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AUTOCAD 2010
A PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH

Sham Tickoo

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 Table of Contents
Preface ...........................................................................................................................................................xxx

AutoCAD Part I
Chapter 1 Introduction to AutoCAD
Starting AutoCAD* .........................................................................................................................1-2
AutoCAD Screen Components* ......................................................................................................1-5
Drawing Area ....................................................................................................................1-5
Command Window ...........................................................................................................1-5
Application Status Bar ......................................................................................................1-6
Drawing Status Bar ...........................................................................................................1-9
Status Bar Tray Options ...................................................................................................1-9
Invoking Commands in AutoCAD* ................................................................................................1-11
Keyboard...........................................................................................................................1-12
Ribbon ..............................................................................................................................1-12
Application Menu .............................................................................................................1-13
Tool Palettes......................................................................................................................1-13
Menu Bar ..........................................................................................................................1-14
Toolbar .............................................................................................................................1-15
Shortcut Menu ..................................................................................................................1-15
AutoCAD Dialog Boxes ...................................................................................................................1-16
Starting a New Drawing ..................................................................................................................1-18
Open a Drawing ...............................................................................................................1-19
Start from Scratch .............................................................................................................1-19
Use a Template .................................................................................................................1-19
Use a Wizard .....................................................................................................................1-20
Saving Your Work ............................................................................................................................1-26
Save Drawing As Dialog Box ............................................................................................1-26
Views List ..........................................................................................................................1-28
Create New Folder Button ................................................................................................1-29
Up one level Button .........................................................................................................1-29
Search the Web .................................................................................................................1-29
Tools List ..........................................................................................................................1-29
Automatic Timed Save ....................................................................................................................1-29
Creation of Backup Files .................................................................................................................1-30
Changing Automatic Timed Saved and Backup Files into AutoCAD Format..................1-30
Using the Drawing Recovery Manager to Recover Files ..................................................1-30
Closing a Drawing ...........................................................................................................................1-31
Opening an Existing Drawing ........................................................................................................1-31
Opening an Existing Drawing Using the Select File Dialog Box.....................................1-32
Opening an Existing Drawing Using the Startup Dialog Box .........................................1-35
Opening an Existing Drawing Using the Drag and Drop Method ..................................1-35
Quitting AutoCAD ..........................................................................................................................1-35
Dynamic Input Mode ......................................................................................................................1-36
Enable Pointer Input ........................................................................................................1-36
Enable Dimension Input Where Possible .........................................................................1-37
Show Command Prompting and Command Input Near the Crosshairs .........................1-38
 Drafting Tooltip Appearance ...........................................................................................1-38
Understanding the Concept of Sheet Sets ......................................................................................1-39
Creating a Sheet Set .........................................................................................................1-40
Adding a Subset to a Sheet Set .........................................................................................1-44
Adding Sheets to a Sheet Set or a Subset .........................................................................1-45
Archiving a Sheet Set ........................................................................................................1-45
Resaving All the Sheets in a Sheet Set..............................................................................1-46
Creating and Managing Workspaces ..............................................................................................1-46
Creating a New Workspace ...............................................................................................1-48
Modifying the Workspace Settings ...................................................................................1-48
AutoCAD’S HELP ...........................................................................................................................1-49
Help Menu .......................................................................................................................1-49
InfoCenter Bar .................................................................................................................1-52
Additional Help Resources .............................................................................................................1-52

Chapter 2 Getting Started with AutoCAD

Drawing Lines in AutoCAD ............................................................................................................2-2
The Continue Option .......................................................................................................2-4
The Close Option .............................................................................................................2-5
The Undo Option ............................................................................................................2-5
Coordinate Systems .........................................................................................................................2-6
Absolute Coordinate System.............................................................................................2-7
Relative Coordinate System ..............................................................................................2-9
Relative Polar Coordinates ...............................................................................................2-11
Direct Distance Entry .......................................................................................................2-13
Erasing Objects ...............................................................................................................................2-16
Canceling and Undoing a Command .............................................................................................2-16
Object Selection Methods ...............................................................................................................2-17
The Window Option .........................................................................................................2-17
The Crossing Option ........................................................................................................2-18
Drawing Circles ...............................................................................................................................2-19
The Center and Radius Option .......................................................................................2-20
The Center and Diameter Option ...................................................................................2-20
The Two-Point Option ......................................................................................................2-21
The Three-Point Option...................................................................................................2-21
The Tangent Tangent Radius Option ..............................................................................2-22
The Tangent, Tangent, Tangent Option ..........................................................................2-22
Basic Display Commands ................................................................................................................2-24
Zooming Drawings ...........................................................................................................2-24
Panning in Realtime .........................................................................................................2-26
Setting Units ...................................................................................................................................2-26
Setting Units Using the Drawing Units Dialog Box ........................................................2-26
Setting Limits of the Drawing .........................................................................................................2-32
Setting Limits ...................................................................................................................2-33
Limits for Architectural Drawings ....................................................................................2-34
Limits for Metric Drawings ..............................................................................................2-35
Introduction to Plotting Drawings ..................................................................................................2-36
Basic Plotting ....................................................................................................................2-37
Modifying AutoCAD Settings Using the Options Dialog Box ........................................................2-41
Files ...................................................................................................................................2-41
Display ..............................................................................................................................2-41
Open and Save .................................................................................................................2-41
Plot and Publish ...............................................................................................................2-42
System ...............................................................................................................................2-43

AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach v

 User Preferences ...............................................................................................................2-43
Drafting ............................................................................................................................2-43
3D Modeling.....................................................................................................................2-43
Selection ...........................................................................................................................2-43
Profiles ..............................................................................................................................2-43

Chapter 3 Starting with the Advanced Sketching

Drawing Arcs ...................................................................................................................................3-2
The 3-Point Option ..........................................................................................................3-2
The Start, Center, End Option .........................................................................................3-3
The Start, Center, Angle Option ......................................................................................3-4
The Start, Center, Length Option ....................................................................................3-5
The Start, End, Angle Option ..........................................................................................3-6
The Start, End, Direction Option ....................................................................................3-6
The Start, End, Radius Option ........................................................................................3-8
The Center, Start, End Option .........................................................................................3-8
The Center, Start, Angle Option ......................................................................................3-9
The Center, Start, Length Option ....................................................................................3-9
Continue Option ..............................................................................................................3-10
Continue (LineCont:) Option ..........................................................................................3-11
Drawing Rectangles.........................................................................................................................3-11
Drawing Rectangles Using Two Opposite Corners ..........................................................3-12
Drawing Rectangles by Specifying the Area and One Side ..............................................3-13
Drawing Rectangles by Specifying their Dimensions .......................................................3-13
Drawing Rectangle at an Angle ........................................................................................3-14
Chamfer ............................................................................................................................3-14
Fillet ..................................................................................................................................3-15
Width ................................................................................................................................3-15
Thickness ..........................................................................................................................3-15
Elevation ...........................................................................................................................3-16
Drawing Ellipses..............................................................................................................................3-17
Drawing an Ellipse Using the Axis and Endpoint Option ...............................................3-17
Drawing Ellipse Using the Center Option .......................................................................3-19
Drawing Elliptical Arcs .....................................................................................................3-20
Drawing Regular Polygons ..............................................................................................................3-23
The Center of Polygon Option .........................................................................................3-23
The Edge Option .............................................................................................................3-25
Drawing Polylines ............................................................................................................................3-26
Next Point of Line ............................................................................................................3-26
Width ................................................................................................................................3-27
Halfwidth ..........................................................................................................................3-28
Length ..............................................................................................................................3-28
Undo.................................................................................................................................3-28
Close .................................................................................................................................3-28
Arc ...................................................................................................................................3-29
Drawing Donuts ..............................................................................................................................3-31
Placing Points ..................................................................................................................................3-34
Changing the Point Type..................................................................................................3-34
Changing the Point Size ...................................................................................................3-35
Drawing Infinite Lines ....................................................................................................................3-36
Drawing XLINE ...............................................................................................................3-36
Drawing RAY ....................................................................................................................3-39
Writing A Single Line Text..............................................................................................................3-39

vi AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach

Chapter 4 Working with Drawing Aids
Understanding the Concept and use of Layers ..............................................................................4-2
Advantages of Layers ........................................................................................................4-2
Working with Layers .......................................................................................................................4-3
Creating New Layers ........................................................................................................4-4
Making a Layer Current ...................................................................................................4-5
Controlling the Display of Layers ....................................................................................4-6
Deleting Layers ................................................................................................................4-11
Managing the Display of Columns ...................................................................................4-11
Selective Display of Layers ...............................................................................................4-11
Layer States ......................................................................................................................4-13
Reconciling New Layers ...................................................................................................4-15
Isolating and Unisolating Layers .....................................................................................4-15
Controlling the Layer Settings .........................................................................................4-16
Changing the Linetype ...................................................................................................................4-21
LWEIGHT Command .....................................................................................................................4-22
Object Properties ............................................................................................................................4-23
Properties Panel ................................................................................................................4-23
Properties Palette..............................................................................................................4-24
Quick Properties Palette ...................................................................................................4-25
Global and Current Linetype Scaling .............................................................................................4-26
LTSCALE Factor for Plotting ..........................................................................................................4-27
Changing Linetype Scale Using the PROPERTIES Command.......................................4-28
Working with the DesignCenter......................................................................................................4-28
Drafting Settings dialog box ...........................................................................................................4-28
Setting Grid ......................................................................................................................4-29
Setting Snap .....................................................................................................................4-31
Snap Type .........................................................................................................................4-32
Drawing Straight Lines Using the Ortho Mode .............................................................................4-33
Working with Object Snaps .............................................................................................................4-34
AutoSnap ..........................................................................................................................4-35
Endpoint...........................................................................................................................4-36
Midpoint ...........................................................................................................................4-36
Nearest..............................................................................................................................4-37
Center ...............................................................................................................................4-37
Tangent .............................................................................................................................4-38
Quadrant ..........................................................................................................................4-38
Intersection.......................................................................................................................4-39
Apparent Intersection ......................................................................................................4-40
Perpendicular ...................................................................................................................4-40
Node .................................................................................................................................4-41
Insert ................................................................................................................................4-42
None .................................................................................................................................4-43
Parallel ..............................................................................................................................4-43
Extension ..........................................................................................................................4-44
From .................................................................................................................................4-44
Midpoint Between 2 Points ..............................................................................................4-45
Temporary Tracking Point ...............................................................................................4-45
Combining Object Snap Modes .......................................................................................4-46
Running Object Snap Mode ...........................................................................................................4-46
Overriding the Running Snap .........................................................................................4-48
Cycling through Snaps .....................................................................................................4-48
Setting the Priority for Coordinate Entry ........................................................................4-49

AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach vii

Using AutoTracking ........................................................................................................................4-50
Object Snap Tracking .......................................................................................................4-50
Polar Tracking ..................................................................................................................4-51
AutoTrack Settings ...........................................................................................................4-51
Function and Control Keys .............................................................................................................4-52

