PHYSICS BY MUHAMMAD KASHIF

Punjab College Faisalabad

OSCILLATIONS (Isochronous Motion/Oscillatory Motion)

“The to and fro motion of the body on the same path, about mean position is called oscillation”
Periodic Motion
If oscillatory motion repeats itself equally in intervals of times. It is called periodic motion.
Simple harmonic Motion (S.H.M)
The oscillatory motion in which acceleration is directly proportional to displacement and direction of acceleration
is always directed towards mean position.
S.H.M  May be along the straight path or at through some angle “”
a  x
 Mean position  centre of oscillation
 Amplitude  maximum displacement from mean position on either side.
 Vibration  One complete round trip or rotation from one extreme position back to the same extreme
position.
 Time Period  Time for one complete vibration.
 Frequency  No. of cycles /vibrations/oscillations per sec.
2
Angular frequency: Rotational characteristic  = 2f = T

From Extreme to Mean  by restoring force

Oscillatory Motion
From Mean to extreme  By inertia
NOTE: If the direction of restoring force is directed towards mean position, then it is S.H.M.
If direction of restoring force is not directed towards mean position, it is only vibrating motion (oscillatory
motion)
S.H.M in Mass – Spring System Fext  x (It obey’s Hook’s Law)
Fext =kx (K spring constant / Force constant)
 
F ext =  F r
 Fr = kx
Fr = kx
F =  kx (in simple)
F N
k = x  Unit = m ( Also the unit of surface tension)
ma=-k x
K K
a =  . x { =constant = 2(say)}
m m
a   x
Slope = K

Fext

Horizontal mass–spring system

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Punjab College Faisalabad

For Horizontal mass – Spring system

2 2 m K
 Time Period= T = = = 2 K (for horizontal spring-mass system: = m)
 K
m
1 1 K
 f= T =
2 m

For vertically mass-spring system

x
T= 2 ( for vertical spring-mass system: = 𝒈

g 𝒙

NOTE:- If vertical mass spring system is shifted to other plant, then the ratio of extension-to-gravitational acc ( )

remains same. Hence time period of vertical mass spring system does not change.
1 g
f= “x” is extension in spring when weight hangs on it.
2 x

Springs – All facts at a glance:

 Series Combination

K1

m
K1 K2

K1K2 K2
Equivalent spring constant Keq = K + K
1 2
𝑲
For “n” equal springs  Keq =
𝒏 m
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
For unequal spring constants: 𝑲 = 𝑲 + 𝑲 + 𝑲 + 𝑲 + 𝑲 +-----
𝒆𝒒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓

 Parallel Combination

K1

m
K2 K2 K1

 Keq = K1 + K2 m

 For “n” equal springs  Keq = nK

 For unequal spring constant Keq = K1 + K2+ K3+ K4+ K5+----
NOTE: If a spring is cut into half, then spring constant of each part becomes double.
𝑲 𝟐𝑲
 Now if both half parts of spring are joined in series then equivalent spring : keq = = =k
𝒏 𝟐
 Now if both half parts of spring are joined parallel, then equivalent spring constant keq = nK=2(2K)=4K
 Spring constant of a spring is inversely proportional to its natural length. K  1/l
EXAMPLE 1 Two identical springs of force constant “K” are connected in series and then in parallel and support a mass
“m”. The ratio of period of oscillation of series and parallel arrangement is?

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Punjab College Faisalabad

m m m
 In series T1 = 2 keq = 2 (k/2) = 2 . 2 k
m m
 In Parallel: T2 = 2 keq = 2 2k = Error! . 2Error!
T1
T2
= Error! = Error!  Error! = 2 : 1 Ans.
Some important relations
According to Hook’s Law F = kx
1 1 𝐅 𝟐 𝐅𝟐
Work done to stretch/compress the spring by the amount x W= 2 kx2=2 k =
𝐤 𝟐𝐤

 If k = same  x  F (If spring constant of springs are equal)

