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DATA STRUCTURES AND
ALGORITHMS
IMPLEMENTATION
THROUGH C

By
Dr. Brijesh Bakariya
FIRST EDITION 2020
Copyright © BPB Publications, INDIA
ISBN: 978-93-8655-194-8

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication can be stored in a retrieval system
or reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of
the publishers.

LIMITS OF LIABILITY AND DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY

The Author and Publisher of this book have tried their best to ensure that the
programmes, procedures and functions described in the book are correct.
However, the author and the publishers make no warranty of any kind, expressed
or implied, with regard to these programmes or the documentation contained in
the book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event of any
damages, incidental or consequential, in connection with, or arising out of the
furnishing, performance or use of these programmes, procedures and functions.
Product name mentioned are used for identification purposes only and may be
trademarks of their respective companies.

All trademarks referred to in the book are acknowledged as properties of their

respective owners.

Distributors:
BPB PUBLICATIONS
20, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj
New Delhi-110002
Ph: 23254990/23254991

BPB BOOK CENTRE

376 Old Lajpat Rai Market,
Delhi-110006
Ph: 23861747
MICRO MEDIA
Shop No. 5, Mahendra Chambers,
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Published by Manish Jain for BPB Publications, 20, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New
Delhi-110002 and Printed by Repro India Pvt Ltd, Mumbai
 Dedicated To
This book is dedicated to my parents (Mr. Gurubaksh
Bakariya and
Mrs. Sugna Bakariya), my wife (Mrs. Surekha Bakariya) and
my lovely daughter (Misthi Bakariya) whoxybever supported
me in all respects of life and career.
This journey of mine proved to be a boon by
following their words and experiences.
“All Birds find shelter during a rain.
But Eagle avoids rain by flying above the Clouds.”
A.P.J Abdul Kalam
 Acknowledgement
It is my pleasure to take this opportunity to thank all those who
helped me directly or indirectly in the preparation of this book.
I would like to place on record and acknowledge the works of all
those great authors whose work I have referred in the preparation of
this book.
I would like to thanks to my wife Mrs. Surekha Bakariya and loving
daughter Misthi (Cherry) whose precious and cheerful time I pilfered
time to time to fulfill the task in time.
I would extend my gratitude to the BPB Publications for bringing out
the book in its present form.
Any suggestions for improving the contents would be warmly
appreciated.

Dr. Brijesh Bakariya

 Preface
This is an era of computer science and we emphasize on the
fundamental concepts of data structures which are more efficient
from time and space point of view. This book clears detail concepts
about various data structure and algorithms such as stacks, queues,
linked lists, trees and graphs. This book is also encouraging about to
construct novel data structures which are more efficient to existing
data structures.
This book is useful for efficient organization of data due to this
various operations can be performs on data. It is also useful for
constructing and analyzing an algorithm of data structures. This
book is written for DCA, PGDCA, B.Tech. /B.E., BCA, BSc M.Tech. /
M.E., MCA, MSc students. The book is organized in 14 chapters and
brief content is as follows:
Chapter 1 provides the basics of algorithms and their flow charts.
Chapter 2 describes the concept about algorithm analysis and
complexity of an algorithm.
Chapter 3 introduces a data structure and brief description about
various data structures.
Chapter 4 provides the basics concepts of functions and recursions.
Chapter 5 & 6 provides the basics of arrays, pointers and strings.
Chapter 7 explains the stack data structure and their
implementation.
Chapter 8 introduces queue data structure and their types.
Chapter 9 explains linked lists and its various types with
implementation.
Chapter 10 covers tree data structure its various types with
examples.
Chapter 11 covers graph data structures contain various real-life
problems.
Chapter 12 & 13 covers searching and sorting of data.
Chapter 14 cover detail description about hashing, its various types
and techniques with examples.
All the basic concepts have been discussed in above chapters. For
practice session students may follow chapter wise review exercises.
Although the content has been supervised by many senior
educationists, there may be some shortcomings. As human is prone
to errors, authors wish to forgive the mistakes and we welcome your
suggestions and criticism if any! The authors has try his best to
incorporate such valuable suggestions in the subsequent editions of
this book.
 Table of Content
Chapter 1: Algorithms and Flowcharts
1.1 Introduction of Algorithm
1.2 What is an algorithm?
1.3 Flowcharts
1.3.1 Reason to Use Flowcharts
1.4 Advantages
1.5 Symbols Used for Making Flowcharts
1.6 Pseudocode
1.7 Difference between Algorithm and Pseudocode

Chapter 2: Algorithm Analysis

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Why to Study an Algorithm?
2.3 Definition of an Algorithm
2.4 Steps to Construct an Algorithm
2.5 Analysis of an Algorithm
2.5.1 Apriori Analysis
2.5.2 Aposteriori Analysis
2.6 Complexity of an Algorithm
2.6.1 Time Complexity
2.6.2 Space Complexity
2.7 Asymptotic Notation
2.7.1 Properties of Asymptotic Notation

Chapter 3: Introduction to Data Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definition
3.3 Classification of Data Structure
3.3.1 Primitive Data Structure
3.3.2 Non Primitive Data Structure
3.4 Array
 3.4.1 Declaration and Initialization of an Array
3.5 Stacks
3.6 Queue
3.7 Linked List
3.8 Tree
3.9 Graph
3.10 Memory Allocation in C
3.10.1 Static Allocation
3.10.2 Dynamic Allocation
3.10.2.1 The malloc() function
3.10.2.2 The calloc () Function
3.10.2.3 The free() Function
3.10.2.4 The realloc() Function
3.11 Functions of Data Structure

Chapter 4: Function and Recursion

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definition
4.3 Types of Functions
4.3.1 Predefined Function
4.3.2 User Defined Function
4.4 Function Prototype
4.5 Introduction of Recursion
4.5.1 Definition
4.5.2 Types of Recursion
4.5.2.1 Direct Recursion
4.5.2.2 Indirect Recursion
4.6 Fundamental Need of Recursion
4.7 Iteration and Recursion
4.8 Program for Function and Recursion

