TRANSPO

Module 1: Introduction to Plumbing, Water

Supply Systems, Piping Materials, Fittings, • Plumbing fixtures, devices and
Valves, and Plumbing Fixtures appurtenances shall be supplied with water
in sufficient volume and pressure adequate
PLUMBING
to function satisfactorily and without undue
• Plumbing is the art and technique of noise.
installing pipes, fixtures, and other
apparatuses in buildings for bringing in
the supply of liquids, substances and/or
ingredients and removing them; and
such water, liquid and other carried-
wastes hazardous to health, sanitation,
life and property pipes and fixtures after
installation i.e., the ‘plumbing system’.
• Plumbing shall be designed and adjusted
(Section 217.6 The Revised National
to use the minimum quantity of water
Plumbing Code of the Philippines 1999)
consistent with proper performance and
• Plumbing System includes all potable cleaning
water supply and distribution pipes, all
• Devices for heating and storing water shall
plumbing fixtures and traps; all sanitary
be so designed and installed as to prevent
and storm drainage systems; vent pipes,
dangers from explosion through
roof drains, leaders and downspouts;
overheating
and all building drains and sewers,
including their respective joints and • Every building abutting on a street, alley or
connections; devices, receptacles, and easement with a public sewer shall
appurtenances within the property; connect its plumbing fixtures to the sewer
water lines in the premises; potable, tap, system
hot and chilled water piping; potable
• Each family dwelling unit shall have at least
water treating or using equipment; fuel
one water closet, one kitchen type sink, a
gas piping; water heaters and vents for
lavatory and a bathtub or shower to meet
same.(Section 217.12 NPC 1999)
the basic requirements of sanitation and
Major Components of Plumbing System personal hygiene.

• The water supply and water distribution • Plumbing fixtures shall be made of smooth
system. Carries water from the water non-absorbent material, free from
source, street main or a pump to the concealed fouling surfaces and shall be
building and to various points in the located in ventilated enclosures.
building at which water is used.
• The drainage system shall be designed,
• The plumbing fixtures. The receptacles constructed and maintained to safeguard
that receive the supplied water and against fouling, deposit of solids, clogging
allow the occupants of the building to and with adequate cleanouts so arranged
use the water. that the pipes may be readily cleaned

• The drainage system. The piping • All piping shall be of durable NAMPAP-
network within the building which approved materials, free from defective
conveys from the plumbing fixtures all workmanship, designed and constructed
wastes and fecal matter (sanitary by Registered Master Plumbers to ensure
drainage) as well as rainwater (storm satisfactory service
drainage) to a point of disposal or a
• Each fixture directly connected to the
treatment facility.
drainage system shall be equipped with a
Basic Principles of Plumbing water-sealed trap.

• All premises intended for human use or • The drainage pipes piping system shall be
habitation shall be provided with a designed to provide adequate circulation
supply of pure and wholesome water, of air free from siphonage, aspiration or
neither connected to unsafe water forcing of trap seals under ordinary use.
supply nor subject to backflow or back-
• Vent terminals shall extend to the outer air
siphonage
and installed to prevent clogging and the
return of foul air to the building.
• Plumbing systems shall be subjected to Water Sources
such tests to effectively disclose all leaks
Water Sources - A supply of good water is
and defects in the workmanship.
more important to human survival than food.
Potable is clean water that is suitable for
human drinking. It must be available for
drinking, cooking, and cleaning. Non-potable
water may be used for flushing water closets
(toilets), irrigating grass and gardens, washing
cars, and for any use other than drinking,
cooking, or cleaning. An abundant supply of
potable water that is easily distributed is vital to
a prosperous economy.