 If x = same k  F(If same elongation is produced in springs)
1
 If F = same x  k (If same force is applied on two springs)
 For same amount of stretch (x) in two different springs. More work has to be done on stretch spring of larger
spring constant.W k
W1 K1
  =
W2 K2
𝟏
 For stretching of two different springs (K1, K2) by same force, W
𝐤
W1 K2
 =
W2 K1
Simple Pendulum
“A pendulum consists of heavy small bob attached to a weightless and inextensible string whose other end is
fixed at perfect rigid support is called simple pendulum”
 c.g. of bob does not change during oscillation
  along vertical  minimum &  along Horizontal  maximum
 Amplitude (x) < length pendulum (l)
2 2
(...
𝒈
T= =  = )
 (g/l ) 𝒍

l
T = 2 ( T  l )
g

 T
Length of pendulum is always measured from the point of
l suspension to the c.g of bob.

x
o mg cos
Length of pendulum=Length of thread + radius of bob

mg sin
mg
 Fr =  mg sin (if  is with vertical axis)
 Fr =  mg cos (if  is with Horizontal axis)
 A pendulum of time period: T = 2sec ; f = 0.5 Hz is called second pendulum having length l=
99.3 cm
 A second pendulum on earth surface / moon surface will remain second pendulum having T=2
sec, f = 0.5 Hz, l = 99.3 cm

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Punjab College Faisalabad

 But a second pendulum on earth surface is now shifted / displaced / brought to moon surface, now will
not remain a second pendulum. All parameters of second pendulum (like T, f, l) will be according to the
value of “g” on moon surface as
𝐠 𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐡
gmoon =
𝟔
 If pendulum is shifted to a height like MURREE/K-2 etc g will decrease, T will increase, speed of
pendulum will slow down, and frequency will decrease.
Simple Pendulum in an Accelerated Fame of Reference
1. Simple pendulum hangs with a ceiling of left/elevator. If lift moves upwards with an acceleration(a),
then time period of an oscillating simple pendulum
l
 T = 2 g+a

2. If lift moves downwards with acceleration (a). then time period of an oscillating simple pendulum
𝒍
 T = 2
𝐠 𝐚

3. If lift is at ret v = 0; a = 0
l
 T = 2
g
4. If lift falls free (a = g) {string of lift just break or pendulum oscillating in an orbiting satellite}
l
T = 2 = 
g-g
5. Pendulum in car and car move horizontally with acceleration “a” then
l
T = 2
a + g2
2

6. Time period of a simple pendulum hung from a length “L” with the roof of a bus moving down a fixed
inclined plane of angle “” without friction is given as
L
7. T = 2
gcos
8. A simple pendulum of time period T has a metal bob. If the bob is charged negatively and is allowed to oscillate
over a positively charged plate placed under it, the. Then a negatively charged pendulum oscillates over a
positively charged plate, then effective value of g increase (geffective =g+a). So according T
𝒍
=2 , hence T decreases.
𝒈𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆

EXAMPLE1 A simple pendulum has a time period T1 on the earth surface and T2 when taken to a height
“H=R” above the earth surface where R=R is the radius of the earth. Then T2/T1the on earth surface;
l
T1 = 2 g on earth Surface

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Punjab College Faisalabad

l
T2 = 2 on a height H=R
g

Put Fg = weight
GMm GM
R2 = mg  g = R2
GM Gm
Now the value of g at heigh H=R is given as = g = =
(R + R)2 4R2
l
2
T1 g g GM/4R2
= = =
T2 l g GM/R2
2 g
T1 𝟏 1
= = Ans
T2 𝟒 2
EXAMPLE 2 The bob of simple pendulum is filled with two different metals one is rare (like aluminium) and other is
denser (like lead) which pendulum has large time period?

1 2 3 4 Pendulum (2) has

more Time period as
its length is greater
than other
pendulum, As its
c.g.is lower the
D R D
D bottom of bob. L
R D R R
increases, hence T
increases of that
bob.

In combined rare medium and denser medium; centre of gravity always shift towards the denser medium.
EXAMPLE 3

Bob is filled by any liquid/mercury that flows out

during oscillation. c.g of bob shifted toward bottom.
So “l” increases, hence T increases after that bob
becomes empty e.g., now shifted toward upward. So
l decreases and hence T increases.