Chapter 5: Arrays and Pointers

5.1 Introduction to Arrays
5.2 Definition
5.3 One Dimensional Array
 5.3.1 Initialization of One Dimensional Array
5.3.2 Accessing an Element from One Directional Array
5.3.3 Array Implementation in Memory
5.4 Process of Deleting an Element from an Array
5.5 Merging of Two Arrays
5.6 Multi Dimensional Arrays
5.6.1 Initialization of two-dimensional array
5.6.2 Accessing of Element in Two Dimensional Array
5.7 Pointer
5.8 Pointer to Structure

Chapter 6: Strings
6.1 Introduction to Strings
6.2 Definition
6.3 Library Functions of Strings

Chapter 7: Stack
7.1 Introduction to Stack
7.2 Definition
7.3 Stack Implementation
7.4 Operations of Stack
7.5 Applications of Stack
7.6 Programs for Stacks
7.7 Multiple Stacks

Chapter 8: Queues
8.1 Introduction to Queue
8.2 Definition
8.3 Queue Implementation
8.4 Circular Queue
8.4.1 Some Important Points about Circular Queue
8.4.2 Insertion in Circular Queue
8.4.3 Deletion in Circular Queue
8.5 De-queue
8.6 Priority Queue
Chapter 9: Linked Lists
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Terminology
9.3 Representation of Linked List
9.4 Operations of Linked List
9.5 Types of Linked List
9.6 Singly Linked List
9.7 Program for Implementing Linked List
9.8 Circular Linked List
9.9 Doubly Linked List
9.10 Program for Implementing Doubly Linked List
9.11 Circular Doubly Linked List
9.12 Addition of Two Polynomials
9.13 Program for Implementing Circular Doubly Linked List

Chapter 10: Trees

10.1 Introduction to Tree
10.2 Tree Terminology
10.3 Binary Tree
10.3.1 Binary Tree Representation using Array
10.3.2 Binary Tree Representation using Linked List
10.4 Dynamic Implementation of Binary Search Tree
10.5 Strictly Binary Tree
10.6 Complete Binary Tree
10.7 Tree Traversal
10.7.1 In-order Traversal
10.7.2 Pre-order Traversal
10.7.3 Post-order Traversal
10.8 Recursive Code for Preorder, Inorder and Postorder
Traversal
10.9 Tree Construction
10.10 Binary Search Tree
10.11 Expression Tree
10.12 Threaded Binary Tree
10.12.1 Types of Threaded Binary Trees
 10.13 AVL Tree
10.14 Balance Factor
10.15 Insertion in AVL tree
10.16 M-way Tree
10.17 B- Tree
10.18 B+ Tree

Chapter 11: Graph

11.1 Introduction to Graphs
11.2 Basic Terminology of a Graph
11.3 Representation of Graph
11.4 Graph Traversals
11.4.1 DFS (Depth First Search)
11.4.2 BFS (Breadth First Search)
11.5 Spanning Tree
11.5.1 General Properties of Spanning Tree
11.5.2 Application of Spanning Tree
11.6 Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
11.6.1 Minimum Spanning-Tree Algorithm
11.6.1.1 Kruskal's Algorithm
11.6.1.2 Prim's Algorithm
11.7 Shortest Path
11.7.1 Dijkstra's Algorithm
11.7.2 Bellman Ford's Algorithm

Chapter 12: Searching

12.1 Introduction to Searching
12.2 Types of Searching

Chapter 13: Sorting

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Types of sorting
13.3 Sorting Techniques
13.3.1 Bubble Sort
13.3.2 Selection Sort
 13.3.3 Insertion Sort
13.3.4 Quick Sort
13.3.5 Merge Sort
13.3.6 Heap Sort

