Chapter 3

LEVELLING
(Measurement of Vertical Distance)

1
Content
• Introduction
• Types of Level
• Technical terms used in leveling
• Methods of leveling
• Simple leveling
• Differential Leveling
• Reciprocal Leveling
• Profile leveling
• Cross-section Leveling
• Trigonometric Leveling
• level field book and arithmetic check
• sources of error in leveling
• Difficulties in leveling
2
Introduction
• Leveling is a method of surveying used for determination of the
difference of elevations or levels of various points on the
surface of the earth.
• By this operation the height of a point from a datum, known as
elevation, is determined.
• The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below a
reference level, called datum.
• The most commonly used datum (reference surface) is the mean
sea level (M.S.L)
• The common instrument used in determining the elevation
difference is called level 3
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5
 Uses of leveling
• To design highways, buildings, railways, canals,
sewers,… etc, by collecting elevation data from the
topography,
• To layout or setout the construction projects according
to planned elevations,
• To calculate volume of earthworks and other materials,
• To investigate drainage characteristics of an area,
• Develop maps showing general ground configurations
etc.
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Types of Level
• A level is basically a telescope attached to an accurate
levelling device, set upon a tripod so that it can rotate
horizontally through 360°
• There are four basic types of level
• Tilting levels
• Dumpy or Automatic levels
• Digital level
• Laser level

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Types of Level
Tilting levels
• A surveying instrument with a sighting telescope, fitted
with a circular bubble for approximate levelling and a
main bubble viewed through an eyepiece.

• The telescope is tilted via a fine screw to align the

bubble ends for each observation.

• It can be raised or lowered through a limited arc

without losing accuracy, despite the axis of rotation
being slightly off horizontal.
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Types of Level
Automatic levels
• Also called a builder’s auto level or dumpy level, the modern
level is easy to use and features a compensator with three
prisms.

• Two prisms are fixed to the telescope barrel, while the middle
prism, suspended by fine wiring, reacts to gravity.

• The instrument requires setup to the circular bubble level and

is adjusted via a screwed ball-joint or similar mechanism.

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Types of Level
Digital levels
• This digital level eliminates reading errors using
barcode staffs and a digital display.

• It stores readings internally, which can be

downloaded and analyzed on a computer.

• It automates height computation and adjustment,

removing manual interpolation, thereby enhancing
accuracy.

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Types of Level
Laser Level
• A laser level, equipped with a compensator like an automatic level,
emits a 360° laser beam along the line of collimation, with a receiver
detecting the beam to mark the collimation line.

• Some models are self-leveling, automatically adjusting to ensure the

beam is level and reduce manual errors.

• Survey-grade laser levels offer visible or non-visible (infrared) lasers,

with non-visible lasers working better in bright conditions.

• Rotating lasers project a 360° beam for large areas, while non-rotating
lasers emit a fixed line for focused tasks. These levels are crucial in
construction for setting and determining elevations.

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Technical terms used in leveling
• Bench mark (BM): A benchmark (B.M.) is a relatively permanent
reference point with a known elevation, determined with respect to a
datum, and serves as the starting point for measuring elevations of
other points. Any point with a definite, known elevation can be used
as a benchmark.

• Datum:- A datum is any reference surface to which the elevation

(vertical distance) of a points are referred. The most commonly used
datum is that of mean sea level.

• Elevation of a point: the vertical distance above or below an

arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum.

• Leveling rod (leveling staff):- is a measuring instrument that is

graduated for vertical measurement. 12
 Station: a point where the staff rod is held vertically for taking reading or

observation point. it is a points of which whose elevation is to be determined.

 Height of instrument (HI): elevation of line of sight with respect to Datum

(MSL) or it is the elevation of plane of collimation (plane of sight) where

The instruments is correctly leveled. it is not the instrument height above the grou
nd where the instrument is set.

 Level line:- is the surface of which it has a constant height relative to mean sea

level

 Horizontal line:- this is a line which is tangential to the level line or a line

which is normal to direction of gravity or it is a line on a horizontal plane and ther

efore perpendicular to vertical line at that point.

• Vertical line: - is a line that follows the direction of gravity. It is also referred

• to as a plumb line or a line of gravity. 13

 Technical terms used in leveling
• Back sight (BS): It is the reading taken on a staff held at a known elevation
point, often the first reading after setting up the instrument. It’s taken on a
benchmark (B.M) or temporary point initially and on a turning point (T.P) for
subsequent setups, as the turning point's level is determined before shifting the
instrument.