Chapter 5 Editing Sketched Objects-I

Creating a Selection Set ..................................................................................................................5-2
Last 5-2
Previous ............................................................................................................................5-3
WPolygon ..........................................................................................................................5-3
CPolygon ..........................................................................................................................5-4
Remove .............................................................................................................................5-4
Add ...................................................................................................................................5-5
ALL ...................................................................................................................................5-5
Fence .................................................................................................................................5-6
Group ...............................................................................................................................5-6
BOX ..................................................................................................................................5-6
AUto .................................................................................................................................5-7
Multiple ............................................................................................................................5-7
Undo.................................................................................................................................5-7
SIngle ...............................................................................................................................5-7
SUbobject .........................................................................................................................5-7
Object ...............................................................................................................................5-8
Editing Sketches ..............................................................................................................................5-8
Moving Sketched Objects ................................................................................................................5-8
Copying Sketched Objects ..............................................................................................................5-9
Creating Multiple Copies .................................................................................................5-9
Creating a Single Copy.....................................................................................................5-10
Copying Objects Using the Base Point ...........................................................................................5-10
Pasting Contents from the Clipboard .............................................................................................5-11
Pasting Contents Using Original Coordinates................................................................................5-11
Offsetting Sketched Objects ............................................................................................................5-11
Through Option ...............................................................................................................5-12
Erase Option ....................................................................................................................5-13
Layer Option ....................................................................................................................5-13
Rotating Sketched Objects ..............................................................................................................5-13
Scaling Sketched Objects ................................................................................................................5-16
Filleting Sketches.............................................................................................................................5-17
Creating Fillets Using the Radius Option ........................................................................5-18
Creating Fillets Using the Select First Object Option ......................................................5-18
Creating Fillets Using the Trim Option ...........................................................................5-19
Creating Fillets Using the Polyline Option ......................................................................5-19
Creating Fillets Using the Multiple Option .....................................................................5-20
Filleting Objects with a Different UCS .............................................................................5-20
Setting the TRIMMODE System Variable ........................................................................5-21
Chamfering Sketches ......................................................................................................................5-21
Creating Chamfer Using the Distance Option.................................................................5-21
Creating Chamfer Using the Select First Line Option ....................................................5-22
Creating Chamfer Using the Polyline Option..................................................................5-22
Creating Chamfer Using the Angle Option .....................................................................5-22
Creating Chamfer Using the Trim Option ......................................................................5-22
Creating Chamfer Using the Method Option..................................................................5-23

viii AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach

 Creating Chamfer Using the Multiple Option.................................................................5-23
Setting the Chamfering System Variables ........................................................................5-24
Trimming Sketched Objects ............................................................................................................5-24
Select object to trim Option .............................................................................................5-25
Shift-select to extend Option ...........................................................................................5-25
Edge Option .....................................................................................................................5-25
Project Option ..................................................................................................................5-25
Fence Option ....................................................................................................................5-26
Crossing Option ...............................................................................................................5-26
Erase Option ....................................................................................................................5-27
Undo Option ....................................................................................................................5-27
Extending Sketched Objects ...........................................................................................................5-27
Select object to extend Option .........................................................................................5-28
Shift-select to trim Option................................................................................................5-28
Project Option ..................................................................................................................5-28
Edge Option .....................................................................................................................5-28
Undo Option ....................................................................................................................5-29
Trimming and Extending with Text, Region, or Spline...................................................5-29
Stretching Sketched Objects ...........................................................................................................5-30
Lengthening Sketched Objects .......................................................................................................5-31
Select an object Option ....................................................................................................5-31
DElta Option ....................................................................................................................5-31
Percent Option .................................................................................................................5-32
Total Option .....................................................................................................................5-32
DYnamic ...........................................................................................................................5-33
Arraying Sketched Objects ..............................................................................................................5-33
Rectangular Array ............................................................................................................5-33
Polar Array ........................................................................................................................5-35
Mirroring Sketched Objects ............................................................................................................5-38
Text Mirroring ..................................................................................................................5-39
Breaking the Sketched Objects .......................................................................................................5-40
1 Point Option ..................................................................................................................5-40
2 Points Option.................................................................................................................5-41
2 Points Select Option ......................................................................................................5-41
Measuring Sketched Objects ...........................................................................................................5-42
Dividing Sketched Objects ..............................................................................................................5-43
Joining Sketched Objects ................................................................................................................5-44
Joining Collinear Lines ....................................................................................................5-44
Joining Arcs ......................................................................................................................5-45
Joining Elliptical Arcs .......................................................................................................5-45
Joining Splines .................................................................................................................5-45
Joining Polylines ...............................................................................................................5-45

Chapter 6 Editing Sketched Objects-II

Editing with Grips ...........................................................................................................................6-2
Types of Grips .................................................................................................................................6-2
Adjusting Grip Settings ...................................................................................................................6-3
Grip Size Area...................................................................................................................6-3
Grips Area.........................................................................................................................6-4
Editing Objects with Grips ..............................................................................................................6-5
Stretching Objects with Grips (Stretch Mode)..................................................................6-5
Moving Objects with Grips (Move Mode) ........................................................................6-8
Rotating Objects with Grips (Rotate Mode) .....................................................................6-8
Scaling Objects with Grips (Scale Mode)..........................................................................6-10
Mirroring Objects with Grips (Mirror Mode) ..................................................................6-12

AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach ix

Loading Hyperlinks ........................................................................................................................6-13
Editing Gripped Objects .................................................................................................................6-13
Changing Properties Using PropertiesPalette ................................................................................6-14
Changing Properties Using Grips...................................................................................................6-14
Matching Properties of Sketched Objects .......................................................................................6-15
Quick Selection of Sketched Objects...............................................................................................6-16
Apply to ............................................................................................................................6-16
Object type .......................................................................................................................6-16
Properties .........................................................................................................................6-16
Operator ...........................................................................................................................6-17
Value .................................................................................................................................6-17
How to apply Area ............................................................................................................6-17
Append to current selection set .......................................................................................6-17
Managing Contents Using the DesignCenter.................................................................................6-18
Folders Tab .......................................................................................................................6-19
Open Drawings Tab ..........................................................................................................6-21
History Tab .......................................................................................................................6-21
Autodesk seek design content Link* ................................................................................6-21
Making Inquiries About Objects and Drawings ..............................................................................6-23
Measuring Area of Objects ...............................................................................................6-24
Measuring the Distance between Two Points ...................................................................6-27
Identifying the Location of a Point on the Screen ...........................................................6-28
Listing Information About Objects ..................................................................................6-29
Listing Information about All Objects in a Drawing ........................................................6-30
Checking Time-Related Information ...............................................................................6-30
Obtaining Drawing Status Information ...........................................................................6-30
Displaying Drawing Properties.........................................................................................6-31
Basic Display Options .....................................................................................................................6-32
Redrawing the Screen .....................................................................................................................6-32
Regenerating Drawings ...................................................................................................................6-33
Zooming Drawings ..........................................................................................................................6-33
Realtime Zooming ............................................................................................................6-34
All Option .........................................................................................................................6-34
Center Option ..................................................................................................................6-35
Extents Option .................................................................................................................6-36
Dynamic Option ...............................................................................................................6-36
Previous Option ................................................................................................................6-38
Window Option ................................................................................................................6-38
Scale Option .....................................................................................................................6-39
Object Option ...................................................................................................................6-41
Zoom In and Out..............................................................................................................6-41
Panning Drawings ...........................................................................................................................6-42
Panning in Realtime .........................................................................................................6-42
Creating Views.................................................................................................................................6-43
View Manager Dialog Box ................................................................................................6-43
Placing Views on a Sheet of a Sheet Set ..........................................................................................6-47
Aerial View ......................................................................................................................................6-47
Menus ...............................................................................................................................6-48

Chapter 7 Creating Text and Tables

Annotative Objects ..........................................................................................................................7-2
Annotation Scale .............................................................................................................................7-2
Assigning Annotative Property and Annotation Scales ....................................................7-2
Customizing Annotation Scale .........................................................................................7-3

x AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach

Multiple Annotation Scales .............................................................................................................7-3
Assigning Multiple Annotation Scales to Annotative Objects ..........................................7-4
Controlling the Display of Annotative Objects ...............................................................................7-5
Creating Text ..................................................................................................................................7-6
Writing Single Line Text ..................................................................................................7-6
Entering Special Characters ...........................................................................................................7-11
Creating Multiline Text ...................................................................................................................7-11
Text Window .....................................................................................................................7-13
Text Editor Tab .................................................................................................................7-13
More .................................................................................................................................7-23
Editing Text.....................................................................................................................................7-28
Editing Text Using the DDEDIT Command ...................................................................7-29
Editing Text Using the Properties Palette ........................................................................7-29
Modifying the Scale of the Text .......................................................................................7-29
Modifying the Justification of the Text ............................................................................7-30
Inserting Table in the Drawing .......................................................................................................7-30
Table Style Area ................................................................................................................7-31
Insert Options Area ..........................................................................................................7-32
Insertion Behavior Area ...................................................................................................7-34
Column and Row Settings Area ........................................................................................7-35
Set Cell Styles Area ...........................................................................................................7-35
Creating a New Table Style .............................................................................................................7-36
Starting table Area ............................................................................................................7-37
General Area.....................................................................................................................7-37
Cell Styles Area .................................................................................................................7-38
Setting a Table Style As Current .....................................................................................................7-40
Modifying a Table Style...................................................................................................................7-40
Modifying Tables .............................................................................................................................7-40
Modifying Rows ................................................................................................................7-40
Modifying Columns ..........................................................................................................7-41
Merge Cells .......................................................................................................................7-41
Match Cells .......................................................................................................................7-41
Cell Styles .........................................................................................................................7-41
Cell Borders ......................................................................................................................7-41
Text Alignment .................................................................................................................7-41
Locking .............................................................................................................................7-41
Data Format ......................................................................................................................7-42
Insert Block ......................................................................................................................7-42
Field ..................................................................................................................................7-43
Formula ............................................................................................................................7-43
Manage Cell Content .......................................................................................................7-45
Match Cells .......................................................................................................................7-46
Cell Styles .........................................................................................................................7-46
Link Cell ...........................................................................................................................7-46
Download from source......................................................................................................7-46
Substituting Fonts............................................................................................................................7-47
Specifying an Alternate Default Font ...............................................................................7-48
Creating Text Styles ........................................................................................................................7-48
Determining Text Height ...............................................................................................................7-50
Creating Annotative Text ................................................................................................................7-51
Checking Spelling ...........................................................................................................................7-51
Text Quality and Text Fill ...............................................................................................................7-53
Finding and Replacing Text* ..........................................................................................................7-54
Find Text...........................................................................................................................7-54
Replacing Text ..................................................................................................................7-54
Creating Title Sheet Table in a Sheet Set .......................................................................................7-54

AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach xi

Chapter 8 Basic Dimensioning, Geometric Dimensioning,
and Tolerancing
Need for Dimensioning ..................................................................................................................8-2
Dimensioning in AutoCAD .............................................................................................................8-2
Fundamental Dimensioning Terms ................................................................................................8-3
Dimension Line ................................................................................................................8-3
Dimension Text ................................................................................................................8-3
Arrowheads .......................................................................................................................8-3
Extension Lines ................................................................................................................8-4
Leader ..............................................................................................................................8-4
Center Mark and Centerlines ..........................................................................................8-5
Alternate Units .................................................................................................................8-5
Tolerances .........................................................................................................................8-5
Limits ................................................................................................................................8-5
Associative Dimensions ...................................................................................................................8-6
Definition Points .............................................................................................................................8-7
Annotative Dimensions ...................................................................................................................8-8
Selecting Dimensioning Commands...............................................................................................8-8
Using the Ribbon and Toolbar .........................................................................................8-8
Using the Command Line ................................................................................................8-8
Dimensioning a Number of Objects Together................................................................................8-9
Creating Linear Dimensions ...........................................................................................................8-10
DIMLINEAR Command Options ....................................................................................8-11
Creating Aligned Dimensions .........................................................................................................8-14
Creating Arc Length Dimensions ...................................................................................................8-15
Creating Rotated Dimensions .........................................................................................................8-16
Creating Baseline Dimensions ........................................................................................................8-17
Creating Continued Dimensions ....................................................................................................8-18
Creating Angular Dimensions ........................................................................................................8-20
Dimensioning the Angle between Two Nonparallel Lines...............................................8-21
Dimensioning the Angle of an Arc ...................................................................................8-21
Angular Dimensioning of Circles .....................................................................................8-22
Angular Dimensioning based on Three Points ................................................................8-22
Creating Diameter Dimensions ......................................................................................................8-23
Creating Jogged Dimensions ..........................................................................................................8-24
Creating Radius Dimensions ..........................................................................................................8-25
Creating Jogged Linear Dimensions ..............................................................................................8-25
Generating Center Marks and Centerlines ....................................................................................8-26
Creating Ordinate Dimensions .......................................................................................................8-26
Maintaining Equal Spacing Between Dimensions ..........................................................................8-28
Creating Dimension Breaks ............................................................................................................8-29
Multiple ............................................................................................................................8-30
Auto ..................................................................................................................................8-30
Remove .............................................................................................................................8-30
Manual ..............................................................................................................................8-31
Creating Inspection dimensions .....................................................................................................8-31
Inspection Label ...............................................................................................................8-31
Dimension Value ...............................................................................................................8-32
Inspection Rate.................................................................................................................8-32
Working with True Associative Dimensions ....................................................................................8-33
Removing the Dimension Associativity ............................................................................8-33
Converting a Dimension into a True Associative Dimension...........................................8-33
Drawing Leaders .............................................................................................................................8-34
Annotation Tab .................................................................................................................8-34