Surface Water - Surface water readily provides

much of the water needed by cities, counties,
large industry, and others. However, this source
• Substance which will clog the pipes, is dependent on recurring rain. During a long
produce explosive mixtures, destroy the period of drought, the flow of water may be
pipes or their joints or interfere unduly with significantly reduced. Reservoirs hold surface
the sewage-disposal process shall not be water during periods of high runoff and release
allowed to enter the building drainage water during periods of low runoff. Surface
system. water is typically treated to provide the
potable water required. Where non-potable
• Proper protection shall be provided to water may be used, no treatment of the water
prevent contamination of food, water, is necessary.
sterile goods and similar materials by
backflow of sewage. When necessary, the Groundwater - Groundwater seeps through the
fixture, device or appliance shall be soil and is trapped on impervious stratum, a
connected indirectly with the building layer of soil or rock that water cannot pass
drainage system. through. The water collects in pores of
permeable stratum; a layer of porous earth
• No water closet shall be located in a room that water can pass through such as sands,
or compartment which is not properly gravels, limestone, or basalt. Saturated
lighted and ventilated. permeable stratum capable of providing a
• If there is no sewer system in the area, usable supply of water is known as an aquifer.
suitable provision shall be made for the
disposal of building sewage by some
accepted method of sewage treatment
and disposal, such as a septic tank.

• Where a plumbing drainage system may

be subject to backflow of sewage, suitable
provision shall be made to prevent its
overflow in the building.

• Plumbing systems shall be maintained in

serviceable condition by Registered Master
Plumbers

• All plumbing fixtures shall be installed

properly spaced, to be accessible for their
intended use

• Plumbing shall be installed with due regard

to the preservation of the strength of
structural members and the prevention of
damage to walls and other surfaces
through fixture usage

• Sewage or other waste from plumbing

systems, which may be deleterious to
surface or sub-surface waters shall not be
discharged into the ground or into any
waterway, unless first rendered innocuous
through subjection to some acceptable
form of treatment.
Water Purification - Water purification is any pump draws water from the well where it is
method that will remove one or more materials stored in a storage tank. A switch activated
that make the water unsuitable for a given use. by water pressure controls the pump.
 Water Towers and Elevated Storage tanks -
 Aeration- Water is sprayed into the air to
Water towers used in community systems
release any trapped gases and absorb
and elevated water storage tanks used in
additional oxygen for better taste.
private systems carry a reserve capacity of
 Coagulation- Flocculation- This is the
water
process by which small sediment particles
which do not settle well combine together Fittings
to form larger particles which can be
• Fittings - A variety of fittings must be used to
removed by sedimentation.
connect pipe lengths and make all the
 Sedimentation- This is the process by which
pipe turns, branch lines, couplings that join
suspended solids are removed from the
the straight runs, and stops at the end of
water by gravity settling and deposition.
the runs. Fittings for steel and wrought-iron
This process usually follows coagulation-
pipe are made of malleable iron and cast
flocculation. The objective of this process is
iron. The fittings for plastic, copper, and
to remove most of the suspended solids,
brass pipe are made of the same materials
reducing the loads on the filters.
as the pipe being connected.
 Filtration- This is the passage of fluid through
a porous medium suspended matter which • Elbows - usually at 45° and 90°, are angular
did not settle by gravity. In water fittings used to change the direction of a
purification, matter to be removed includes supply pipe. On a sanitary drainage system,
suspended silt, clay, colloids, and a sanitary bend makes a more gradual turn
microorganisms including algae, bacteria, to prevent blockage.
and viruses. A filter bed consists of a
granular non-porous material held one • Tees - Tees are used in a supply system
place by the force of gravity or by the when a line must branch off at a straight
direction of flow. run. A reducing tee allows different pipe
 Disinfection/ Chlorination- This is the most sizes to be joined together in a supply
important process used in the production of system. Sanitary T and sanitary Y are tee-like
water of a safe and sanitary quality. fittings used in sanitary drainage systems
Chlorination is the method of introducing a that make a more gradual turn to prevent
controlled amount of chlorine to the water blockage. A sanitary Y can accept two or
in order to attain a desired degree of three branches before combining flow into
disinfection one pipe.