• Fore sight (FS): reading taken of the staff either held at the last point whose
elevation is required or held at the turning point before shifting the instruments

• Turning point (TP): A turning point (T.P.), also called a change point (C.P.), is
where both the fore sight and back sight readings are taken on a staff held at that
location. It is selected on a firm ground or rock, often along a route when
leveling over long distances and before shifting the instrument.

14
Intermediate sight (IS): is all sights and consequent staff reading made
between BS and FS with each section. it is the reading taken on a staff whose
elevations are required but which is not a turning point or the last point.
Balancing of sight: To minimize instrumental and other errors, the distances
of the back sight and fore sight points from the instrument station should be
roughly equal. This practice is known as balancing of sights.
Reduced level (RL): it is height or depth above or below the assumed datum
(it is height of the point relative to the datum (MSL) above or below the
datum. )
Rise and fall: the difference of level between two consecutive points indicates
a rise or a fall between the two points.

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Technical terms used in leveling
• Section: A section comprises of one back sight, one foresight and all the
intermediate sights taken from one instrument set up within that section. Thus
the number of sections is equal to the number of set ups of the instrument.

• Chainage: Is a common interval of distance between each stations of reading

taken on staff.

• Gradient: Is the difference between last R.L & first R.L over total distance of
measurement taken on the ground
G = difference elevation (Last R.L-First R.L)
Total distance (d)
• Instrument station (N): - is the place where the instrument is set up for
observe.
Note
• leveling: - the process of determining of the elevation of points.
• Level: - is the instrument used to take readings for elevation. 16
Principle of levelling
When the levelling instrument has been properly
leveled, the bubble tube axis and the line of sight are
horizontal and the vertical axis of the instrument is truly
vertical. When the telescope of the instrument is rotated,
the line of sight remains in the horizontal plane.

In practice, the levelling instrument is set up at a

convenient position, and the one staff is kept at a point
of known elevation. The reading is taken on the staff
and the level of the line of sight is determined.
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Principle of levelling
Now the 2nd staff is kept on the point of the unknown
elevation and a reading is taken. The level of the point is
determined from the level of the line of sight already
computed and from the 2nd staff reading

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Figure 3.1 leveling principle
Level instrument

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Figure 3.1 Leveling terminology and operation
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 Use and types of staff
Leveling staffs are classified into two groups
1. Target staff
2.self reading staff
Staff is used for measuring distances vertically above or below points on which
it is held relatively to a line of collimation or a line of sight as defined by the
level. Many types of staff are in current use and marking can take different
forms, but the E type staff face is the most common.
Examples see the figure E. type of staff
The levelling staffs are made of wood or aluminium and marked with
graduations in meters and decimals or feet and decimals.

21
 How to read leveling staff
The zero mark is at the bottom of the metal plate, read the [m],[dm]
and [cm] but estimate the[mm]

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Examples see the figure E. type of staff

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 Setting up and using leveling devices

 Setting up level

Level is an instrument that is used to perform levelling

Operation.
 Setting up leveling instruments

The first step in setting up a level is to

 Spread the tripod (legs), used to support the head part, so that
the tripod head is approximately horizontal. the legs should be for
enough and they should be pushed to the ground to make the
level stable.
 Centering the bubble by the help of foot screws, lastly
 Targeting & Focusing.
Spread the tripod Center the bubble target . Focus

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Tripod
A tripod is a three- legged stand used to support a level or other
surveying instrument during field measurements. There are two
models of tripods.
(1) The extension leg tripod and
(2) The fixed leg tripod.

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Level field books and arithmetic check
A level field book or a level book is used for booking and
reducing the levels of various points on the surface of the earth.
There are a lot of methods for reducing the levels: etc. The
surveyor should select the level book according to the method of
reduction he proposes to use. The following table shows a page of
the more generalized level book.