xii AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach

 Leader Line & Arrow Tab .................................................................................................8-36
Attachment Tab ................................................................................................................8-37
Multileaders ....................................................................................................................................8-38
Drawing Multileaders......................................................................................................................8-39
leader Landing First .........................................................................................................8-39
Content First .....................................................................................................................8-39
Options .............................................................................................................................8-40
Adding leaders to the Existing Multileader....................................................................................8-41
Removing Leaders From the Existing Multileader.........................................................................8-41
Aligning Multileaders .....................................................................................................................8-42
Distribute ..........................................................................................................................8-42
Make Leader Segments Parallel .......................................................................................8-43
Specify Spacing .................................................................................................................8-44
Use Current Spacing ........................................................................................................8-44
Collecting Multiple Notes to Single Landing .................................................................................8-45
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing ....................................................................................8-46
Geometric Characteristics and Symbols .........................................................................................8-47
Adding Geometric Tolerance ..........................................................................................................8-48
Feature Control Frame .....................................................................................................8-48
Geometric Characteristics Symbol ...................................................................................8-49
Tolerance Value and Tolerance Zone Descriptor .............................................................8-49
Material Condition Modifier ............................................................................................8-50
Datum ...............................................................................................................................8-50
Complex Feature Control Frames ...................................................................................................8-50
Combining Geometric Characteristics .............................................................................8-50
Composite Position Tolerancing ......................................................................................8-51
Using Feature Control Frames with Leaders ..................................................................................8-52
Projected Tolerance Zone ...............................................................................................................8-53
Creating Annotative Dimensions, Tolerances, Leaders, and Multileaders ....................................8-56

Chapter 9 Editing Dimensions

Editing Dimensions Using Editing Tools .......................................................................................9-2
Editing Dimensions by Stretching ....................................................................................9-2
Editing Dimensions by Trimming and Extending ...........................................................9-3
Flipping Dimension Arrow ...............................................................................................9-5
Modifying the Dimensions ..............................................................................................................9-5
New ...................................................................................................................................9-5
Rotate ...............................................................................................................................9-5
Home ................................................................................................................................9-6
Oblique .............................................................................................................................9-6
Editing Dimension Text ..................................................................................................................9-6
Left ...................................................................................................................................9-7
Right .................................................................................................................................9-7
Center ...............................................................................................................................9-7
Home ................................................................................................................................9-7
Angle ................................................................................................................................9-7
Updating Dimensions .....................................................................................................................9-7
Editing Dimensions with Grips .......................................................................................................9-8
Editing Dimensions Using the Properties Palette ..........................................................................9-8
Properties Palette (Dimension).........................................................................................9-8
Properties Palette (Multileader) .......................................................................................9-10
Model Space and Paper Space Dimensioning ................................................................................9-11

AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach xiii

Chapter 10 Dimension Styles, Multileader Styles, and
System Variables
Using Styles and Variables to Control Dimensions .........................................................................10-2
Creating and Restoring Dimension Styles ......................................................................................10-2
New Dimension Style Dialog Box ...................................................................................................10-3
Lines Tab ..........................................................................................................................10-4
Symbols and Arrows Tab ..................................................................................................10-7
Controlling the Dimension Text Format.........................................................................................10-11
Text Tab ............................................................................................................................10-11
Fitting Dimension Text and Arrowheads ........................................................................................10-16
Fit Tab ...............................................................................................................................10-16
Formatting Primary Dimension Units ............................................................................................10-19
Primary Units Tab ............................................................................................................10-19
Formatting Alternate Dimension Units ..........................................................................................10-23
Alternate Units Tab ..........................................................................................................10-23
Formatting the Tolerances ..............................................................................................................10-25
Tolerances Tab ..................................................................................................................10-25
Dimension Style Families ................................................................................................................10-29
Using Dimension Style Overrides...................................................................................................10-32
Comparing and Listing Dimension Styles ......................................................................................10-34
Using Externally Referenced Dimension Styles .............................................................................10-34
Creating and Restoring Multileader Styles .....................................................................................10-35
Modify Multileader Style Dialog Box .............................................................................................10-36
Leader Format ..................................................................................................................10-36
Leader Structure Tab ........................................................................................................10-38
Content Tab ......................................................................................................................10-40

Chapter 11 Adding Constraints to Sketches

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................11-2
Adding Geometric Constraints* .....................................................................................................11-2
Applying the Horizontal Constraint ................................................................................11-2
Applying the Vertical Constraint ......................................................................................11-3
Applying the Coincident Constraint ................................................................................11-4
Applying the Fix Constraint .............................................................................................11-5
Applying the Collinear Constraint ...................................................................................11-5
Applying the Perpendicular Constraint ...........................................................................11-6
Applying the Parallel Constraint ......................................................................................11-6
Applying the Concentric Constraint ................................................................................11-7
Applying the Tangent Constraint .....................................................................................11-7
Applying the Symmetric Constraint .................................................................................11-7
Applying the Equal Constraint.........................................................................................11-8
Applying the Smooth Constraint .....................................................................................11-8
Controlling the Display of Constraints* .........................................................................................11-8
Applying Constraints Automatically* .............................................................................................11-16
Applying Dimensional Constraints* ...............................................................................................11-17
Converting a Dimensional Constraint into an Annotational Constraint* ......................................11-18
Concept of a Fully-Defined Sketch* ................................................................................................11-19
User-Defined ....................................................................................................................11-19
Fully-Defined ....................................................................................................................11-19
Over-Defined ....................................................................................................................11-19
Controlling the Display of the Dimensional Constraint* ...............................................................11-20
Working with Equations* ................................................................................................................11-25
Adding Equations while Applying Dimensional Constraints ...........................................11-25
Adding Equations Using Parameters Manager ................................................................11-26

xiv AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach

Chapter 12 Model Space Viewports, Paper Space Viewports,
and Layouts
Model Space and Paper Space/Layouts ..........................................................................................12-2
Model Space Viewports (Tiled Viewports) ......................................................................................12-3
Creating Tiled Viewports..................................................................................................12-3
Making a Viewport Current ............................................................................................................12-5
Joining Two Adjacent Viewports .....................................................................................................12-6
Paper Space Viewports (Floating Viewports) ..................................................................................12-7
Creating Floating Viewports .............................................................................................12-8
Creating Polygonal Viewports ..........................................................................................12-9
Converting an Existing Closed Object into a Viewport ...................................................12-10
Temporary Model Space .................................................................................................................12-10
Editing Viewports ............................................................................................................................12-12
Controlling the Display of Objects in Viewports ..............................................................12-13
Locking the Display of Objects in Viewports ...................................................................12-13
Controlling the Display of Hidden Lines in Viewports ....................................................12-13
Clipping Existing Viewports.............................................................................................12-14
Maximizing Viewports ......................................................................................................12-15
Manipulating the Visibility of Viewport Layers ..............................................................................12-15
? Option ............................................................................................................................12-16
Color Option ....................................................................................................................12-16
Ltype Option ....................................................................................................................12-16
LWeight Option ................................................................................................................12-16
PStyle Option ...................................................................................................................12-16
Freeze Option ...................................................................................................................12-16
Thaw Option ....................................................................................................................12-16
Reset Option .....................................................................................................................12-17
Newfrz (New Freeze) Option ............................................................................................12-17
Vpvisdflt (Viewport Visibility Default) Option..................................................................12-17
Controlling the Layers in Viewports Using the Layer Properties Manager Dialog Box ................12-17
VP Freeze ..........................................................................................................................12-18
VP Color ...........................................................................................................................12-18
VP Linetype ......................................................................................................................12-18
VP Lineweight ..................................................................................................................12-18
VP Plot Style .....................................................................................................................12-18
Removing Viewport Overrides .........................................................................................12-19
Paper Space Linetype Scaling (PSLTSCALE System Variable) .......................................................12-19
Inserting Layouts ............................................................................................................................12-21
New Option ......................................................................................................................12-21
Copy Option .....................................................................................................................12-21
Delete Option ...................................................................................................................12-22
Template Option ..............................................................................................................12-22
Rename Option ................................................................................................................12-23
SAveas Option ..................................................................................................................12-23
Set Option ........................................................................................................................12-23
? Option ............................................................................................................................12-23
Importing Layouts to Sheet Sets .....................................................................................................12-23
Inserting a Layout Using the Wizard ..............................................................................................12-24
Defining Page Settings ....................................................................................................................12-24
Working with the MVSETUP Command ........................................................................................12-26
Using the MVSETUP Command on the Model Tab ........................................................12-26
Using the MVSETUP Command on the Layout Tab .......................................................12-27
Converting the Distance Between Model Space and Paper Space .................................................12-30
Controlling the Display of Annotative Objects in Viewports ..........................................................12-30

AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach xv

Chapter 13 Template Drawings
Creating Template Drawings ..........................................................................................................13-2
Standard Template Drawings..........................................................................................................13-2
Loading a Template Drawing .........................................................................................................13-8
Customizing Drawings with Layers and Dimensioning Specifications ...........................................13-9
Customizing a Drawing with Layout ...............................................................................................13-14
Customizing Drawings with Viewports............................................................................................13-18
Customizing Drawings According to Plot Size and Drawing Scale.................................................13-21

Chapter 14 Plotting Drawings

Plotting Drawings in AutoCAD .......................................................................................................14-2
Plotting Drawings Using the Plot Dialog Box ................................................................................14-2
Page Setup Area ................................................................................................................14-3
Printer/Plotter Area ..........................................................................................................14-3
Paper size Area .................................................................................................................14-4
Number of Copies Area ....................................................................................................14-4
Plot Area Area ...................................................................................................................14-4
Plot Offset (Origin Set to Printable area) Area ................................................................14-6
Plot Scale Area ..................................................................................................................14-6
Plot Style Table (Pen Assignments) Area ..........................................................................14-7
Shaded Viewport Options Area ........................................................................................14-7
Plot Options Area .............................................................................................................14-8
Drawing orientation Area .................................................................................................14-9
Preview ..............................................................................................................................14-10
Adding Plotters ...............................................................................................................................14-11
The PLOTTERMANAGER Command ............................................................................14-11
Editing the Plotter Configuration ...................................................................................................14-13
General Tab ......................................................................................................................14-13
Ports Tab ...........................................................................................................................14-13
Device and Document Settings Tab..................................................................................14-14
Importing PCP/PC2 Configuration Files ........................................................................................14-15
Setting Plot Parameters ...................................................................................................................14-15
Working with Page Setups ................................................................................................14-15
Using Plot Styles .............................................................................................................................14-19
Adding a Plot Style ...........................................................................................................14-20
Plot Style Table Editor ......................................................................................................14-22
Applying Plot Styles..........................................................................................................14-26
Setting the Current Plot Style ..........................................................................................14-27
Plotting Sheets in a Sheet Set .........................................................................................................14-29

Chapter 15 Hatching Drawings

Hatching .........................................................................................................................................15-2
Hatch Patterns.................................................................................................................................15-2
Hatch Boundary ...............................................................................................................15-3
Hatching Drawings Using the Hatch and Gradient Dialog Box ....................................................15-3
Hatch and Gradient Dialog Box Options .......................................................................................15-5
Hatch Tab .........................................................................................................................15-5
User defined Hatch Patterns ............................................................................................15-8
Custom Hatch Patterns.....................................................................................................15-9
Selecting Hatch Boundary ...............................................................................................15-10
Options Area ....................................................................................................................15-14
Inherit Properties .............................................................................................................15-15

xvi AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach

 Preview ..............................................................................................................................15-15
Hatch origin Area .............................................................................................................15-16
More Options ..................................................................................................................................15-17
Islands Area ......................................................................................................................15-17
Inherit options Area .........................................................................................................15-20
The HATCH Shortcut Menu ............................................................................................15-20
Gradient Tab.....................................................................................................................15-21
Creating Annotative Hatch .............................................................................................................15-23
Hatching the Drawing Using the Tool Palettes ..............................................................................15-23
Drag and Drop Method....................................................................................................15-24
Select and Place Method ..................................................................................................15-24
Modifying the Properties of the Predefined Patterns Available in the Tool Palettes .......15-24
Hatching Around Text, Dimensions, and Attributes ......................................................................15-26
Editing Hatch Patterns....................................................................................................................15-26
Using the HATCHEDIT Command ................................................................................15-26
Ignoring Hatch Pattern Entities While Snapping...........................................................................15-28
Using the Properties Command.......................................................................................15-28
Editing Hatch Boundary .................................................................................................................15-30
Using Grips ......................................................................................................................15-30
Trimming the Hatch Patterns ..........................................................................................15-31
Using AutoCAD Editing Commands ...............................................................................15-31
Hatching Blocks and Xref Drawings...............................................................................................15-32
Creating a Boundary Using Closed Loops .....................................................................................15-32
Other Features of Hatching ............................................................................................................15-34