Leakage

EXAMPLE 4 Time period of simple pendulum at a “h” above the earth surface is given as
l gR2 GM
T = 2 gh ... gh = (R + h)2 = (R + h)2

Time Period of simple pendulum at a height “h” g = 9.8 m.sec

equal to radius of earth; G = 6.67  10–11 A/m2/kg2
Put h = R M = 6  1024 kg

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Punjab College Faisalabad

gh = g/4 R = 64000 Km
l 4l l
Sol. T = 2 = 2 = 2 (2 ) = 2T (Time period becomes double)
g/4 g g
EXAMPLE 5 What is the time period of simple pendulum inside the earth at a depth “d” equal to the radius of
earth w.r.t. earth surface
d
T = 2 𝒈
𝒍
Sol. ... gd = g((1 – R)
𝒅 Moving from equator (g = 9.78 msec–2) to pole (g= 9.83
R msec–2) increases 0.5%.
At centre of earth: d = R  gd = (1– ) = 0
R
l
 T = 2 O = 
 Frequency of 2nd pendulum does not depend upon value of “g” and length “l”.
For two pendulum, having same time period; we use
l l1 g1
= constant  l g  =
g l2 g2

Phase Angle  specifies displacement and direction of motion

Y At point B, object has initial phase  such that 0o <  < 90o

At point C, object has initial phase  = 90o C B

 A Object
 


O X (At mean position O, object has initial phase  = 90o

Displacement
If body starts S.H.M from mean position as at point o. Then initial phase is =0°. And instantaneous displacement is given
as(where x0 is maximum displacement—apmlitude)

x = x0 sin = xo sin(t)= xo sin (2ft) = xo sin  

2t
T
If body starts S.H.M from point A. then Initial phase is  (between mean to point A). Then displacement at point B is
given as;
 x = xo sin ( + )
If body starts S.H.M from extreme position. Then initial phase is =90°. Then displacement at point C is given as

x = xo sin ( + 90o) = xo cos = xo cos(t)= xo cos(2ft t)= xo cos  

2t
T
Uniform circular Motion and S.H.M
S.H.M is the projection of uniform circular motion on the diameter of the circle.
Uniform circular motion is not S.H.M because in S.H.M, velocity (both magnitude and direction) changes
instantaneously whereas in uniform circular motion speed of object is steady.
Displacement: (already discussed above)

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Punjab College Faisalabad

Velocity:

 Phase difference between displacement (x) and velocity(v)= 2

 v = xocos = xocost =  xo2 – x2

K 2 2 K
= m (xo – x ) ( for horizontal spring-mass system: = m)
K x2
v = xo (1– 2)
m xo
x2 K
v = vo (1– ) ( say Vo = xo = xo or it is maximum speed of S.H.M)
xo 2 m
EXAMPLE 4 At which displacement, speed of oscillating body becomes half of its maximum speed?
Vo Vo x2
Solution. Put V = in above last equation = vo (1– )
2 2 xo 2
𝟏 x2
𝟐 (1–x 2) squaring both sides
o
𝟏 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 −  𝟐  =  𝒙𝟐  𝑿𝟐𝟎 
𝟒 𝑿𝟐
𝟎 𝑿𝟎 𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
3
x = 2 xo = 0.866 xo answer
a

Acceleration
a = xo sin 2
–x x

–a
2
a = – x2 = – x   .
2
(Graph b/w acceleration and displacement in S.H.M)( x = x0 sin)
T
a  -x +a

 Phase difference between displacement

t
and acceleration is 180°
 Phase difference between velocity and
acceleration is 90° --a

Energy conservation in S.H.M

Work done is displacing the mass “m” attached to a spring of force constant K up to displacement “x” is given as
1
w = kx2 this work done is stored in the form of elastic P.E in spring.
2
1
(P.E)inst. = kx2
2
For maximum P.E, put x = x0
1
 (P.E)max. = kxo2
2
2
1 1
(K.E)inst. = 2 mV2 = 2 m  xo K
( –
x2 
 m xo 2 ) 