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 Leveling
Observer:_________Instrument:_______Project:_______Date:________ Page:______

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Steps to be followed:
1. Sum up all back sight and fore sight readings.
2. Calculate the difference between BS and FS (actual h)
3. Calculate all h`s following the way of subtraction indicated by an arrow
4. Sum up all h`s
5. Check whether h is equal to the value in step no 2 (actual h) (First
check).
6. Add each h to the previous elevations.
7. At the end you will get the elevation of B.M.2

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Basically three equipments are needed.
Level – to give the true horizontal line
Staff – to read vertical height
Tape – to measure height of instruments

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Methods of leveling
• There are four methods of leveling
• Simple leveling
• Differential Leveling
• Fly leveling
• Reciprocal Leveling
• Profile leveling
• Cross-section Leveling
• Check leveling
• Trigonometric Leveling

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 Simple levelling
 It used for determining elevation difference between of two points which
are visible from a single position of instrument.
 It is determined by setting the leveling instrument midway between the
points.
 Level difference between two points= Bs-Fs

A
RL at A
=100.000
B
RL=99.160
at B

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Methods of leveling
• Differential leveling
• It is used when two points having large elevation difference are situated quite
apart.

• in this method the level is set up at several suitable positions an staff readings
are taken till the last point can be sited.

• . This technique is widely used for establishing accurate elevation data across
uneven terrain.

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Differential leveling is used to determine the elevation
difference b/n points some distance apart. For each set up, a
BS reading to BM or TP and FS reading to a point in question
should be made.

H.I.

H.I.=1681.444
H.I.

Line of sight
2.101 1.021
1.000 3.221

1.244 0.662 T.P.2

I3
I2
T.P.1
B.M.2
I1
B.M.1
Elevation of B.M.1 = 1680.20

Figure 3.3 illustrates the steps in differential leveling. 34

Fly leveling
• When the differential leveling is done in order to connect a benchmark
to a starting point of the alignment of any project it is called fly leveling.

• It is done for checking the accuracy of work.

• The level should be midway of two points and distances are taken.

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Methods of reducing level
For booking and reducing the levels of points, there are two
systems, namely
1.Height of Instrument (Collimation) Method
2.Rise and Fall Method
Both methods use similar columns for booking readings in the
level book, but the number of additional columns varies based
on the method used for reducing levels. Each staff reading is
recorded on a separate line, ensuring that each staff position
has its unique reduced level, except at the change point, where
the staff remains in the same position for both back sight and
fore sight readings. 36
i) Height of instrument (HI) method:-
this method consist of finding H.I. for every set up of instrument
and then obtaining the R.L. of point of reference with respect to
H.I. The desired elevation of a point is found by: 1st adding BS in
to given benchmark to find height of instrument 2nd subtracting
FS from height of instrument.
Station BS IS FS HI RL Remark
A 2.20 BM(RL-100m)
B 1.50 2.30 TP
C 1.75 1.80 TP
D 1.30 1.50 TP
E 1.90
37
F 1.80 Closing point
 Solution Reduction of leveling

Station BS IS FS HI RL Remark

A 2.20 - - 102.20 100.0 BM

B 1.50 2.30 101.40 99.90 TP
C 1.75 1.80 101.35 99.60 TP
D 1.30 1.50 101.15 99.85 TP
E 1.90 “ 99.25
F 1.80 “ 99.35 Closing
Pt.
Arithmetic Check: ∑BS - ∑FS = Last RL-First RL
6.75-7.40 = 99.35-100.00
=-0.650 = -0.650
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ii) Rise and fall method

This method consist of determining the difference of level

between consecutive points by comparing each point with
immediate preceding point.
The rise or fall in the ground surface b/n successive rod
readings is computed and used to determine elevation of
points. If there is a fall in ground surface the difference in
elevation will be subtracted, and if there is a rise in ground
surface the difference in elevation will be added.
Example: Rise and fall method
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Station BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remark

A 2.20 - - 100 BM

B 1.50 2.30 0.10 99.90

C 1.75 1.80 0.30 99.60

D 1.30 1.50 0.25 99.85

E 1.90 0.60 99.25

F 1.80 0.1 99.35

6.75 7.4 0.35 1.00 99.35

-7.40 -1.0 -100.0
= -0.65 = -0.65 = -0.65
Applying arithmetic check

∑BS-∑FS= ∑Rise-∑Fall =Last RL-First RL= -0.65 40

 Example
 Rise & fall method
 Height of collimation method.

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Staff Position BS IS FS HPC RL Remark

C 1.5 101.5 100 T. B. M.

D 2.5 99

E 2 0.5 103 101 C. P.