Chapter 16 Working with Blocks

The Concept of Blocks ....................................................................................................................16-2
Advantages of Using Blocks .............................................................................................16-2
Formation of Blocks ........................................................................................................................16-3
Drawing Objects for Blocks ..............................................................................................16-3
Checking Layers ...............................................................................................................16-4
Converting Entities into a Block .....................................................................................................16-5
Inserting Blocks .............................................................................................................................16-8
Name ................................................................................................................................16-8
Insertion point Area .........................................................................................................16-10
Scale Area .........................................................................................................................16-10
Rotation Area ....................................................................................................................16-11
Block Unit Area ................................................................................................................16-11
Explode Check Box ..........................................................................................................16-12
Basepoint ..........................................................................................................................16-13
Scale ..................................................................................................................................16-13
X, Y, Z ...............................................................................................................................16-13
Rotate ...............................................................................................................................16-14
Creating and Inserting Annotative Blocks ......................................................................................16-15
Block Editor ....................................................................................................................................16-18
Dynamic Blocks ...............................................................................................................................16-19
Block Editor Tab ...............................................................................................................16-20
Adding Parameters and Assigning Actions to
Dynamic Blocks (Block Authoring Palettes)..............................................................16-22
Adding Parameter and Action Simultaneously Using Parameter Sets ...........................................16-36
Inserting Blocks Using the DesignCenter ......................................................................................16-37
Using Tool Palettes to Insert Blocks ...............................................................................................16-38
Inserting Blocks in the Drawing .......................................................................................16-38
Modifying Properties of the Blocks in the Tool Palettes ..................................................16-39

AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach xvii

Adding Blocks in Tool Palettes .......................................................................................................16-40
Drag and Drop Method....................................................................................................16-40
Shortcut Menu ..................................................................................................................16-40
Modifying Existing Blocks in the Tool Palettes ..............................................................................16-41
Layers, Colors, Linetypes, and Lineweights for Blocks ..................................................................16-42
Nesting of Blocks ............................................................................................................................16-43
Inserting Multiple Blocks................................................................................................................16-45
Creating Drawing Files Using the Write Block Dialog Box ............................................................16-47
Defining the Insertion Base Point ...................................................................................................16-49
Editing Blocks .................................................................................................................................16-49
Editing Blocks in Place .....................................................................................................16-50
Exploding Blocks Using the XPLODE Command ..........................................................16-53
Renaming Blocks ............................................................................................................................16-55
Deleting Unused Blocks..................................................................................................................16-56
Applying Constraints to Blocks* .....................................................................................................16-57

AutoCAD Part Il
Chapter 17 Defining Block Attributes
Understanding Attributes ...............................................................................................................17-2
Defining Attributes..........................................................................................................................17-2
Mode Area ........................................................................................................................17-2
Attribute Area ...................................................................................................................17-4
Insertion Point Area .........................................................................................................17-5
Text Settings Area .............................................................................................................17-5
Editing Attribute Definition ............................................................................................................17-8
Using the Properties Palette .............................................................................................17-9
Inserting Blocks with Attributes ......................................................................................................17-9
Managing Attributes .......................................................................................................................17-11
Select block .......................................................................................................................17-13
Block Drop-down List.......................................................................................................17-13
Sync ..................................................................................................................................17-13
Move Up ...........................................................................................................................17-14
Move Down .......................................................................................................................17-14
Edit ...................................................................................................................................17-14
Settings .............................................................................................................................17-17
Remove .............................................................................................................................17-18
Extracting Attributes .......................................................................................................................17-18
Begin ................................................................................................................................17-18
Define Data Source ...........................................................................................................17-19
Select Objects ...................................................................................................................17-22
Select Properties ...............................................................................................................17-23
Refine Data .......................................................................................................................17-23
Choose Output .................................................................................................................17-30
Table Style ........................................................................................................................17-31
Finish ................................................................................................................................17-32
The ATTEXT Command for Attribute Extraction ..........................................................17-32
Controlling Attribute Visibility........................................................................................................17-38
Editing Block Attributes..................................................................................................................17-39
Editing Attributes Using the Enhanced Attribute Editor ................................................17-39
Editing Attributes Using the Edit Attributes Dialog Box.................................................17-40
Global Editing of Attributes .............................................................................................17-43

xviii AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach

Redefining a Block with Attributes .................................................................................................17-49
In-place Editing of Blocks with Attributes .......................................................................17-49
Inserting Text Files in the Drawing ................................................................................................17-50

Chapter 18 Understanding External References

External References ........................................................................................................................18-2
Dependent Symbols ........................................................................................................................18-2
Managing External References in a Drawing .................................................................................18-4
List View ...........................................................................................................................18-4
Attaching an Xref Drawing (Attach Option) ....................................................................18-6
Points to Remember about Xref .......................................................................................18-8
Detaching an Xref Drawing (Detach Option) ..................................................................18-9
Updating an Xref Drawing (Reload Option) ...................................................................18-10
Unloading an Xref Drawing (Unload Option).................................................................18-10
Adding an Xref Drawing (Bind Option) ..........................................................................18-10
Editing an XREF’s Path ...................................................................................................18-11
The Overlay Option ........................................................................................................................18-12
Working with the ATTACH Command*.........................................................................................18-16
Working with Underlays* ................................................................................................................18-17
Editing an Underlay .........................................................................................................18-18
Opening an Xreffed Object in a Separate Window ........................................................................18-19
Using the DesignCenter to Attach a Drawing as an Xref ...............................................................18-19
Adding xref Dependent Named Objects ........................................................................................18-20
Clipping External References* .......................................................................................................18-22
Displaying Clipping Frame* ...........................................................................................................18-24
Demand Loading ............................................................................................................................18-25
Spatial and Layer Indexes ................................................................................................18-26
Editing References In-Place* ..........................................................................................................18-26

Chapter 19 Working with Advanced Drawing Options

Understanding the Use of Multilines .............................................................................................19-2
Defining the Multiline Style ............................................................................................................19-2
Styles List Box ..................................................................................................................19-2
Set Current .......................................................................................................................19-2
New ...................................................................................................................................19-2
Load..................................................................................................................................19-6
Save ...................................................................................................................................19-6
Rename .............................................................................................................................19-6
Preview of Area .................................................................................................................19-6
Drawing Multilines ..........................................................................................................................19-7
Justification Option ..........................................................................................................19-7
Scale Option .....................................................................................................................19-7
STyle Option .....................................................................................................................19-8
Editing Multilines Using Grips .......................................................................................................19-8
Editing Multilines Using the Dialog Box .......................................................................................19-9
Cross Intersection (CC/OC/MC) .......................................................................................19-9
Tee Intersection (CT/OT/MT) ..........................................................................................19-10
Corner Joint (CJ) ..............................................................................................................19-11
Adding and Deleting Vertices (AV/DV).............................................................................19-11
Cutting and Welding Multilines (CS/CA/WA)...................................................................19-12
Creating Revision Clouds ................................................................................................................19-14

AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach xix

Creating Wipeouts...........................................................................................................................19-15
Creating NURBS.............................................................................................................................19-16
Options for Creating Splines............................................................................................19-17
Editing Splines ................................................................................................................................19-18
Options for Editing Splines..............................................................................................19-18

Chapter 20 Grouping and Advanced Editing of Sketched Objects

Grouping Sketched Objects Using the Object Grouping Dialog Box ............................................20-2
Group Name List Box ......................................................................................................20-2
Group Identification Area ................................................................................................20-3
Create Group Area ...........................................................................................................20-4
Change Group Area .........................................................................................................20-4
Selecting Groups .............................................................................................................................20-7
Changing Properties of an Object ..................................................................................................20-8
Using the Properties Palette .............................................................................................20-8
Exploding Compound Objects .......................................................................................................20-14
Editing Polylines .............................................................................................................................20-15
Editing Single Polyline .....................................................................................................20-16
Editing Multiple Polylines ................................................................................................20-30
Undoing Previous Commands ........................................................................................................20-32
Undoing Previous Commands Using the Quick Access Toolbar .....................................20-32
Undoing Previous Commands Using the Command Line ..............................................20-32
Number (N) Option .........................................................................................................20-32
Control (C) Option ...........................................................................................................20-33
Auto (A) Option ................................................................................................................20-34
BEgin (BE) and End (E) Options .....................................................................................20-35
Mark (M) and Back Options.............................................................................................20-36
Reversing the Undo Operation ......................................................................................................20-37
Renaming Named Objects ..............................................................................................................20-37
Removing Unused Named Objects .................................................................................................20-39
View Items You Can Purge ...............................................................................................20-39
View Items You Cannot Purge ..........................................................................................20-40
Setting Selection Modes Using the Options Dialog Box ................................................................20-41
Noun/Verb Selection .........................................................................................................20-41
Use Shift to Add to Selection Option ...............................................................................20-43
Press and Drag..................................................................................................................20-43
Implied Windowing ..........................................................................................................20-43
Object Grouping ...............................................................................................................20-44
Associative Hatch..............................................................................................................20-44
Pickbox Size ......................................................................................................................20-44

Chapter 21 Working with Data Exchange and Object Linking

and Embedding
Understanding the Concept of Data Exchange in AutoCAD .........................................................21-2
Creating Data Interchange (DXF) Files ..........................................................................................21-2
Creating a Data Interchange File .....................................................................................21-2
Information in a DXF File ................................................................................................21-3
Converting DXF Files into Drawing Files.........................................................................21-3
OTHER DATA EXCHANGE FORMATS .......................................................................................21-4
DXB File Format ...............................................................................................................21-4
Creating and Using an ACIS File .....................................................................................21-4

xx AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach

 Importing 3D Studio Files ................................................................................................21-5
Creating and Using a Windows Metafile ..........................................................................21-5
Creating and Using a V8 DGN File ..................................................................................21-5
Creating a BMP File .........................................................................................................21-6
Raster Images..................................................................................................................................21-6
Attaching Raster Images ..................................................................................................21-7
Managing Raster Images ..................................................................................................21-9
Editing Raster Image Files ..............................................................................................................21-10
Clipping Raster Images ....................................................................................................21-10
Adjusting Raster Images...................................................................................................21-12
Modifying the Image Quality ...........................................................................................21-13
Modifying the Transparency of an Image ........................................................................21-13
Controlling the Display of Image Frames ........................................................................21-14
Changing the Display Order...........................................................................................................21-14
Other Editing Operations ................................................................................................21-14
Scaling Raster Images ......................................................................................................21-14
Working With PostScript Files .........................................................................................................21-15
Creating the PostScript Files.............................................................................................21-15
Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) ..........................................................................................21-17
Clipboard ..........................................................................................................................21-18
Object Embedding ...........................................................................................................21-18
Linking Objects ................................................................................................................21-21
Linking Information into AutoCAD.................................................................................21-23
Linking Objects into AutoCAD ........................................................................................21-23
Embedding Objects into AutoCAD ..................................................................................21-24
Working with OLE Objects ...............................................................................................21-25