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Punjab College Faisalabad

1 x2
 (K.E)inst. = kxo2 1 – 2 
2  xo 
 Error!
For Maximum K.E, Put x = 0
1
 (K.E)max = kxo2
2
1 2
Total Energy: Etotal = (K.E)inst + (P.E)inst =
2 kxo
K
As  =
m
 K = 2m
1 1
Thus Etotal = (2m) xo2 = m (xo)2
2 2
Result: during the oscillation, at extreme position whole energy is elastic P.E. and K.E=0 Where as at mean position,
whole energy is K.E and P.E is zero. Between mean and extreme position, partial energy is K.E and partial energy is P.E.
The sum of K.E & P.E at any position during oscillation always remains same.
Graphical Representation of Inter-conversion of K.E and P.E Etotal = P.E + K.E
ENERGY
100%

K.E
P.E
75%

P.E=K.E K.E = P.E at

50%
x=0.707xo
25%

mean position +x
–x x=0.707xo xo(extreme position)

Frequency of variation of P.E and K.E in one oscillation of S.H.M is “2”

All Quantities in S.H.M for one Vibration in one table (Oscillations start from mean position)
t O T T T T T 3T T
12 8 6 4 2 4
o O     180(=) 3 360(=2)
30(= ) 45(= ) 60(= ) 90(= ) 270(= )
6 4 3 2 2

x 0 (mean xo xo 3 Xo o (Mean = xo (2nd o (Mean

=0.5xo = x = 0.866xo
2 2 2 o
position) Extreme position) extreme position)
At mid 0.707xo position position
between
mean &
extreme
position
v xo 3 xo xo 0 – xo 0 xo
x 2
2 o 2

a 0 xo xo 3 – 2xo 0 xo2 0
– 2 2 – 2 – 2 2 xo
2

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Punjab College Faisalabad

K.E 1 3 1 1 0 1 O 1
kx 2 (K.E) (K.E) (K.E) kx 2 kx 2
2 o 4 2 4 2 o 2 o
%
 100%  75%  50%  25%
P.E 0 1 1 3 1
P.E(= kxo2) 0 1 0
(P.E) (P.E) (P.E) 2 kx 2
4 2 4 2 o
0% 100%
25% 50% 75%
Etotal 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
kx 2 kx 2 kx 2 kx 2 kx 2 kx 2 kx 2 kx 2
2 o 2 o 2 o 2 o 2 o 2 o 2 o 2 o
100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

x2 V2
 Graph between velocity and displacement in S.H.M is ellipse x 2 + V 2 = 1 
 o 0 

Free Oscillations
Vibrations of a body with its own natural frequency without interference of any external force. 
Fnet = 0
Forced Oscillations:
Vibrations of a body under strong periodic force of frequency other than natural frequency (driving frequency
d). Forced oscillations are produced by driven Harmonic oscillator.
Fnet  0
Damped Oscillation
Amplitude of oscillations decreases gradually due to the presence of fractional forces.
Damping is a process whereby energy is dissipated from the oscillating system.
x

x(t)

O t(sec)

–xo

Undamped oscillations
Oscillations with constant amplitude:
“Damping is a process whereby energy is dissipated from the oscillating system”

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Punjab College Faisalabad

+xo x

x(t)
O t

–xo

Resonance
In forced vibrations if frequency of applied periodic force (fapplied) becomes equal to the natural frequency of that
body (fn) then these vibrations are called resonant or sympathetic vibrations. This phenomenon is known as resonance. At
resonance condition, Energy transfer/Energy absorption rate is maximum and amplitude of oscillation becomes larger.

Resonance

Electrical
Mechanical
 Mobile phone calls.
 Swing.
 Tunning for radio channel
 Simple pendulum
 Microwave oven   = 12cm
 Breakdown of bridge
F = 2450 MHz
 Beats in Music
 L–C parallel resonance circuit
instruments
 R.L.C series resonance circuit

Sharpness of Resonance
Sharpness  Quality of Resonance
Sharpness  Amplitude
1
Sharpness  damping

+xo x
Low damping

High damping
O
q
fr

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