F 2.5 100.5
G 3.0 100
Sum 3.5 3.5

(BS) - (FS) = Last RL – First RL

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Staff Position BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remark

C 1.5 100 T. B. M.

D 2.5 1 99

E 2 0.5 2 101 C. P.
F 2.5 0.5 100.5
G 3.0 0.5 100
Sum 3.5 3.5 2 2






BS
FS

Ris
Fa
La
RF
R

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 Misclosures, limits and its distribution
Misclosures in leveling can only be assessed by
 Connecting the leveling back to the BM from which it started
 Connecting in to another BM of known and ground elevation.
 A Common Criteria used to assess the Misclosures (E) is
Where n = No of observation instrument setup
M = Constant is mm ( 5)

OR E = 15mm*D where D is the total distance in Km

 if E is with in the Misclosures, it has to be contributed equally to all set up

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Misclosure refers to the discrepancy or error that occurs when the sum
of the back sights and fore sights does not result in a level difference that
matches the expected value. In surveying, especially in levelling, a
misclosure occurs when the final reduced level of a point doesn’t match
the known or reference level (like a benchmark), indicating an error in
measurement.
Misclosure is an inevitable part of levelling and needs to be minimized
and corrected by distributing it across the survey line.
The limits for misclosure depend on the accuracy required for the
project, which in turn dictates the type of levelling method and
instrumentation used.
Properly distributing the misclosure, whether equally or
proportionally, ensures that the final reduced levels are as accurate as
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possible.
Point Readings Diff. in Elev. RL Cor. Corr. Rem.
No BS IS FS Rise Fall RL

BM35 0.813 1350.218 1350.218 BM35

1 2.170

2 2.908

3 3.752 3.133 C.P / T.

P.
4 3.277

5 1.899

6 2.810 2.390 C.P / T.

P.
7 1.542

8 1.274

BM35 1.840 1350.218 BM35

Sum

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Point Readings Diff. in Elev. RL Cor. Corr. Rem.
No RL
BS IS FS Rise Fall

BM35 0.813 1350.218 1350.218 BM35

1 2.170 1.357 1348.861 -0.004 1348.857

2 2.908 0.738 1348.123 -0.004 1348.119

3 3.752 3.133 0.225 1347.898 -0.004 1347.894 C.P / T.

P.
4 3.277 0.475 1348.373 -0.008 1348.365

5 1.899 1.378 1349.751 -0.008 1349.743

6 2.810 2.390 0.491 1349.260 -0.008 1349.252 C.P / T.

P.
7 1.542 1.268 1350.528 -0.012 1350.516

8 1.274 0.268 1350.796 -0.012 1350.784

BM35 1.840 0.566 1350.230 -0.012 1350.218 BM35

Sum 7.375 7.363 3.389 3.377

Error = 1350.230 – 1350.218 = 0.012 m Correction applied = - E = - 0.012 m

Correction per setup = - 0.012/3 = - 0.004
47
= ∑BS-∑FS =∑Rise-∑Fall =last RL-first RL=0.0012
48
Methods of leveling
• Reciprocal Leveling
• When a line of levels crosses a broad body of water it is
impossible to balance the back sight and foresight
distances, it is necessary to take sights much longer
than permissible.
• Under such a measurement errors due to curvature and
refraction become significant

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 Reciprocal Leveling
It used for determining the difference of elevations
of two points which are situated on the opposite
bank of the river

 in this leveling the level is set up on both bank of

the river or valley and two sets of staff reading are
taken by holding the staff on both banks.

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Profile leveling
 Profile levelling is a method of surveying used along the central line of a
track of land for linear engineering projects.
 it is one type of differential leveling done for the purposes of
determining the elevation of ground surface along an alignment of
highway, canal, sewer, railway, etc.
 it is also called as longitudinal leveling
 it is useful or finding the gradients and estimating the earthwork
quantities. Mainly to compute volumes of cut and fill for a proposed
linear structure such as highways, railways, buildings, canals,…
 It involves determining the elevation of the ground surface at small
intervals along a fixed line, typically for topographic data collection.

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Cross-section Leveling
It is also one type of differential leveling used to determine the level
difference of ground surface along the lines perpendicular to the
alignment of the proposed road, railway, canal etc. These are short
profiles made perpendicular to the center line of a project.