Chapter 22 Technical Drawing with AutoCAD

Multiview Drawings .........................................................................................................................22-2
Understanding X, Y, and Z Axes.....................................................................................................22-2
Orthographic Projections................................................................................................................22-2
Positioning Orthographic Views .....................................................................................................22-7
Dimensioning ..................................................................................................................................22-11
Dimensioning Components .............................................................................................22-12
Basic Dimensioning Rules ................................................................................................22-13
Sectional Views ................................................................................................................................22-23
Full Section .......................................................................................................................22-23
Half Section ......................................................................................................................22-24
Broken Section..................................................................................................................22-25
Revolved Section ..............................................................................................................22-25
Removed Section ..............................................................................................................22-25
Offset Section ...................................................................................................................22-27
Aligned Section ................................................................................................................22-27
Cutting Plane Lines ..........................................................................................................22-28
Spacing for Hatch Lines ...................................................................................................22-29
Direction of Hatch Lines ..................................................................................................22-30
Points to Remember .........................................................................................................22-30
Auxiliary Views ................................................................................................................................22-33
How to Draw Auxiliary Views ...........................................................................................22-34
Detail Drawing, Assembly Drawing, and Bill of Materials ..............................................................22-37
Detail Drawing ................................................................................................................................22-37
Assembly Drawing ............................................................................................................22-38
Bill of Materials ................................................................................................................22-38

AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach xxi

Chapter 23 Isometric Drawings
Isometric Drawings .........................................................................................................................23-2
Isometric Projections.......................................................................................................................23-2
Isometric Axes and Planes ..............................................................................................................23-3
Setting the Isometric Grid and Snap ..............................................................................................23-3
Drawing Isometric Circles ...............................................................................................................23-8
Creating Fillets in the Isometric Drawings .......................................................................23-9
Dimensioning Isometric Objects.....................................................................................................23-9
Isometric Text .................................................................................................................................23-11

Chapter 24 The User Coordinate System

The World Coordinate System (WCS) ............................................................................................24-2
Controlling the Visibility of the UCS Icon ......................................................................................24-2
ON 24-3
OFF...................................................................................................................................24-3
All 24-3
Noorigin ...........................................................................................................................24-3
ORigin ..............................................................................................................................24-3
Properties .........................................................................................................................24-3
Defining the New UCS ...................................................................................................................24-5
W (World) Option .............................................................................................................24-6
F (Face) Option .................................................................................................................24-6
OB (OBject) Option .........................................................................................................24-6
V (View) Option ................................................................................................................24-8
X/Y/Z Options ...................................................................................................................24-8
ZA (ZAxis) Option ............................................................................................................24-10
P (Previous) Option ..........................................................................................................24-11
NA (NAmed) Option ........................................................................................................24-11
D (Delete) Option .............................................................................................................24-12
A (Apply) Option ..............................................................................................................24-13
O (Origin) Option ............................................................................................................24-13
3 (3-Point) Option ............................................................................................................24-14
Managing the UCS Through the Dialog Box .................................................................................24-17
Named UCSs Tab .............................................................................................................24-17
Setting the UCS to Preset Orthographic UCSs Using the Orthographic UCSs Tab .......24-18
Settings Tab ......................................................................................................................24-20
System Variables ..............................................................................................................................24-21

Chapter 25 Getting Started with 3D

Starting Three Dimensional (3D) Modeling In AutoCAD..............................................................25-2
Use of Three-dimensional drawing ................................................................................................25-2
Types of 3D models .........................................................................................................................25-3
Wireframe Models ............................................................................................................25-3
Surface Models .................................................................................................................25-3
Solid Models .....................................................................................................................25-4
Conventions in AutoCAD................................................................................................................25-5
Changing the Viewpoint to View 3D Models ..................................................................................25-6
Changing the Viewpoint Using the Viewpoint Presets Dialog Box..................................25-7
Changing the Viewpoint Using the Command Line .......................................................25-9
Changing the Viewpoint Using the Toolbar or the Ribbon .............................................25-12
Changing the Viewpoint Using the ViewCube .................................................................25-12

xxii AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach

3D Coordinate Systems ...................................................................................................................25-15
Absolute Coordinate System.............................................................................................25-15
Relative Coordinate System ..............................................................................................25-18
Trim, Extend, and Fillet Commands in 3D ....................................................................................25-21
Setting Thickness and Elevation for the New Objects ....................................................................25-22
ELEV Command ..............................................................................................................25-22
Suppressing the Hidden Edges ......................................................................................................25-24
Creating 3D Polylines ......................................................................................................................25-24
Converting Wireframe Models Into Surface Models ......................................................................25-25
Creating 3D Faces .............................................................................................................25-25
Creating Polyface Meshes .................................................................................................25-26
Controlling the Visibility of the 3D Face Edges ...............................................................25-28
Drawing Standard Surface Primitives .............................................................................................25-29
Creating a Box-Shaped Surface Mesh..............................................................................25-29
Creating a Cone-Shaped Surface Mesh............................................................................25-29
Creating a Surface Mesh Dish ..........................................................................................25-31
Creating a Surface Mesh Dome ........................................................................................25-31
Creating a Planar Mesh ....................................................................................................25-32
Creating a Pyramid Surface Mesh ....................................................................................25-32
Creating a Spherical Surface Mesh ..................................................................................25-35
Creating a Surface Mesh Torus ........................................................................................25-36
Creating a Surface Mesh Wedge .......................................................................................25-36
Creating Planar Surfaces .................................................................................................................25-37
The 3DMESH Command ...............................................................................................................25-37
Editing the Surface Mesh ................................................................................................................25-38
The PEDIT Command .....................................................................................................25-38
Dynamic Viewing of 3D Objects......................................................................................................25-41
Using the SteeringWheels ................................................................................................25-41
Dynamically Rotating the View of the Model ...................................................................25-45
Clipping the View of the Model Dynamically ..................................................................25-52

Chapter 26 Creating Solid Models

What is Solid Modeling? .................................................................................................................26-2
Creating Predefined Solid Primitives..............................................................................................26-2
Creating a Solid Box ........................................................................................................26-2
Creating a Solid Cone ......................................................................................................26-5
Creating a Solid Cylinder .................................................................................................26-7
Creating a Solid Sphere....................................................................................................26-10
Creating a Solid Torus ......................................................................................................26-11
Creating a Solid Wedge ....................................................................................................26-13
Creating a Pyramid ..........................................................................................................26-13
Creating a Polysolid ..........................................................................................................26-14
Creating a Helix ...............................................................................................................26-17
Modifying the Visual Styles of Solids ..............................................................................................26-20
Available Visual Styles in Drawing ....................................................................................26-20
2D Wireframe options ......................................................................................................26-21
2D Hide - Obscured Lines................................................................................................26-22
2D - Intersection Edges ....................................................................................................26-23
2D Hide - Miscellaneous ..................................................................................................26-24
Halo gap % .......................................................................................................................26-24
Controlling the Display of Edges .....................................................................................26-24
Controlling the Display of Faces.......................................................................................26-26
Controlling Backgrounds and Shadows ...........................................................................26-27

AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach xxiii

Creating Complex Solid Models .....................................................................................................26-28
Creating Regions ..............................................................................................................26-28
Creating Complex Solid Models by Applying Boolean Operations ................................26-28
Combining Solid Models ..................................................................................................26-29
Subtracting One Solid From the Other ............................................................................26-29
Intersecting Solid Models.................................................................................................26-29
Checking Interference in Solids .......................................................................................26-30
Dynamic UCS ..................................................................................................................................26-35
Defining the New UCS Using the ViewCube and the Ribbon........................................................26-36
Creating Extruded Solids................................................................................................................26-37
Extruding along the Z Axis ..............................................................................................26-37
Extruding along a Direction.............................................................................................26-38
Extruding along a Path ....................................................................................................26-38
Creating Revolved Solids ................................................................................................................26-39
Specifying the Start Point for the Axis of Revolution .......................................................26-39
Object ...............................................................................................................................26-40
X .......................................................................................................................................26-40
Y........................................................................................................................................26-40
Z ........................................................................................................................................26-40
Creating Swept Solids .....................................................................................................................26-41
Alignment .........................................................................................................................26-42
Base Point .........................................................................................................................26-42
Scale ..................................................................................................................................26-43
Twist ..................................................................................................................................26-43
Creating Lofted Solids ....................................................................................................................26-44
Guide ................................................................................................................................26-45
Path ...................................................................................................................................26-45
Cross Sections Only ..........................................................................................................26-46
Creating Presspull Solids ................................................................................................................26-50

Chapter 27 Modifying 3D Objects

Filleting Solid Models .....................................................................................................................27-2
Undo.................................................................................................................................27-3
Chain ................................................................................................................................27-3
Radius ...............................................................................................................................27-3
Chamfering Solid Models ...............................................................................................................27-3
Undo.................................................................................................................................27-4
Loop .................................................................................................................................27-4
Rotating Solid Models in 3D Space ................................................................................................27-4
2points Option .................................................................................................................27-5
Object Option ...................................................................................................................27-5
Last Option.......................................................................................................................27-6
View Option ......................................................................................................................27-6
Xaxis Option ....................................................................................................................27-6
Yaxis Option .....................................................................................................................27-7
Zaxis Option .....................................................................................................................27-7
Rotating Solid Models About an Axis .............................................................................................27-7
Mirroring Solid Models in 3D Space ..............................................................................................27-8
3points Option .................................................................................................................27-8
Object ...............................................................................................................................27-9
Zaxis..................................................................................................................................27-10
View Option ......................................................................................................................27-10
XY/YZ/ZX .........................................................................................................................27-11
Moving Models in 3d Space ............................................................................................................27-14

xxiv AutoCAD 2010: A Problem-Solving Approach

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but its angles not right angles, and from a four-sided figure with
right angles, but with only its opposite sides equal; and note that if
we shorten up one side into nothing, the square becomes a triangle,
with altogether different properties from those of a square; if we put
in another side it becomes a pentagon, and so on.

These two things, the heap of books and the square, are prima
facie objects of perception. We commonly speak of a diagram on a
blackboard or in a book as “a square” if we have reason to take it as
approximately exact, and as intended for a square. But on looking
closer, we soon see that the “matter,” or individual attributes, of each
of these objects of our apprehension demands a different form of
knowledge from that necessary to the other. The judgment “This
heap of books has four books in it” is a judgment of enumerative
perception. The judgment “The square has four sides” is a judgment
of systematic necessity.

{52} Why did we not keep the two judgments in the same logical
shape? Why did we say “This heap” and “The square”? Why did we
not say “this” in both propositions, or “the” in both propositions?
Because the different “matter” demands this difference of form. Let
us try. “The heap of books has four books in it.” Probably we
interpret this proposition to mean just the same as if we had said
“This heap.” That is owing to the fact that the judgment naturally
occurs to us in its right form. But if we interpret “The heap” on the
analogy of our interpretation of “The square,” our judgment will have
become false.

It will have come to mean “Every heap of books has four books in
it,” and a judgment of perception will not bear this enlargement. The
subject is composite, and one, the most essential of its elements, is
destroyed by the change from “this” to “the.”

Let us try again. Let us say “This square has four sides.” That is
not exactly false, but it is ridiculous. Every square must have four
sides, and by saying “this square” we strongly imply that
foursidedness is a relation of which we are aware chiefly, if not
exclusively, in the object attended to in the moment of judging,
simply through the apprehension of that moment. By this implication
the form of the judgment abandons and all but denies the character
of systematic necessity which its content naturally demands. It is like
saying, “It appears to me that in the present instance two and two
make four.” The number of sides in a square, then, is not a mere fact
of perception, while the number of books in a heap is such a fact.

But you may answer by suggesting the case that an {53}

uninstructed person—say a child, with a square figure before him,
and having heard the name square applied to figures generally
resembling that figure, may simply observe the number of sides,
without knowing any of the geometrical properties connected with it;
will he not then be right in saying, “This square has four sides”?

Certainly not. In that case he has no right to call it a square. It

would only be a name he had picked up without knowing what it
meant. All he has the right to say would be, “This object” or “This
figure has four sides.” That would be a consistent judgment of mere
perception, true as far as it went. It is always possible to apprehend
the more complex objects of knowledge in the simpler forms; but
then they are not apprehended adequately, not as complex objects.
It is also possible to apply very complex forms of knowledge to very
simple objects. Most truths that can be laid down quite in the
abstract about a human mind could also be applied in some sense or
other to any speck of protoplasm, or to any pebble on the seashore.
And every simple form of knowledge is always being pushed on, by
its own defects and inconsistencies, in the direction of more complex
forms.

