 8i is 8cis . Then
2
r 3 =8 r = 2
π
z3=8i r3cis(3θ) = 8cis π π + 4kπ
2 3θ = + 2kπ θ =
2 6
We obtain the solutions
π 4kπ
zk=2cis where k=0,1,2.
6
Namely,
π 5π 9π 3π
z0=2cis z1=2cis z2=2cis =2cis
6 6 6 2
Geometric interpretation:
The modulus of each root is 2, thus the three roots lie on the circle
π 5π 9π
of radius 2. Since their arguments are , , they divide the
6 6 6
π
circle in three equal arcs but now, the first root is at θ= .
6
109
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