Cross sections are taken at regular intervals such as 20m,40m,60m

etc. Cross sections are taken at regular intervals and at points of
sudden changes along the center-line profile.

This leveling is done simultaneously with profile leveling.

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 Methods of leveling
Trigonometric leveling

• it is used to find the vertical distance between two points by

measuring vertical angles and known distances, which are usually
assumed to be horizontal. This method is ideal for steep or rugged
terrain or when points are inaccessible. It is also used to create
Digital Terrain Models (DTM) and 3D models.

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Trigonometric leveling
For rapid leveling or leveling in rolling ground or for inaccessible points,
trigonometric method of leveling is being used. In this method, theodolite (an
instrument which can measure angle) is being generally used as an instrument
for taking different measurements. Rolling ground refers to land that has a
series of gentle, undulating hills or small rises and dips.

V = S sin α
Elev. At A + hi ± V – RR = elev. At B
Where
hi = height of instrument from ground to
center of telescope
V= vertical distance/height difference
RR = rod reading

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Type of leveling nets
• Open leveling nets

• Closed leveling nets

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Height of instrument method (Height of collimation)

Differential leveling theory and applications can thus

be expressed by two equations, which are repeated
over and over
Height of instrument= known elevation + Backsight
HI = ElevA+BS

New elevation= height of instrument-foresight

ElevB = HI-FS

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Leveling field book and arithmetic check
• The field book…

Station BS HI FS Elevation Remark

BM1 a HI1 =(Elv +a) Elv (given)

TP1 c HI2= (Elv2 +c) b Elv2= (HI1-b)

TP2 e HI3 =(Elv3 +e) d Elv3 =(HI2-d)

TP3 f Elv4= (HI3-f)

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Leveling field book and arithmetic check
• The arithmetic check
• Height of instrument method
• |σ 𝐵𝑆 − σ 𝐹𝑆| = |𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. −𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. |
• The rise and fall method
• |∑𝐵𝑆 − ∑𝐹𝑆| = |∑Rise − ∑𝐹all| = |𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. −𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. |

Station BS HI IS FS Rise Fall Elevation

BM1 a Elv(given)
IS1 b
IS2 c
TP1 e d
IS3 f
IS4 g
TP2 h

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Difficulties in leveling

 Staff Station Above the Line of Sight

Staff reading becomes difficult or impossible due to the steep
incline.
Solution: Adjust instrument position or use extended staff for
visibility.
 Staff Station Much Below the Line of Sight
Staff readings may be unstable or obscured due to distance or
terrain.
Solution: Shift instrument closer to reduce steep angles.
 Staff Too Near the Instrument
Parallax errors or inaccurate readings due to the close
proximity.
Solution: Maintain a reasonable distance (at least 3-4 meters).

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Source of errors
• Instrumental Errors
• Line of sight
• Cross-hear not exactly horizontal
• Rod not correct length
• Tripod legs loose
• Uncalibrated staff or levels
• Natural Errors
• Curvature of the earth
• Refraction
• Temperature variations
• Wind
• Settlement of a turning point

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Source of errors
• Personal Errors
• Bubble not centered or Level instrument not level
• Parallax or collimation error
• Defect on staff rod reading
• Staff rod may not vertical
• Target setting
• Staff rod may not fully extended or incorrect length
Mistakes
Holding a rod in different places for the plus and minus
sights on a turning point.
 Reading a foot too high.
Waving a flat bottom rod while holding it on a flat surface
Recording notes or Reading, booking, or computation errors
Touching tripod or instrument during reading process
61
62
Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes
• Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes by
• Carefully adjusting and manipulating both instrument and
rod.
• Establishing standard filed methods and routines.
• The following routines prevent most large errors or quickly
• disclose mistakes:
• Checking the bubble before and after each reading.
• Using a rod level.
• Keeping the horizontal lengths of plus and minus sights
equal.
• Making the usual field-book arithmetic checks

63
Suggestion for good leveling
• Fixing tripod legs correctly
• Check the bubble level before and after each reading
• Take as little time as possible between BS and FS
• Try to keep the distance to the BS and the FS equal
• Keep fore sight and back sight distances as equal as
possible
• Keep lines of sight short (normally < 50m)
• Never read below 0.5m on a staff (refraction)
• Use stable, well defined turning points
• Beware of shadowing effects and crossing waters

64
65