So far I have been trying to show that objects are capable of

being different in their nature as knowledge as well as in their
individual properties; and that their different natures as knowledge
depend on the way in which their parts are connected together. We
took two objects of knowledge, and found that the mode of
connection between the parts required two quite different kinds of
judgment to express them. Let us look at the reason of this.

{54} The relation of Part and Whole

3. The relation of Part and Whole is a form of the relation of

Identity and Difference. Every Judgment expresses the unity of some
parts in a whole, or of some differences in an Identity. This is the
meaning of “construction” in knowledge. We saw that knowledge
exists in judgment as a construction (taking this to include
maintenance) of reality.

The expression whole and parts may be used in a strict or in a lax

sense.

In a strict sense it means a whole of quantity, that is, a whole

considered as made up by the addition of parts of the same kind, as
a foot is made up of twelve inches. In this sense the whole is the
sum of the parts. And even in this sense the whole is represented
within every part by an identity of quality that runs through them all.
Otherwise there would be nothing to earmark them as belonging to
the particular whole or kind of whole in question. Parts of length
make up a whole of length, parts of weight a whole of weight, parts
of intensity a whole of intensity, in so far as a whole of intensity is
quantitative, which is not a perfectly easy question. Wholes like
these are “Sums” or “Totals”. The relation of whole to part in this
sense is a very simple case of the relation of differences in an
identity, but for that very reason is not the easiest case to
appreciate. The relation is so simple that it is apt to pass unnoticed,
and in dealing with numerical computation we are apt to forget that
in application to any concrete problem the numbers must be
numbers of something having a common quality, and that the nature
of this something may affect the result as related to real fact, though
not as a conclusion from pure {55} numerical premisses. In a whole
of pure number the indifference of parts to whole reaches its
maximum. The unit remains absolutely the same, into whatever total
of addition it may enter.

In a whole of differentiated members, such as a square, all this

begins to be different. A side in a square possesses, by the fact of
being a side, very different relations and properties from those of a
straight line conceived in isolation. In this case the whole is not
made up merely by adding the parts together. It is a geometrical
whole, and its parts are combined according to a special form of
necessity which is rooted in the nature of space. Speaking generally,
the point is that parts must occupy certain perfectly definite places
as regards each other. You cannot make a square by merely adding
three right angles to one, nor by taking a given straight line and
adding three more equal straight lines to its length. You must
construct in a definite way so as to fulfil definite conditions. The
identity shows itself in the different elements which make it up, not
as a mere repeated quality, but as a property of contributing, each
part in a distinctive way, to the nature of the whole. Such an identity
is not a mere total or sum, though I imagine that its relations can be
fully expressed in terms of quantity, certain differentiated objects or
conceptions being given (e.g. line and angle).

I take a further instance to put a sharp point upon this distinction.

The relation of whole and parts is nowhere more perfect, short of a
living mind, than in a work of art. There is a very fine Turner
landscape now [1] in the “Old {56} Masters” Exhibition at Burlington
House—the picture of the two bridges at Walton-on-Thames. The
picture is full of detail—figures, animals, trees, and a curving river-
bed. But I am told that if one attempts to cut out the smallest
appreciable fragment of all this detail, one will find that it cannot be
done without ruining the whole effect of the picture. That means
that the individual totality is so welded together by the master’s
selective composition, that, according to Aristotle’s definition of a
true “whole,” if any part is modified or removed the total is entirely
altered, “for that of which the presence or absence makes no
difference is no true part of the whole.” [2]

[1] February 1892. [2] Poetics, 8

Of course, in saying that the part is thus essential to the whole, it

is implied that the whole reacts upon and transfigures the part. It is
in and by this transformation that its pervading identity makes itself
felt throughout all the elements by which it is constituted. As the
picture would be ruined if a little patch of colour were removed, so
the little patch of colour might be such as to be devoid of all value if
seen on a piece of paper by itself. I will give an extreme instance,
almost amounting to a tour de force, from the art of poetry, in
illustration of this principle. We constantly hear and use in daily life
the phrase, “It all comes to the same thing in the end.” Perhaps in
the very commonest speech we use it less fully, omitting the word
“thing”; but the sentence as written above is a perfectly familiar
platitude, with no special import, nor grace of sound or rhythm.
Now, in one of the closing stanzas of Browning’s poem Any Wife to
Any Husband, this sentence, only modified {57} by the substitution
of “at” for “in,” forms an entire line. [1] And I think it will generally
be felt that there are few more stately and pathetic passages than
this in modern poetry. Both the rhythm and sonorousness of the
whole poem, and also its burden of ideal feeling, are communicated
to the line in question by the context in which it is framed. Through
the rhythm thus prescribed to it, and through the characteristic
emotion which it contributes to reveal, the “whole” of the poem re-
acts upon this part, and confers upon it a quality which, apart from
such a setting, we should never have dreamed that it was capable of
possessing.

[1] In order to remind the reader of the effect of this passage it is

necessary to quote a few lines before and after—

“Re-issue words and looks from the old mint,

Pass them afresh, no matter whose the print,
Image and superscription once they bore!
Re-coin thyself and give it them to spend,—
It all comes to the same thing at the end,
Since mine thou wast, mine art and mine shalt be,
Faithful or faithless, sealing up the sum
Or lavish of my treasure, thou must come
Back to the heart’s place here I keep for thee!”
 We are not here concerned with the peculiar “aesthetic” nature of
works of art, which makes them, although rational, nevertheless
unique individuals. I only adduced the above examples to show, in
unmistakable cases, what is actually meant when we speak of “a
whole” as constituted by a pervading identity which exhibits itself in
the congruous or co-operating nature of all the constituent parts. In
wholes of a higher kind than the whole of mere quantity the parts no
longer repeat each other. They are not merely distinct, {58} but
different. Yet the common or continuous nature shows itself within
each of them.

The parts of a sum-total, taking them for convenience of

summation as equal parts, may be called units; [1] the parts of an
abstract system, such as a geometrical figure, may be called
elements (I cannot answer for mathematical usage), and the parts
of a concrete system, an aesthetic product, a mind, or a society,
might be called members.

[1] A unit of measurement implies in addition that it has been

equated with some accepted standard. If I divide the length of my
room into thirty equal parts, each part is a “unit” in the sum-total;
but I have not measured the room till I have equated one such part
with a known standard, and thus made it into a unit in the general
system of length equations.

But every kind of whole is an identity, and its parts are always
differences within it.

Nature of Knowledge

4. It will be well to sum up here what we have learnt of the nature

of knowledge in general, before passing to the definition and
classification of Judgment.

Knowledge is always Judgment. Judgment is constructive, for us,

of the real world. Constructing the real world means interpreting or
amplifying our present perception by what we are obliged to think,
which we take as all belonging to a single system one with itself, and
with what constrains us in sense-perception, and objective in the
sense that its parts act on each other independently of our individual
apprehension, and that we are obliged to think them thus. The
process of construction is always that of exhibiting a whole in its
parts, i.e. an identity in its differences; that is to say, it is always
both analytic and synthetic. The objects of knowledge differ in the
mode of relation between their {59} parts and the whole, and thus
give rise to different types of judgment and inference; and this
difference in the form of knowledge is a difference in the content of
Logic, which deals with the objects of experience only from the point
of view of their properties as objects in an intellectual world.

Conclusion

5. I hope that these general lectures, which, as I am quite aware,

have anticipated the treatment of many difficult questions which
they have not attempted to solve, have been successful in putting
the problem of Logic before us with some degree of vividness. If this
problem were thoroughly impressed upon our minds, I should say
that we had already gained something definite from this course of
study. The points which I desire to emphasise are two.

(1) I hope that we have learned to realise the world of our

knowledge as a living growth, sustained by the energy of our
intelligence; and to understand that we do not start with a ready-
made world in common, but can only enter upon the inheritance of
science and civilisation as the result of courage, labour, and
reasonable perseverance; and further, that we retain this inheritance
just as long as our endurance and capacity hold out, and no longer.

And (2) I have attempted to make clear that this living growth,
our knowledge, is like the vegetable or animal world in being
composed of infinite minor systems, each and all of which are at
bottom the same function with corresponding parts or elements,
modified by adaption to the environment. So that the task of
analysing the form of judgment bears a certain resemblance to that
of analysing the forms of plants. Just as from the single cell of the
undifferentiated Alga, to {60} the most highly organised flower or
tree, we have the same formation, with its characteristic functions
and operations, so from the undifferentiated judgment, which in
linguistic form resembles an ejaculation or interjection, to the
reasonable systems of exact or philosophical science, we find the
same systematic function with corresponding elements.

But the world of knowledge has a unity which the world of organic
individuals cannot claim; and this whole system of functions is itself,
for our intelligence, approximately a single function or system,
corresponding in structure to each of its individual parts, as though
the plant world or animal world were itself in turn a plant or animal.
We cannot hope to exhaust the shapes taken by the pervading
fundamental function of intelligence. We shall only attempt to
understand the analogies and differences between some few of its
leading types.

{61}
LECTURE IV TYPES OF JUDGMENT AND THE GENERAL CONDITIONS
INVOLVED IN ASSERTION

Correspondence between types of Judgment and nature of objects

as Knowledge

1. The question of correspondence between the types of

Judgment and the orders of Knowledge was really anticipated in
discussing the relation between the content and the form of
knowledge. We saw that the content or matter and nature known
determines on the whole the form or method of knowledge by which
it can be known.

I give a few cases of this correspondence, not professing to

complete the list. We should accustom ourselves to think of these
forms as constituting a progression in the sense that each of them
betrays a reference to an ideal of knowledge which in itself it is
unable to fulfil, and therefore inevitably suggests some further or
divergent form. And the defect by which the forms contradict the
ideal, is felt by us as a defect in their grasp of reality, in their
presentation of real connections.

“Impersonal” Judgment

a. We think of the judgment as predicating an ideal content of a

subject indicated in present perception. But there are judgments
which scarcely have an immediate subject at all, such as “How hot!”
“Bad!” “It hurts!” In the judgments thus represented the true subject
is some {62} undefined aspect of the given complex presentation. Of
course the words which we use are not an absolutely safe guide to
the judgment—they may be merely an abbreviation. But there are
typical judgments of this kind in which we merely mean to connect
some namable content with that which can only be defined as the
focus of attention at the moment. Such judgments might be called
predications of mere quality. The only link by which they bind their
parts into a whole is a feeling referred to our momentary
surroundings. A mere quality, if not defined or analysed, or a feeling
of pleasure or pain, is the sort of object which can be expressed in
such a judgment.

Perceptive Judgment

b. Then we have the very wide sphere of perceptive judgment,

which we may most conveniently confine to judgments which have
in the subject elements analogous to “This,” “Here,” “Now.” Such
particles as these indicate an effort to distinguish elements within
the complex presented. They have no content beyond the reference
to presentation, and, in “here” and “now,” an implication that the
present is taken in a particular kind of continuum. Otherwise they
mean nothing more or other than is meant by pointing with the
finger. We may or may not help out a “subject” of this kind by
definite ideas attached to it as conditions of the judgment. If we do,
we are already on the road to a new form of knowledge,
incompatible with the judgment of perception. For so long as we
keep a demonstrative, spatial or temporal, reference in the thought,
the subject of judgment is not cut loose from our personal focus of
presentation. And as the existence of such a focus is undeniable, we
are secure against criticism so far as the {63} content of the subject
is concerned. But if we begin to specify it, we do so at our peril.

Such judgments as these have been called “Analytic judgments of

sense.” [1] The term is not generally accepted in this meaning, but is
conveniently illustrative of the nature of these judgments. It is
intended to imply that they are a breaking up and reconstruction of
what, in our usual loose way of talking, is said to be given in sense-
perception. They remain on the whole within the complex of “that
which” is presented.

[1] Mr. F.H. Bradley, Principles of Logic, p. 48.

From the point of view which we have taken, such judgments are
not confined to what we think it worth while to say, but are the
essence of every orderly and objective perception of the world
around us. In a waking human consciousness nothing is unaffirmed.