Chapter 14: Hashing

14.1 Introduction to Hashing
14.2 Direct Address Table
14.3 Hash Function
14.4 Collision
14.4.1 Types of Hash Functions
14.5 Collision Resolution Technique (CRT)
14.6 Perfect Hashing
Other documents randomly have
different content
miles long and 69 broad, average depth 492 feet; temperature of
water 48°; annual rainfall about 78 inches. Besides the bleak table-
land west of the Cordillera Real, the Department comprises many
beautiful valleys east of the mountains. It contains, with the capital
La Paz, several important though not large cities: Corocoro, a famed
copper centre; Sorata, north, a delightful spot, at an altitude of 8000
feet, a centre for the rubber industry and for mining; Achacachi, a big
Indian town near the Lake; Copacabana, a very sacred religious
shrine, also on the Lake; Coroicas, east in the Yungas Valley. Actual
or potential wealth of almost every kind may be found here: large
flocks of llamas, alpacas, and some vicuñas; sheep and goats, herds
of cattle and horses; vegetable products, coca, cotton, coffee,
cereals, etc.; great riches in minerals, gold, silver, tin, copper, rock
crystal, berenguela, a fine native marble, all these in fine quality and
immense quantity. The wonderfully grand and varied scenery of this
Department can be duplicated or rivalled in few quarters of the
globe.
Oruro, directly south of La Paz, between Potosí and Chile, is the
smallest of the Departments, entirely on the plateau, thus having a
much smaller range of altitude and of climate. Its wealth is in
minerals, especially silver and tin, though gold, bismuth, borax, and
sulphur are found. Alpaca, chinchilla, and wool are other products.
The capital, Oruro, 127 miles south of La Paz, while for years the
terminus of the railway from Antofagasta, became an important
commercial and industrial centre; in addition it is one of the busiest
mining districts. Half of the mining men are foreigners; a large
proportion of the ordinary population is Indian. There is also
agreeable society, with people quite up to date in Paris fashions. The
only other city in the Department is Challapata.
Cochabamba, south of El Beni, east of La Paz and west of Santa
Cruz, is sometimes called the granary of the Republic. It is a
particularly delightful region, half temperate and half semitropical,
with altitude ranging from 973 to 16,777 feet. It possesses immense
plains with innumerable herds of cattle, magnificent fertile valleys,
rich forests, and minerals.
 Cochabamba, the capital, is the city next in size to La Paz, 276
miles distant; with an altitude of 8387 feet it enjoys a delightful
climate, an average temperature of 66°, and abundant rain. It has a
good club, an American Institute (a school for boys), and the least
illiteracy. The recent arrival of the railroad insures its rapid growth.
Potosí is another plateau Department, both east and south of
Oruro, bordering also on Chuquisaca and Tarija, and with Argentina
south and Chile west. It has for the most part a rather cold,
disagreeable climate, the altitude ranging from above 20,000 to a
little over 6000 feet.
The name Potosí, for centuries famous as almost a synonym for
silver, belongs also to the capital city, at a height of 13,388 feet. In
1650, when New York was a small village, it had 160,000
inhabitants. The city has an excellent mint, built in 1562, also a
superb old cathedral, a good library, and a museum. Above the town
32 artificial lakes were constructed of which 22 are still good. The
temperature varies from 9° to 59°; it is said that they have the four
seasons in one day. Even here potatoes, barley, and beans will
grow, but living is very dear. The town has foundries, engineering
shops, and 28 smelters. The Department still contains enormous
quantities of silver and tin in almost every variety of combination, and
more towns that are rich mining centres than any other Department
except La Paz. Uyuni is a town of 6000 inhabitants, Colquechaca
has a population of 8000 miners; Tupiza, soon to be reached by the
railway, is a pretty city in a pleasant valley, 66 miles from the
Argentine border.
Chuquisaca, east of Potosí and south of Cochabamba and Santa
Cruz, is much warmer, the altitude ranging from 255 to 13,450 feet.
Here also are mines of the usual varieties and petroleum too, tropical
fruits and vegetables of course, and plains with vast herds and
flocks.
Sucre, the legal capital of the Republic, altitude 9328 feet, is
situated on an arm of the Pilcomayo River. Social distinctions are
here more marked, and there is an exclusive circle agreeable to
those of the right type. Sucre, Cochabamba, and La Paz are called
the most cultured cities. More than 300 miles from La Paz in a
straight line and, as it is on the east side of the Cordillera, much
farther on horseback, which until lately was the only way to journey
thither, except for some miles of staging, Sucre is now more
accessible, as will be indicated later.
Tarija, south of Chuquisaca and southwest of Potosí, is with
Potosí the most southern of the Departments, now smaller than
formerly, since the Gran Chaco has been made a separate Territory.
Like Chuquisaca it is on the east side of the Cordillera, the greatest
altitude being 12,874 feet. The climate obviously varies from
temperate on the west to hot in the lowlands, the productions varying
similarly. There are possibilities for all varieties of grain and fruit, as
well as for stock raising; the western part lies in the silver region,
having gold and copper as well.
The capital, Tarija, 80 miles east of Tupiza, is 250 miles from
Sucre and 600 by rail from La Paz, but a few days must still be spent
in stage or on horseback. Prospects for speedy rail connection are
good when rapid development will follow.
Santa Cruz, north of Chuquisaca and east of Cochabamba is the
largest Department of all, and the richest in wild animals and
vegetation. This Department, altitude 377-9754 feet, does not reach
the great mountains, but far to the east it has a little range of its own,
the highest summits of which are just below 4000 feet. Here are
forests and prairies, cattle, tropical fruit and vegetables; cotton grows
profusely, rice, manioc, coffee, copal, rubber, what you will. Here too
is petroleum, iron, quicksilver. The white population is said to be of
purer Spanish blood than in most of the Departments, comparatively
unmixed; but as the climate is hot the people are naturally indolent.
The capital, Santa Cruz, altitude 1400 feet, 550 miles from La Paz
by way of Cochabamba, and 330 from Sucre, was founded, only
think! in 1545. It is on two of the main routes running from Bolivia to
Argentina and Paraguay. With a population of 20,000, it is quite a
city, having a variety of local industries, and being on a favored route
for the export of rubber, sugar, and coffee to Europe; but the
enormous cost and difficulty of transportation retards its progress.
Three hundred and ninety miles east near the Paraguay River is
Puerto Suarez, two hours or 11 miles by cart road from Corumbá,
Brazil, to which point steamers come from Buenos Aires. A railway
too practically reaches Corumbá from São Paulo.
El Beni, the last of the Departments, occupies the northeast
portion of Bolivia, being divided from La Paz by the Beni River. With
an area of 100,000 square miles the variation in altitude is slight,
465-2800 feet; hence everywhere a hot climate. It has hardly 40,000
inhabitants, mostly Indians. Nearly all the whites are engaged in the
rubber industry, though stock raising and agriculture are slightly
practised in the higher sections.
The capital, Trinidad, 400 miles from La Paz, with a population of
5000, is the least important of the various Department capitals,
though containing many stores and trading concerns for the sale of
imported products. Some smaller places are of greater commercial
consequence and better known, on account of their location.
Colonias. Of the Territories of Bolivia Colonias of the Northwest is
west of El Beni, and north of La Paz. Since the settlement of the
boundary dispute between Peru and Bolivia, the area of the territory
is given as 81,600 miles. It is similar in character to El Beni, a great
wilderness, full of water courses and forests, a land of wonderful
vegetation; population 40,000, besides 15,000-20,000 wild Indians,
not to mention animals, mostly wild, gorgeous birds, snakes and
insects. The swamp fevers, it is said, may be avoided by healthy
persons who use proper precautions and live on the highlands where
forest clearings permit the free course of the wind. Rain falls from
December to May, but May, June, and July are agreeable, with night
temperatures 60°-70°. In the warmest months the range is 76°-90° in
the hottest part of the day. In September cool south winds bring
sudden changes often producing colds.
The capital, Riberalta, 920 miles from La Paz, at the confluence of
the Madre de Dios and the Beni, stands on a high bank 65 feet
above the water, which the main street faces, an unusually desirable
location. Its population, perhaps 4000, is increasing rapidly with the
number of trading houses and rubber exporters who own small
steamers for river traffic.
Villa Bella, 125 miles below Riberalta, at the junction of the Beni
and Mamoré, is on comparatively high land, facing the Brazilian
town, Villa Murtinho on the other side of the Mamoré. On account of
the favorable location for export, rubber and timber property in the
vicinity is especially valuable. The climate is better than in many
other sections of the tropical lowlands.
El Oriente. This Territory, uncertain as to area and boundary, is
lowland southeast of Santa Cruz, extending to the Paraguay River,
north of the region claimed by Paraguay.
The capital, Puerto Suarez, is a small place on a bayou of the
Paraguay River facing Corumbá.
Gran Chaco. South of Santa Cruz and southeast of Tarija, of
which it was formerly a part, is the Territory of Gran Chaco, where
the boundary with Paraguay is still undetermined. Fifty-seven
thousand square miles is given as the area. Here are low lying
plains, some covered with water in the rainy season (December to
March), one or two feet deep; also open forests with palms, willows,
cedar, carobs, and quebracho; and hilly sections occupied by wild
Indians.
Yacuiba, formerly the capital, which is now transferred north to
Villa Montes, is a town 200 miles southeast of Tarija, and still the
most important place in the territory. In addition to forest riches, are
those of the plains, now harboring wild cattle, and undoubtedly
suitable for stock raising.
 CHAPTER XXVI
BOLIVIA: PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION

La Paz. Bolivia unhappily has no seaport, but lake and river ports
are better than none; of these she has several. Nevertheless La Paz
is the chief port of entry with the principal Custom House, the
terminus of the three railways leading from the Pacific.

Railways

Route from Mollendo. In 1903 not a single railway reached La

Paz, but not long after, the road, which then left one on the great
plateau, arrived at the edge of the alto, whence by electric power the
cars are brought down the steep walls of the cañon to the
picturesque city. This route is the conclusion of the road from
Mollendo, by all means the most desirable for the traveler coming
from the north. The inconvenience suffered by many persons going
from the coast directly to the high table-land, and the real danger to
those with weak hearts, may be lessened or entirely obviated by
pausing two or three days in the pleasant city of Arequipa. Even the
compulsory stay of a single night may render the journey to Puno
innocuous to the person in good condition. Having crossed the
divide, altitude 14,688 feet, one arrives at nightfall at Puno, on the
shore of Lake Titicaca, altitude 12,500 feet. The boat is there taken
for the night journey of 130 miles to Guaqui, the Bolivian port at the
south end of the lake, a 14 hour sail which no one should miss; for in
the morning an inspiring vision may be had, hardly equalled on the
globe, of the magnificent Cordillera Real, a hundred mile stretch of
rugged snowclad peaks from Illampu to Illimani with Huaina Potosí
halfway. A splendid view of Illampu is had on the left, during the
three hours’ ride, 56 miles, over the almost desert plateau, and after
passing its edge a matchless view of the cañon, the city, 1000 feet
below, and Illimani towering far above.
 Arica-La Paz Railway. The second route is from the port of Arica,
formerly in Peru, but now in the possession of Chile, which country in
accordance with the peace terms with Bolivia of 1883 constructed
the Arica-La Paz Railway as far as the frontier, the most difficult
portion, while Bolivia laid the rails for 145 miles within her own
boundaries. A branch 5 miles long leads to the important mining
town of Corocoro. This is by far the shortest route from the coast,
only 281 miles, but as we have seen, this is a disadvantage to
travelers rather than a benefit; nor is there a gain in time to one
coming from the north, as the steamer arrives at Arica, a day later
than at Mollendo. As one may come up from Mollendo, including the
night at Arequipa, in 48 hours, one thus arrives in La Paz a few
hours before one who travels in 22 hours from Arica. The journey
from Mollendo is 534 miles. For the more rapid climb from Arica
there are 28 miles of rack railway with a maximum grade of six per
cent. The equipment of the road has been inadequate for the
business, but more has been ordered; larger port works at Arica are
needed and expected. The highest point on the railway is 13,986
feet near the Bolivian boundary, nearly 700 feet lower than on the
road from Mollendo; but being reached in less than half as many
hours, and also at night when the effect of the altitude is always
greater, even the most robust are likely to suffer from a headache if
not worse, as is the case with persons coming up from Antofagasta.
Going down by either route there is usually no trouble, except for
those who have been a long time at the higher altitude.
Bolivia-Antofagasta Railway. The journey to La Paz from
Antofagasta, on the Chilian coast 400 miles below Arica, occupies
two days for the 718 miles. This, the earliest of Bolivian railways,
with Oruro for years as the terminus, in 1911 was continued to La
Paz, i.e., to Viacha (15 miles from La Paz), where it meets the road
from Guaqui, the two forming a long link in the Pan American chain.
The later road now has its own line into the city. At Uyuni, where
there is a Custom House and a change of cars, the road turns off
towards Chile. From Ollague on the Chilian border, a 58-mile branch
runs to the Collahuasi copper mines, among the richest in the world.
A Bolivian extension is now being made along the plateau to connect
with the Argentine road from La Quiaca to Buenos Aires. Already
Atocha has been reached; 60 miles remain to Tupiza, and 66 more
to La Quiaca, the terminus of the Argentine railway to the border. An
automobile service is operated in the dry or winter season from
Atocha to La Quiaca, making the journey in eight hours. The rest of
the year one goes on muleback. Thus by the weekly train from La
Quiaca to Buenos Aires in 48 hours, the entire journey, 2000 miles,
may be made from La Paz much more quickly than by way of Chile,
in case one does not wish to go there. This route also serves when
the Trans-Andine is blocked by the winter snow.
Other Argentine connections are planned. A branch railway is to
be built from La Quiaca or possibly from Orán to Tarija, about 82
miles; meanwhile it is expected to construct an automobile road for
the service. A railway extension from the Argentine boundary farther
east, hoped for in the near future, is from Embarcación to Yacuiba,
thence to Santa Cruz, thus opening the cattle region of the Chaco, of
Chuquisaca, and Santa Cruz for the export of cattle through Buenos
Aires.
Several Branches. Farther north important branches to the
interior are already in operation. The first, opened in 1912, was from
the station, Rio Mulato, 130 miles south of Oruro, to far famed
Potosí. This section, 108 miles long, climbs to a height of 15,814
feet, the second highest altitude reached by rail, following the
Morococha branch of the Central Peruvian. The cost was over
$8,000,000, the maximum grade three per cent. The trip occupies
eight hours; there is weekly service. The Oruro-Cochabamba Line
was completed in 1917; its length 132 miles, its cost above
$10,000,000. It crosses the Cordillera at about 14,000 feet. This road
is equally important, opening up a fine agricultural and well
populated district. Its fine scenic attractions should allure the tourist.
Food is very expensive on the plateau, but with improved access to
the warmer sections, lower prices and greater variety of fruits and
vegetables may be expected above.
A branch on the plateau long in operation is a 24 mile line from
Uyuni to the Huanchaca silver mines, the road owned by the Mining
Company. Another branch is now under construction from
Machacamarca to Uncia, 57 miles, built by Simon Patiño, the
wealthy owner of extremely rich tin mines at Uncia. Thirty-eight miles
are in operation.
New Lines. Under construction are two very important lines: one
the Potosí-Sucre Railway, 105 miles, with 40 in operation; the other,
the La Paz-Yungas Line of very difficult construction, passing over
the mountain range near La Paz at an altitude of 15,338 feet and
going down into the deep valley. One hundred and thirty-seven miles
have been surveyed. The passage has been accomplished, the road
opened to Unduavi, 16 miles, from which point it will be continued
down the valley to Coroico, later to Rurenabaque, and some time to
Puerto Brais on the Beni, the latter port being open to navigation all
the year. Already a delightful road for tourist travel and useful for
bringing fruit, vegetables, and other products to the La Paz market,
has been constructed. With the completion of the road to Puerto
Brais, a more speedy route for travel and freight to Europe will be
attained. On account of the scarcity and high cost of coal this road is
operated by electricity, for which the great fall of small streams gives
ample power. On account of transportation difficulties and increased
cost the completion of the Potosí-Sucre Railway has been delayed,
but when this is realized the road will probably be continued
northeast to Santa Cruz. From this city a road to Puerto Suarez on
the Paraguay, now talked of, will come later. Bolivia has about 1400
miles of railway in service. A road to Santa Cruz from Cochabamba
instead of Sucre is advocated by many.