We have no other term than perception to express the process

which is employed in scientific observation and experiment. But it is
plain that so soon as the judgment that refers to “This” is modified
through the inevitable demand for qualification by exact ideas—“This
hurts me,” “What hurts you?” “This old sprain, at the pace we are
walking”—a conflict of elements has arisen within the judgment. And
as commonplace perception passes into scientific observation, the
qualifying ideas, on which truth and relevancy depend, dwarf the
importance of the “this,” and ultimately oust it altogether. That is a
simple case in which the ideal of knowledge and the nature of reality
operate within the judgment to split asunder its primitive form. The
subject as expressed by a pure demonstrative refuses to {64} take
account either of truth, i.e. consistency with knowledge as a whole,
or of relevancy, i.e. consistency with the relation involved in the
particular predication that may be in question. Our commonplace
perception halts between these two extremes. It deals with the
world of individual objects and persons, which, being already
systematised according to our current observations and interests,
has, so long as we keep to its order, a sufficient degree of truth and
relevancy for the needs of daily life. Thus if I say, “This book will do
as a desk to write upon,” the truth of the qualification “book” (i.e.
the reality of the subject) is assumed on the ground of the facility of
recognising a well-known “thing,” while the relevancy of the
qualification “book” is not questioned, because we accept an
individual thing as an object of habitual interest qua individual, and
do not demand that whenever it is named those properties alone
should be indicated which are relevant to the purpose for which it is
named. The “thing” is a current coin of popular thought, and makes
common perception workable without straining after a special
relevancy in the subject of every predication. Such special relevancy
leads ultimately to the ideal of definition, in which subject and
predicate are adequate to each other and necessarily connected. A
definitory judgment drops the demonstrative and relies on qualifying
ideas alone. It is therefore an abstract universal Judgment, while the
Judgment of Perception, so long as it retains the demonstrative, is a
Singular Judgment.

Proper names in Judgment

c. But a very curious example of a divergence or half-way house in

Knowledge is that form of the singular Judgment in which the
subject is a proper name. A proper name is {65} designative and not
definitory. It may be described as a generalised demonstrative
pronoun—a demonstrative pronoun which has the same particular
reference in the mouth of every one who uses, it, and beyond the
given present of time.

So the reference of a proper name is a good example of what we

called a universal or an identity. That which is referred to by such a
name is a person or thing whose existence is extended in time and
its parts bound together by some continuous quality—an individual
person or thing and the whole of this individuality is referred to in
whatever is affirmed about it. Thus the reference of such a name is
universal, not as including more than one individual, but as including
in the identity of the individual numberless differences—the acts,
events, and relations that make up its history and situation.

What kinds of things are called by Proper Names, and why? This
question is akin to the doctrine of Connotation and Denotation,
which will be discussed in the next lecture. It is a very good problem
to think over beforehand, noting especially the limiting cases, in
which either some people give proper names to things to which
other people do not give them, or some things are given proper
names while other things of the same general kind are not. These
judgments, which are both Singular and Universal, may perhaps be
called for distinction’s sake “Individual” Judgments.

Abstract Judgment

d. The demonstrative perception may also be replaced by a more

or less complete analysis or definition.

Within this province Definition of a concrete whole is one extreme,

e.g. “Human Society is a system of wills”; {66} that of an abstract
whole the other extreme, “12 = 7 + 5.” There are all degrees,
between these two, in the amount of modification which the parts
undergo by belonging to the whole. There are also all sorts of
incomplete definitions, expressing merely the effects of single
conditions out of those which go to make up a whole. These form
the abstract universal judgments of the exact sciences, such as, “If
water is heated to 212° Fahr. under one atmosphere it boils.” In all
these cases some idea, “abstract” as being cut loose from the focus
of present perception, whether abstract or concrete in its content,
replaces the demonstrative of the judgment which is a perception.
These are the judgments which in the ordinary logical classification
rank as universal.

The general definition of Judgment

2. It was quite right of us to consider some types of judgment

before trying to define it generally. It is hopeless to understand a
definition unless the object to be defined is tolerably familiar. We
have said a great deal about knowledge and about judgment as the
organ or medium of knowledge. Now we want to study particular
judgments in their parts and working, and observe how they
perform their function of constructing reality.

Now, for our purpose, we may take the clearest cases of

judgment, viz. the meanings of propositions.

The distinctive character of Judgment as contrasted with every

other act of mind is that it claims to be true, i.e. pre-supposes the
distinction between truth and falsity.

First, we have to consider what is implied in claiming truth.

Secondly, by what means truth is claimed in Judgment.

{67} Thirdly, the nature of the ideas for which alone truth can be
claimed.

What is implied in claiming truth

(i.) Claiming truth implies the distinction between truth and falsity.
I do not say, “between truth and falsehood,” because falsehood
includes a lie, and a lie is not prima facie, an error or falsity of
knowledge. It is, as may be said of a question, altogether addressed
to another person, and has no existence as a distinct species within
knowledge. Thus a lie is called by Plato “falsehood in words”; the
term “falsehood in the mind” he reserves for ignorance or error,
which he treats as the worst of the two, which from an intellectual
point of view it plainly is.

No distinction between truth and falsity can exist unless, in the act
or state which claims truth, there is a reference to something outside
psychical occurrence in the course of ideas. Falsity or error are
relations that imply existences which, having reality of one kind,
claim in addition to this another kind of reality which they have not.
In fact, all things that are called false, are called so because they
claim a place or property which they do not possess. They must
exist, in order to be false. It is in the non-fulfilment, by their
existence, of some claim or pretension which it suggests, that falsity
consists. And so it is in the fulfilment of such a claim that truth has a
meaning. A false coin exists as a piece of metal; it is false because it
pretends to a place in the monetary system which its properties or
history [1] contradict.

[1] For it is, I suppose, technically false, even if over value, if not
coined by those who have the exclusive legal right to coin.

As the claim to be true is made by every judgment in its {68}

form, there can be no judgment without some recognition of a
difference between psychical occurrences and the system of reality.
That is to say, there is no judgment unless the judging mind is more
or less aware that it is possible to have an idea which is not in
accordance with reality.
 Thus, if an animal has no real world distinct from his train of
mental images, if, that is, and just because, these are his world
directly, and without discord, he cannot judge. The question is, e.g.
when he seems disappointed, whether the pleasant image [1] simply
disappears and a less pleasant image takes its place, or whether the
erroneous image was distinguished as an element in “a mere idea,”
which could be retained and compared with the systematised
perceptions which force it out, as an idea with reality.

[1] It will be observed that we are not treating the mental images
as being taken for such by the primitive mind. It is just in as far as
they are not yet taken for such that they are merely such. Mr. James
says that the first sensation is for the child the universe (Psychology
II. 7). But it is a universe in which all is equally mere fact, and there
is no distinction of truth and falsehood, or reality and unreality. That
can only come when an existent is found to be a fraud.

We must all of us have seen a dog show signs of pleasure when

he notices preparations for a walk, and then express the extreme of
unhappiness when the walk is not taken at all, or he is left at home.
People interpret these phenomena very carelessly. They say “he
thought that he was going to be taken out.” If he did “think that,
etc,” then he made a judgment. This would imply that he
distinguishes between the images suggested to his mind, and the
reality of their content as the future event of going out, and knew
that he might have the one without the other following. But of {69}
course it is quite possible that the dog has no distinct expectation of
something different from his present images, but merely derives
pleasure from them, which he expresses, and suffers and expresses
pain when they are replaced by something else. It is here, no doubt,
in the conflict of suggestion and perception, that judgment
originates.

On the other hand, animals, especially domestic animals, do seem

to use the imperative, which perhaps implies that they know what
they want, and have it definitely contrasted with their present ideas
as something to be realised.

However this may be, the claim of truth marks the minimum of
Judgment. There can be no judgment until we distinguish psychical
fact from the reference to Reality. A mere mental fact as such is not
true or false. In other words, there is no judgment unless there is
something that, formally speaking, is capable of being denied. When
your dog sees you go to the front door, he may have an image of
hunting a rabbit suggested to his mind, but so far there is nothing
that can be denied. If he has the image, of course he has. There is
nothing that can be denied until the meaning of this image is treated
as a further fact beyond the image itself, in a system independent of
the momentary consciousness in his mind. Then it is possible to say,
“No, the fact does not correspond to your idea,” i.e. what we are
ultimately obliged to think as a system is inconsistent with the idea
as you affirmed it of the same system.

By what means the claim to truth is made

(ii.) The first thing then in Judgment is that we must have a world
of reality distinguished from the course of our ideas. Thereupon the
claim to truth is actually made by attaching the meaning of an idea
to some point in the real {70} world. This can only be done where
an identity is recognised between reality and our meaning.
 Thus (keeping to the Judgment of Perception) I say, “This table is
made of oak.” This table is given in perception already qualified by
numberless judgments; it is a point in the continuous system or
tissue which we take as reality. Among its qualities it has a certain
grain and colour in the wood. I know the colour and grain of oak-
wood, and if they are the same as those of the table, then the
meaning or content “made of oak” coalesces with this point in
reality, and instead of merely saying, “This table is made of wood
that has such and such a grain and colour,” I am able to say “This
table is made of oak-wood.”

This example shows the true distinction between the Logical

Subject and Predicate. The fact is, that the ultimate subject in
Judgment is always Reality. Of course the logical subject may be
quite different from the grammatical subject. Some kinds of words
cannot in strict grammar be made subjects of a sentence, though
they can represent a logical subject quite well: e.g. “Now is the
time.” “Here is the right place_.” Adverbs, I suppose, cannot be
grammatical subjects. But in these sentences they stand for the
logical subjects, certain points in the perceptive series.

The true logical subject then is always reality, however much

disguised by qualifications or conditions. The logical predicate is
always the meaning of an idea; and the claim to be true consists in
the affirmation of the meaning as belonging to the tissue of reality at
the point indicated by the subject. The connection is always made by
identity of {71} content at the point where the idea joins the reality,
so that the judgment always appears as a revelation of something
which is in reality. It simply develops, accents, or gives accuracy to a
recognised quality of the real. This is easily seen in cases of simple
quality—e.g. “This colour is sky-blue.” The colour is given, and the
judgment merely identifies it with sky-blue, and so reveals another
element belonging to its identity, the element of being seen in the
sky on a clear day.

The analysis is not quite so easy when there is a concrete subject

like a person; for how can there be an identity between a person
and a fact? “A.B. passed me in the street this afternoon.” Between
what elements is the identity in this case? It is between him, as an
individual whom I know by sight in other places, and him as he
appeared this afternoon in particular surroundings. His identity
already extends through a great many different particulars of time
and place, and this judgment merely recognises one more particular
as included in the same continuous history. “He in this context
belongs to him in a former context.” In this simple case the operative
identity is probably that of my friend’s personal appearance; but the
judgment is not merely about that but about his whole personality,
of which his personal appearance is merely taken as a sign.

Any assertion which is incredible because the identical quality is

wanting will illustrate the required structure. There is a story
commented on by Thackeray in one of his occasional papers, which
implied that the Duke of Wellington took home note-paper from a
club to which he did not {72} belong. (Thackeray gives the true
explanation of the fact on which the suggestion was founded.) The
identity concerned in this case would be that of character. Can we
find an identity between the character involved in a piece of
meanness like that suggested and the character of the Duke of
Wellington? No; and prima facie therefore the judgment is false. The
identity which should bind it together breaks it in two. But yet,
again: supposing the external evidence to be strong enough, we
may have to accept a fact which conflicts with a man’s character as
we conceive it. That is so: in such a case one kind of identity
appears to contradict the other. I may think that I saw a man with
my own eyes, doing something which wholly contradicts his
character as I judge it. Then there is a conflict between identity in
personal appearance and identity in character, and we have to
criticise the two estimates of identity—i.e. to refer them both to our
general system of knowledge, and to accept the connection which
can be best adapted to that system.

We have got, then, as the active elements in Judgment a Subject

in
Reality, the meaning of an idea, and an identity between them.

Is this enough? Have we the peculiar act of affirmation wherever

we have these conditions?

This is not the question by what elements of language the

judgment is rendered. We shall speak of that in the next lecture. The
question is now, simply, “Is a significant idea, referred to reality,
always an assertion?”