Other Forms of Transportation

Roads. Automobile roads are planned and being constructed to fill

as far as possible present requirements, but in the rainy months,
December to May, traffic is generally suspended. From Cochabamba
to Sucre there is motor service for freight and passenger traffic, a
more direct route than that from Potosí for persons in La Paz. From
Potosí to Sucre a motor bus makes the journey in 12 hours. Another
motor car road soon to be available is from Riberalta to Villa Church
(65 miles), opposite Guajará-Mirím in Brazil, the terminus of the
Madeira-Mamoré Railway. From Cochabamba autos run to Totora,
also from La Paz to Achacachi, and over a spur of Illampu down to
Sorata.
Aside from railways land transportation is chiefly confined to
burros, mules, and llamas; in some places there are mule wagons or
ox-carts, mules generally carrying the traveler. The cart roads,
constructed and maintained by the Government or the Municipality,
are mostly very poor; yet such as they are they extend 2000 miles.
They are often if not usually impassable in the wet season. Llamas
are more extensively employed than in any other country. In the
plateau region with their 100 pound burden they wander leisurely
along, cropping the coarse grass, tended by their Indian owners or
drivers, who are in no more of a hurry than they. Along difficult
mountain slopes are paths constructed by the Indians, skirting
precipices and climbing steep inclines, where llamas, mules, and
burros bear loads of minerals, coca, coffee, or other products or
imports, from one section to another. About 5000 mules and burros
pass over the La Paz-Yungas road daily. Except in the dry season,
May to October, travel either by mule or by stage may anywhere be
difficult or impossible on account of rivers becoming impassable by
reason of freshets or roads because of mud. The importance of
proper packing according to directions of goods which may be
shipped to the interior, or indeed to any destination, cannot be
overestimated.
Lake Transport. Aside from the railways transportation in Bolivia
cannot be called excellent either on land or water, though there is fair
steamboat service on Lake Titicaca. This with Lake Aullagas (Poopo)
and the Desaguadero River are the only waterways of the table-land
where navigation exists. On the larger lake the Railway Company
has steamers of 1500 tons or less, five in all, connecting with the
trains, and some touching at small ports on the islands and around
the Lake. Other boats are used, among them Indian balsas, built
entirely of reeds, sails and all. In the use of these the Indians are
very expert. The Desaguadero River is navigable to Lake Poopo for
steamers of 500 tons. Poopo is navigable for boats of shallow draft.
River Transport. Of great and increasing importance are the
rivers of the eastern slope, both those of the Amazon Basin, and to a
less degree those of the Paraguay, which river for some distance is
practically the eastern boundary of Bolivia. Its chief tributaries are
the Pilcomayo and the Bermejo. Bolivian statistics give the total
length of all their navigable rivers as nearly 12,000 miles, but these
figures include sections not conceded as within the boundaries of the
Republic as well as rivers on the boundary. Half of the distance
mentioned, 6000 miles, is said to be navigable by steamers of 4-6
feet draft.
In the Amazon Basin steamboat navigation is possible on the Acre
from the Upper Purús, the Abuna, Orton, Madre de Dios, Beni,
Madidi, Mamoré, Itenez or Guaporé Rivers, with some of their
tributaries. Of the above, the Beni and the Mamoré are the most
important. On the latter, regular steam service has recently been
inaugurated from Cuatro Ojos in Santa Cruz to Guajará-Mirím (a
distance of nearly 1000 miles), the terminus of the Madeira-Mamoré
Railway. From the Department Cochabamba, boats descend on the
rivers Chaparé, Chimoré, and Iabaro to the Mamoré. The Guaporé,
though easily navigable for 1000 miles, flowing through an
uninhabited region, is little used.
Although most of the streams are more or less obstructed by
rapids, rocks, and masses of tree trunks, which last might easily be
cleared away, they are nevertheless useful for navigation. In spite of
difficulties and dangers much transport with canoes and rafts is
effected by the Indians, who are expert boatmen. On the Beni, rafts
are used from Puerto Pando 155 miles to Rurenabaque; from there
steamboats serve 573 miles to Riberalta; the Esperanza Rapids
below the town making their further passage impracticable. Hence
the journey to Villa Bella opposite Villa Murtinho on the Madeira-
Mamoré Railway or to Villa Church, higher up, opposite Guajará-
Mirím must be made by land; therefore the motor road is being
constructed.
In high water the Madre de Dios is navigable by steamers far up
its tributaries, at other times by callapos which consist of two or three
balsas fastened side by side. The balsa here is a small raft made of
several logs. It is usually 22 to 26 feet long, 5-6 wide, carries 750
pounds, and is managed by three boatmen. A callapo or monteria
may carry 3400 pounds with a crew of from 3 to 15 highly skilful
men. They make 9 or 10 miles daily, navigating 10-12 hours. With
the return of normal conditions the development of this region will be
hastened, and greater benefits will be realized from the opening of
the Madeira-Mamoré Railway which occurred in 1912.
 CHAPTER XXVII
BOLIVIA: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES

Mining

The mining industry, at present the most important in Bolivia, is

likely to continue the leader for an indefinite period, although with
easy communication and large population in the lower districts it may
ultimately have a rival in forestal and agricultural products, or in
cattle, certain to be at least a very valuable adjunct. The mineral
riches of Bolivia may equal if they do not surpass those of Peru,
though except for silver and tin they are probably less known. They
include almost every variety of the precious metals, with others not
so classed. To mention a few of these, there are gold, silver, tin,
copper, bismuth, lead, antimony, tungsten, platinum, zinc, petroleum,
with fine marbles, alabaster, malachite, opals, emeralds, jasper,
borax, salt, etc. There are thousands of known lodes, but
comparatively few are worked. The statement of the scientist,
Raimondi, that the plateau of Bolivia is a table of silver supported on
columns of gold is declared by Walle to be no exaggeration. A few of
the mining belts where some work has been carried on will be
mentioned.
Gold. At the present time little is done in the way of gold mining,
tin and copper being more fashionable. Another reason for inactivity
in this line is that the Bolivians possess the majority of the more
favorably situated holdings, which they refuse to part with except at
prohibitive prices or possibly at all, hoping some day themselves to
be able to operate them. It is true that in the early colonial days
enormous quantities of gold and silver both were produced and
exported, although obtained by crude mining methods. It is thought
that with modern machinery excellent if not better results may yet be
obtained. In the 210 years previous to 1750 more than 12 billion
dollars worth of gold was produced in the country. There has been a
falling off since then, but one family in the last century obtained over
$3,000,000 from their property. Between 1868 and 1900 over
$120,000,000 is believed to have been produced. In many sections
gold is known to exist in abundance and with further exploration it
will doubtless be discovered in others. It is found in alluvial deposits,
also in veins or lodes of quartz, from which the deposits are the
washings. Veins of antimony which are common in Bolivia contain
gold in chemical or mechanical mixture.
There are three regions where gold is found, all of considerable
extent: the first and best known crosses the provinces of the
Department of La Paz, chiefly on the east slopes of the Cordillera
Real, continues through that of Cochabamba and runs out in Santa
Cruz towards the Rio Paraguay. In La Paz are the well known
deposits of the Tipuani River, of Chuquiaguillo, and many others.
The second region begins in the southwest corner of the country,
and passing south of Tupiza turns north through Potosí towards
Santa Cruz. The third is in the northwest part of the Republic, joining
the similar section in Peru. Although said to be the richest of all, it is
practically unexploited and unexplored.
While the opinion is held that the lack of means of communication
is all that prevents a large production of gold in Bolivia, I believe that
to Americans this is a smaller drawback than the distance of the
whole country from the United States; this objection will have less
weight in the future. Certainly the hardships of those regions and the
difficulty in reaching many of them is slight indeed in comparison
with the trials experienced by early Alaskan miners. The Tipuani, for
instance, is within a day’s horseback ride from the pretty town of
Sorata, population 8000. Chuquiaguillo, now owned by an American
company, is within easy walking distance of La Paz. Others are more
remote, most of them on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Real, to
be reached over passes of 15,000 feet or more, yet within a few
days’ ride of civilization. The single region of the Tipuani is 120 miles
long.
Besides the opportunities for placer mining there are strata formed
of sand, clay, and stones, from 50 to 330 feet deep. Sometimes in
these there are veins with gold in thin flakes 98 per cent pure. Some
workings are open, others in shafts and galleries like an ordinary
mine. However, difficulty is experienced in taking machinery over the
poor trails, and also in obtaining labor. In May, 1904, a nugget was
found at Chuquiaguillo containing 47 ounces of pure gold, nearly
$1000 worth. One hundred miners are employed here at 50 cents to
$1.50 a day. In the Province of Velasco, Department of Santa Cruz,
is a region considered by Walle more accessible than others, to
which one would come from the Atlantic to Corumbá on the
Paraguay River or perhaps by rail from São Paulo, and enter Bolivia
across the plains. It is thought that Bolivia may become one of the
leading gold producers of the world.
Silver. The silver mines are better known and are now worked on
a larger scale than the gold, although 10,000 lodes are practically
abandoned or operated slightly. The suspension was not because of
a scarcity of silver but for lack of capital, means of transport, and
suitable machinery; also its lower price. A few of the largest mines
have continued to be regularly worked. With the recently higher price
of silver, greater activity has prevailed than a few years earlier. The
richest of the ores contain from 10 to 50 per cent of silver and even
80; more has from 1 to 10 per cent.
The Department of Potosí is world renowned for its silver. In the
first 40 years of colonial production more than $70,000,000 was
taken from the Cerro Potosí, a sugar loaf 16,000 feet above the sea,
in which 5000 mines have been opened. Up to the present time a
billion dollars, one writer says four billion, have been realized from
the silver of Bolivia. In neighboring Provinces of the same
Department, Potosí, are many other mines, most of which now
produce tin as well. The ores of Potosí which originally contained 60
per cent or more of silver are now poorer with more iron pyrites. The