The first answer seems to be that such an idea is always in an

assertion, but need not constitute the whole of an {73} assertion. If
we think of a subject in judgment which is represented by a relative
sentence, it seems clear that any idea which can stand a predicate
can also form a part of a subject. “The exhibition which it is
proposed to hold at Chicago in 1893”—has in effect just the same
elements of meaning, and just the same reference to a point in our
world of reality as if the sentence ran, “It is proposed to hold an
exhibition at Chicago in 1893.” In common parlance we should say,
that in the former case we entertain an idea—or conceive or
represent it—while in the latter case we affirm it.
 But if we go on to say that the former kind of sentence as truly
represents the nature of thought as the latter, then it seems that we
are mistaken. Even language does not admit such a clause to the
rank of an independent sentence.

If we insist on considering it in its isolation, we probably eke it out

in thought by an unarticulated affirmation such as that which
constitutes an impersonal judgment; in other words, we affirm it to
belong to reality under some condition which remains unspecified.
Thus the linguistic form of the relative clause, as also the separate
existence of the spoken or written word, produces an illusion which
has governed the greater part of logical theory so far as concerns
the separation between concept and judgment, i.e. between
entertaining ideas and affirming them in reality. In our waking life,
all thought is judgment, every idea is referred to reality, and in being
so referred, is ultimately affirmed of reality. The separation of
elements in the texture of Judgment into Subjects and Predicates
which, as separated, are conceived as possible Subjects and
Predicates, is therefore {74} theoretical and ideal, an analysis of a
living tissue, not an enumeration of loose bricks out of which
something is about to be built up.

The kind of ideas which can claim truth

(iii.) “Idea” has two principal meanings.

(a) A psychical presentation and

(b) An identical reference.

This distinction is the same as that between our course of ideas

and our world of knowledge. We must try now to define it more
accurately.

(a) An idea as a psychical presentation is strictly a particular. Every

moment of consciousness is full of a given complex of presentation
which passes away and can never be repeated without some
difference. For this purpose a representation is just the same as a
presentation; is, in fact, a presentation. Its detail at any given
moment is filled in by the influence of the moment, and it can never
occur again with precisely the same elements of detail as before. If
we use the term “idea” in this sense, as a momentary particular
mental state, it is nonsense to speak of having the same idea twice,
or of referring it to a reality other than our mental life. The idea in
this sense is a psychical image. We cannot illustrate this usage by
any recognisable part of our mental furniture, for every such part
which can be described and indicated by a general name, is
something more than a psychical image. We can only say that that
which at any moment we have in consciousness, when our waking
perception encounters reality, is such an idea, and so too is the
image supplied by memory, when considered simply as a datum, a
fact, in our mental history.

(b) To get at the other sense of “idea” we should think {75} of the
meaning of a word; a very simple case is that of a proper name.
What is the meaning of “St. Paul’s Cathedral in London”? No two
people who have seen it have carried away precisely the same
image of it in their minds, nor does memory, when it represents the
Cathedral to each of them, supply the same image in every detail
and association twice over to the same person, nor do we for a
moment think that such an image is the Cathedral. [1] Yet we
neither doubt that the name means something, and that the same to
all those who employ it, nor that it means the same to each of them
at one time that it did at every other time. The psychical images
which formed the first vision of it are dead and gone for ever, and
so, after every occasion on which it has been remembered, are
those in which that memory was evoked. The essence of the idea
does not lie in the peculiarities of any one of their varying
presentations, but in the identical reference that runs through them
all, and to which they all serve as material, and the content of this
reference is the object of our thought.

[1] When we are actually looking at the Cathedral, we say, “That

is the Cathedral.” Does not this mean that we take our momentary
image, to which we point, to be the reality of the Cathedral? Not
precisely so. It is the “that,” not our definite predication about it,
which makes us so confident. The “that” is identified by our
judgment, but goes beyond it.

In order to distinguish and employ this reference it is necessary

that there should be a symbol for it, and so long as it brings us to
the object which is the centre of the entire system, this symbol may
vary within considerable limits.

The commonest and most secure means of reference is {76} the

word or name. [1] So confident are we in the “conventional” or
artificially adapted character of this mark or sign of reference, that
we are inclined to treat it as absolutely unvarying on every occasion
of utterance. But of course it is not unvarying. It differs in sound
every time it is spoken, and in context and appearance every time
we see it in a written shape. Our reliance upon it as identical
throughout depends on the fact that it has a recognisable character
to which its variations are irrelevant, and which practically crushes
out these variations from our attention. Unless we are on the look-
out for mispronunciations or misprints, they do not interfere at all
with our attention to the main reference of words. We know that it is
almost impossible to detect misprints so long as one reads a book
with attention to its meaning. This then is a fair parallel to the
distinction which we are considering between two kinds of ideas. If
the momentary sound or look of a word is analogous to idea as
psychical presentation, “the word” as a permanent possession of our
knowledge is analogous to the idea as a reference to an object in
our systematic world, and is the normal instrument of such a
reference.

[1] “A name is a sound which has significance according to

convention,” i.e. according to rational agreement.—Ar. de Interp. 16a
19.

But either with the word or without it there may be a symbol of

another kind. Any psychical image that falls within certain limits may
appear as the momentary vehicle of the constant reference to an
object. Just as in recognising the reference of a word we omit to
notice the accent and loudness with which it is pronounced, or the
quality of the paper on which it is printed, just so in recognising the
{77} reference of a psychical image our attention fails to note its
momentary context, colouring, and detail. If it includes something
that definitely belongs to a systematic object in our world of objects,
that is enough, unless counteracted by cross references, to effect
the suggestion we require, and that, and nothing else, arrests our
attention for the moment. When I think of St. Paul’s Cathedral, it
may be the west front, or the dome seen from the outside, or the
gallery seen from the inside, that happens to occur to my mind; and
further, that which does occur to me occurs in a particular form or
colouring, dictated by the condition of my memory and attention at
the moment. But these peculiarities are dwarfed by the meaning,
and unless I consider them for psychological purposes, I do not
know that they are there. It is the typical element only, the element
which points to the common reference in which my interest centres,
that forms the content of the idea in this sense, taken not as a
transient feature of the mental complex, but as definitely suggesting
a constant object in our constructed world. And it suggests this
object because it, the typical element, is a common point that links
together the various cases and the various presentations in which
the object is given to us. In this sense it is a universal or an identity.

How can this conception of a logical idea be applied to a perfectly

simple presentation? It would be impossible so to apply it, but there
does not seem to be such a thing as a simple presentation in the
sense of a presentation that has no connection as a universal with
anything else. In the image of a particular blue colour, we cannot
indeed separate out what makes it blue from what makes it the
particular {78} shade of blue that it is. But nevertheless its blueness
makes it a symbol to us of blue in general, and when so thought of,
crushes out of sight all the visible peculiarities that attend every
spatial surface. We understand perfectly well that the colour is blue,
and that in saying this we have gone beyond the limits of the
momentary image, and have referred something in it as a universal
quality to our world of objects. An idea, in this sense, is both less
and more than a psychical image. It contains less, but stands for
more. It includes only what is central and characteristic in the detail
of each mental presentation, and therefore omits much. But it is not
taken as a mental presentation at all, but as a content belonging to
a systematic world of objects independent of my thought, and
therefore stands for something which is not mere psychical image.
 If therefore we are asked to display it as an image, as something
fixed in a permanent outline, however pale or meagre, we cannot do
so. It is not an abstract image, but a concrete habit or tendency. It
can only be displayed in the judgment, that is, in a concrete case of
reference to reality. Apart from this, it is a mere abstraction of
analysis, a tendency to operate in a certain way upon certain
psychical presentations. Psychically speaking, it is when realised in
judgment a process more or less systematic, extending through
time, and dealing with momentary presentations as its material. In
other words, we may describe it as a selective rule, shown by its
workings but not consciously before the mind—for if it were, it would
no longer be an idea, but an idea of an idea.

Every judgment, whether made with language or without, {79} is

an instance of such an idea, which may be called a symbolic idea as
distinct from a psychical image; “symbolic” because the mental units
or images involved are not as such taken as the whole of the object
for which they stand, but are in a secondary sense, as the word in a
primary sense, symbols or vehicles only.

Such ideas can have truth claimed for them, because they have a
reference beyond their mental existence. They point to an object in
a system of permanent objects, and that to which they point may or
may not suit the relation which they claim for it. Therefore the
judgment can only be made by help of symbolic ideas. Mere mental
facts, occurrences in my mental history, taken as such, cannot enter
into judgment. When we judge about them, as in the last sentence,
they are not themselves subject or predicate, but are referred to,
like any other facts, by help of a selective process dealing with our
current mental images of them. We shall not be far wrong then, if in
every judgment, under whatever disguises it may assume, we look
for elements analogous to those which are manifest in the simple
perceptive judgment, “This is green,” or “That is a horse.” The
relation between these and more elaborate forms of affirmation,
such as the abstract judgment of science, has partly been indicated
in the earlier portion of this lecture. The general definition of
judgment has therefore been sufficiently suggested on p. 72.
Judgment is the reference of a significant idea to a subject in reality,
by means of an identity of content between them.

{80}

LECTURE V THE PROPOSITION AND THE NAME

Judgment translated into language.

1. Judgment expressed in words is a Proposition. Must Judgment

be expressed in words? We have assumed that this need not be so.
Mill [1] says of Inference that “it is an operation which usually takes
place by means of words, and in complicated cases can take place in
no other way.” The same is true of Judgment.

[1] Logic vol. I. c. i., init.

We may say in general that words are not needed, when thinking
about objects by help of pictorial images will do the work demanded
of the mind, i.e. when perfectly individualised connections in space
and time are in question. Mr. Stout [1] gives chess-playing as an
example. With the board before him, even an ordinary player does
not need words to describe to himself the move which he is about to
make.
 [1] In Mind, no. 62.

Words are needed when we have to attend to the general plan of

any system, as in thinking about organisms with reference to their
type, or about political relations—about anything, that is, which is
not of such a nature that the members of the idea can be
symbolised in pictorial form. It would be difficult, for example, to
comprehend the respiration of plants under a symbolic picture-idea
drawn {81} from the respiration of the higher animals. The relations
which constitute a common element between the two processes do
not include the movements, feelings, and visible changes in the
circulatory fluid from which our image of animal respiration is chiefly
drawn; and we could hardly frame a pictorial idea that would duly
insist on the chemical and organic conditions on which the common
element of the process depends. In a case of this kind the word is
the symbol which enables us to hold together in a coherent system,
though not in a single image, the relations which make up the
content of our thought.

“Words” may be of many different kinds—spoken, written,

indicated by deaf and dumb signs; all of these are derived from the
word as it is in speech, although writing and printing become
practically independent of sound, and we read, like the deaf and
dumb alphabet, directly by the eye. Then there may be any kind of
conventional signals either for letters, words, or sentences, and any
kind of cipher or memoria technica either for private or for general
use—in these the “conventional” nature of language reaches its
climax, and the relation to a natural growth of speech has
disappeared. And finally there are all forms of picture-writing, which
need not, so far as its intrinsic nature goes, have any connection
with speech at all, and which seems to form a direct transition
between picture-thinking and thinking through the written sign.

All these must be considered under the head of language, as a

fixed system or signs for meanings, before we can ultimately
pronounce that we think without words.

Every Judgment, however, can be expressed in words, {82}

though not every Judgment need be so expressed or can readily be
so.

Proposition and sentence.

2. A Judgment expressed in words is a Proposition, which is one

kind of sentence. A command question or wish is a sentence but not
a proposition. A detached relative clause [1] is not even a complete
sentence. The meaning of the imperative and the question seems to
include some act of will; the meaning of a proposition is always
given out simply for fact or truth. We need not consider any
sentence that has no meaning at all.

[1] See above, Lect. IV.

Difference between Proposition and Judgment

3. Almost all English logicians speak of the Proposition and not of

the Judgment. [1] This does not matter, so long as we are agreed
about what they mean. They must mean the proposition as
understood, and this is what we call the judgment.

[1] So Mill, Venn, Jevons, Bain (see his note, p. 80).