present queen of South American silver mines, the Huanchaca-
Pulacayo, east of Uyuni, consists of a dozen groups over 8500
acres, a bed of fabulous richness. In the 28 years before 1901 it
produced 4250 tons of silver. The majority of the stock is held in
France. Some years ago the Pulacayo mines were flooded with hot
water, but they have now been drained and are again operated. On
the property is a town of 10,000 people, hundreds of whom are
employed in the works, including women who first try out the ore. In
1918 $2,622,000 worth of silver was produced.
Oruro is next to Potosí in production of silver, and in tin it stands
first. The richest silver ores, as at Huanchaca, are so exported, the
poorer are treated on the spot. Other rich mines are well known.
Tin mining is a more recent industry, dating from 1895. Already it
has become the leading export of the country, which now provides
more than one-third of the world’s supply. It was well known to the
Spanish colonists as much of it was mingled with the silver, but they
rejected it as rubbish, using it to fill in depressions. Large profits
have been recovered from these fillings and from the dumps. While
tin is produced in many other parts of the world, the Bolivian lodes
are of unusual extent and richness. Their production is now
exceeded only by that of the Straits Settlements. Since the
development of the tin plate industry and its use in other ways the
demand for tin and the price have enormously increased; from $350
a ton in 1898 to $900 before the war. In 1912 tin was produced,
barilla, 60 per cent pure, 37,700 tons, worth $18,000,000; in 1918
the value of tin exported was $45,364,000.
All along the eastern part of the plateau from Lake Titicaca to the
southern boundary, tin is found in thick unbroken lodes. The three
principal districts are La Paz, Oruro, Potosí. In La Paz the best
known mines are on the slopes of the splendid mountain, Huaina
Potosí in the Cordillera Real, though many other mines are worked.
Those in the Department of Oruro are more important, producing
one-third of the output. The lodes vary in thickness from a few inches
to 10, 15, or 20 feet. Rich pockets are found 30-60 feet in diameter,
and veins with stannic oxide fragments, running from 50 to 100 per
cent. Cassiterite, tin stone, or tin with stannic oxide, is frequent with
55-60 per cent tin; this is sent to Europe as extracted. The
percentage of tin in a lode is very variable, often 6-8 per cent,
sometimes 15. Veins of tin on the Cerro Potosí penetrate the hill
parallel to veins of silver; some are united; in others tin, silver, and
copper alternate or are in union. The tin is generally in the upper part
nearer the surface. Sulphides are found at Oruro, but oxides are
more frequent. All are at an altitude of about 10,000-17,000 feet. The
large Socavón Company employs 1000 hands, has a concentrating
plant, and puts out six tons of silver and 250 tons of tin yearly. Many
other mines export barilla, some of it with 70 per cent of tin. A
Bolivian, Simon J. Patiño, from being an ordinary laborer has risen to
be the Tin King, both banker and mine owner, working his mines by
modern methods and electric machinery. His mines at Uncia are
among the richest in the world, producing about 30 per cent of the
Bolivian total. The Llallagua mines, the richest of all, have still
greater production.
On Huaina Potosí are placers containing with tin, gold in flakes,
bismuth, and oxide of iron; more in other locations. The Company
owning the Chlorolque Mountain and other properties, with tin as the
principal product, mines also silver, bismuth, copper, and wolfram; it
paid a 30 per cent dividend in 1917. Capital only is needed to exploit
on a much larger scale these rich and available deposits. Three
hundred to four hundred dollars a ton hardly paid the cost of
production, but with prices three times as much it is a highly
profitable business. The Guggenheims have recently purchased
three tin mines located at Caracoles on the Quimsa Cruz Range,
south of Illimani, to which they have built an automobile road 150
miles from Eucalyptus, a station on the main line between La Paz
and Oruro. The mines are at an altitude of 16,000 to 18,000 feet, the
quarters at 15,000 to 16,000. The tin runs to 10-15 per cent. It is
thought that the property will rival the Uncia. The International Mining
Company has a tin property in the Yungas Province 52 miles from La
Paz at a height of 8000 feet, a rather more comfortable altitude.
Copper. Of late the copper deposits in Peru and Chile have
received more attention than those of Bolivia, but this country also
has extensive formations from Lipez at the south where white copper
is found, along the East Cordillera, past Potosí and Oruro to
Corocoro in the West, ending in the Nudo of Apolobamba. Veins
occur in all the buttresses of the Andes.
Copper is found chiefly in its native state, the deposits of Corocoro
being especially famous. The copper here occurs in powder, plates,
or nodules, in beds of reddish sandstone. One veta, or mineralized
bed, is 1000 yards deep, extending several miles; another, a branch
formation above this surrounds it on the southwest and east,
occupying a great part of the Desaguadero Valley. Both formations
are arseniates. One branch 2000 yards thick extends 6 miles; in
another direction a branch runs 35 miles from Corocoro to
Chacarilla, then branching south and east. Copper generally occurs
in small irregular grains with from 70 to 92 per cent copper. The
native copper, the great wealth of the mines, here ranges from
microscopic grains to plates and arborescent forms called charquis.
At La Charcarilla large plates are found 3¹⁄₂ inches thick. Ores with
15-20 per cent copper are usually neglected. As there are no good
kilns, barilla is exported 80 per cent pure, a quintal, 220 pounds,
costing $3-4 for production. Except from Corocoro the present output
is insignificant. For a time these mines were abandoned owing to the
low price of copper and the difficulty of transport. It was formerly
necessary to send the barilla by carts, mules, or llamas to the port of
Arica, or else to the Desaguadero River, to be carried in boats to
Lake Titicaca and Puno, thence by rail to Mollendo. With the great
increase in the price of copper and the opening of the Arica-La Paz
Railway with a 5 mile branch to Corocoro, these difficulties were
removed and active work progressed with a broad field for
enlargement. Copper formation here is said to resemble greatly
those in Northern Michigan, such as the Copper Range, and the
Calumet and Hecla. In 1917 over 82,000,000 pounds were exported,
worth above $4,000,000.
Lead is found in the region of La Quiaca and some is exported by
way of Argentina. Galena, an ore of lead and silver, is widespread.
Bismuth. Of less used minerals bismuth may be mentioned, in the
production of which Bolivia leads the world and controls the supply.
At present, chiefly used as a drug on account of its high price, it
might be more largely employed in alloys. Bismuth ore, as
carbonates, oxides, and arsenical sulphates, is so abundant in many
parts of Bolivia that if bismuth sold at 20 cents a pound a fair profit
would be realized. With the price for years $3500 a ton, it would
seem a profitable business to engage in. Over one million pounds
were exported in 1918 worth one and a half million dollars.
 Antimony also is found in large quantities. Nearly 18,000 tons
were exported in 1916, worth approximately $5,000,000, but with
high prices and abnormal demand due to the war. Less than one per
cent of the quantity was exported in 1912. The ores are rich, often
running 70 per cent pure metal.
Zinc in the form of sulphides or blends is abundant, largely in
connection with silver. Such ores are sent to Europe, there to be
separated, the scarcity and almost prohibitive price of coal rendering
such a course desirable for various products, to avoid the excessive
cost of smelting; at the same time the high cost of transportation
limits the export.
Wolfram, an iron-manganese tungstate, is found near veins of tin
and much is exported, the production being especially in the Santa
Cruz district, at the northeast of Cochabamba. Some lodes contain
no less than 50 per cent of tungstic acid, the ores concentrated for
export running higher. About 7¹⁄₂ million pounds were exported in
1918 valued at nearly $3,708,000.
Coal. The lack of good coal is the chief fault in nature’s economy
in Bolivia. Its usual cost in La Paz is $40-$50 a ton, at times $75. It is
therefore used as little as possible, although some is imported. While
Bolivia has been said to possess no coal at all, a lignite of fair quality
has been discovered in the peninsula of Copacabana, Lake Titicaca,
some of which has been used by the Guaqui-La Paz Railway to
develop electric power; but not in serious fashion, experimental
merely. Other seams are found near the Ayoapó station, which a
company has been organized to exploit. Good samples have come
from Tacora on the Arica Railway near the frontier, the coal said to
be equal to that of Coronel in Chile, the seams rich and thick. If so
their exploitation will immensely advance the industries of the
country. Good coal is reported across the mountains from Sorata
and lignite is found near Cochabamba.
On account of the enormous cost of coal, various substitutes are
in use. On the plateau there is practically no wood. For heating,
foreigners generally employ oil stoves, the natives nothing at all,
though the mercury may range from 40° to 50° in the house on a
winter’s day. In La Paz for cooking purposes a substance called
taquia is employed. It looks like pecan nuts, but is the dung of
llamas, which is collected by Indians on the plateau or elsewhere. It
sells generally at about $4 a ton, but has lately risen to $7. It is the
principal fuel used at the mines of Corocoro. In some places as at
Potosí, yareta is used, a vegetable or shrub which grows in a dense
mass to a height of several feet with a greater diameter. The green
mass has a woody fibre, is highly resinous, and burns like peat,
giving a good amount of heat. It grows at altitudes between 13,000
and 16,000 feet. Another woody shrub, a species of broom called
tola, is used, with another, quenua, which like charcoal gives much
heat with little ash. Extensive peat beds exist near La Paz, estimated
to yield 30,000,000 tons of briquettes with a fuel value about half that
of coal. The discovery and wide exploitation of coal and petroleum
would be an immense boon both to industry and to the
householders.
Petroleum is now believed to exist in large quantities, sufficient to
solve the fuel problem. The best known fields are in the southeast
where seepages occur and a belt is indicated extending northwest
and southeast 150 miles from the Argentine border. Concessions
covering millions of acres have been granted to American
companies. The zone traverses the Provinces of Santa Cruz,
Chuquisaca, and Tarija. Geological investigations indicate that a
petroleum belt or basin exists along the foothills of the east side of
the East Cordillera. There are indications in the Beni district a
considerable distance north of La Paz, and beyond the Madidi in
Colonias. A probable thickness of over-lying strata in southeast
Bolivia is 160-660 feet. If so development costs will be diminished.
The great difficulty is the inaccessibility of the locations. On this
account few wells have yet been sunk. To pipe the oil up to the
plateau would be an expensive, some say an impracticable,
proposition. At present approached only by cart roads or caminos,
the fields will be rendered more accessible by the railways planned
from Puerto Suarez or Pacheco and from Argentina to Santa Cruz.
The oils vary in quality, some having an asphalt base with 4 per cent
of gasoline, up to .81 specific gravity with 40 per cent of gasoline.
The heavier is in the lower sands. Along the eastern base of the