Water Supply Systems - In large metropolitan • Couplings - Couplings are used to join
areas, most of the drinking water originates straight runs of pipe. A union joins straight
from a surface source such as a lake, stream, runs of pipe but also allows the pipes to be
river, or reservoir. In rural areas, people are more easily disconnected when future
more likely to drink groundwater that was piping revisions are expected or equipment
pumped from a well. needs to be replaced.

 Community Water Supply Systems - are • Reducer - straight fitting used to decrease
public or private entities that install and the diameter in a pipe in a water supply
provide a central supply of water to a system. An increaser is a straight fitting used
neighborhood, city or special district. They to increase the diameter in a pipe in a
are government owned, as in most cities, or sanitary drainage system
privately owned, such as in a rural housing • Adapters - Adapters are used in a supply
development where the builder or real system where threaded pipe is being
estate developer develops the water connected to copper or thermoplastic.
system Adapters have one threaded end to
 Private Systems - Large industrial and accommodate threaded pipe.
commercial projects may draw all of their
supply from one source (e.g., a stream) or Valves
they may draw part of their supply from • Valves - used to control flow of the water
one source (such as a stream) and throughout the system. Proper location of
supplement the supply with another source valves simplifies repairs to the system,
(e.g., a well). Such systems often include fixtures, or equipment being serviced.
treatment plants, water storage towers, Valves also regulate flow to deliver the
and sometimes reservoirs to store the water. appropriate quantity of water and reduce
 Well systems - A modern well system water consumption. In building plumbing
consists of a well, a motor-driven pump, systems, there are usually valves at risers
and a storage tank. In most systems, the (vertical pipe serving the building),
 branches (horizontal pipe serving the make, flushing mechanism, shape and
fixtures), and pipes to individual fixtures or installation
equipment. The inner workings of most
A. Types of Water Closet as to design:
valves are generally accessible for repairs.
1. Siphon washdown
• Gate Valve - manual valve that has a
wedge-shaped leaf that, when closed, 2. Siphon jet
seals tightly against two metal seats that
are set at slight angles. This type of valve is 3. Siphon Vortex
usually used where the flow of the water is 4. Reverse Trap
left either completely opened or closed for
most of the time B. Types of Water Closet as to make:

• Globe Valve - manual, compression-type 1. One piece

valve, commonly used where there is 2. Close Coupled
occasional or periodic use, such as
lavatories (faucets) and hose connections 3. Pail Flush
(called hose bibbs). This type of valve
4. Squat Bowl
regulates the flow of water. Design of the
globe valve is such that the water passing C. Types of Water Closet as to Flushing
through is forced to make two 90° turns, mechanism:
which greatly increases the friction loss in
1. Flush tank
this valve compared with that in a gate
valve 2. Flush Valve
• Angle Valve - manual valve similar in D. Types of Water Closet as to shape:
operation to the globe valve, utilizing the
1. Round Front
same principle of compressing a washer
against a metal seat to cut the flow of 2. Elongated Front
water. It is commonly used for outside hose
bibbs. The angle valve has a much higher E. Types of Water Closet as to Installation:
friction loss than the gate valve and about 1. Free Standing
half the friction loss of the globe valve.
2. Wall Hung
• Check Valve - allow the flow of water in
the direction desired and prevents flow in Plumbing Fixtures
the other direction. There are two types of SIPHON WASHDOWN- The least expensive but
check valves, swing types and spring types. the noisiest; only small amount of standing
In the swing check valve design, the water- susceptible to fouling, staining and
pressure of the water forces the valve gate contamination. It is mechanically satisfactory
to swing open, but once the flow stops, and is lower in price. Hence, it is widely used
gravity causes the gate to fall closed, and entirely acceptable where price is the
preventing a reversal of the flow. main consideration.
Plumbing Fixtures SIPHON JET- The jet being submerged
• A plumbing fixture is an approved introduces its water underwater so that its
receptacle, device, or appliance that uses operation is entirely muffled. It has a large
water and discharges wastewater such as amount of standing water to prevent fouling. It
a water closet, urinal, faucet, shower, is mechanically efficient but expensive.
dishwasher, drinking fountain, hose SIPHON VORTEX- this type of bowl develops its
connection, hose bibb, water heater, water flushing action through the water entering
softener, underground sprinkler, hot tub, through diagonal holes around the rim which
spa, and clothes washer. They must be creates a swirling action which forms a vortex
made of dense, durable, nonabsorbent in the center. It is considered to be the most
materials with smooth, impermeable quiet, most efficient and most sanitary water
surfaces. Plumbing fixtures are the only part closet.
of the plumbing system that the owners or
occupants of the building will see regularly, REVERSE TRAP - the trap way located at the
because most of the plumbing piping is rear of the water closet eliminated the buldge
concealed in walls and floors at the front. The design and appearance of
the bowl plus its large water area and
• Water Closet - plumbing fixture used to quietness in operation, make it desirable than
receive human excremental and to siphon wash down.
discharge it through a waste pipe, using
water as a conveying medium. Water ONE-PIECE WATER CLOSET- The water closet
closets are classified according to design, fixture is manufactured with the bowl and the
flush tank molded into a single unit. Usually • The Domestic Cold Water Supply of the
used in tandem with the bidet. plumbing system consists of the piping and
fittings which supply cold water from the
CLOSED COUPLED WATER CLOSET- a water
building water supply to the fixtures, such as
closet where in the flush tank is separate but is
lavatories, bathtubs, water closets and
attached to the toilet bowl. It is a two-piece
kitchen sinks. This is also known as Water
model.
Distribution System.
PAIL FLUSH WATER CLOSET- a water closet
The Elements of the Water Supply and
comprising only of a bowl without a flush tank.
Distribution System are:
Flushing action is obtained only through water
poured from a pail or bucket. This is used in 1. Water Service or House Service
areas where running water systems are not
2. Water Meter
available.
3. Distribution Main or Horizontal Supply
SQUAT BOWL WATER- A water closet that is
Main
otherwise known as "Eastern type" since the
user assumes a squatting position rather than a 4. Fixture Branches
sitting position.
5. Riser
FLUSH TANK- holds a supply of water for flushing
a fixture such as the water closet. It has a 6. Valves and Control
capacity of 5 to 6 gallons. 7. Storage Tanks
FLUSH VALVE- valve designed to supply a fixed Service Tap Connection Details
quantity of water for flushing purposes. It is
activated by direct water pressure without the • Corporation Cock – A valve screwed into
use of a flush tank. It is also known as the street water main to supply the house
Flushometer or Flushometer valve. The flush service connection.
valve requires 10 to 20 psi flow pressure. • Gooseneck – The part of the pipe curved
ROUND FRONT- intended for installation on a like the neck of a goose, usually flexible.
limited space. Also the lead connection between a
service pipe and water main.
ELONGETED FRONT- is more comfortable but
occupies a larger space. • Curb Stop or Curb Cock – A control valve
for the water supply of a building, usually
Lavatory - a fixture designed for the washing of placed between the sidewalk and the
the hands or face. It is also known as wash street curb; used to shut off the water
basin supply in case of emergency or should the
Urinal - A sanitary fixture equipped with a water supply of the building be
water supply and drain for flushing away urine. discontinued.

Kitchen Sink - a plumbing fixtures usually • Water Meter – A mechanical device used
consisting of a basin with a water supply, to measure the volume of water passing
connected with a drain. through a pipe.

Bidet - a plumbing fixture used for washing the • Meter Stop – A valve placed at the street
middle part of the body, especially the side of the water meter and serves as a
genitals. It is also known as the Sitz Bath. controlling device for the building
installation.
Bath Tub - a tube for bathing, usually a fixed
plumbing installation designed for one person. • Upfeed Distribution System
It is available in left outlet and right outlet. a. Direct Pressure
Shower head - an overhead nozzle that sprays b. Hydropneumatic Pressure System or
water down on the bather. Pneumatic Air-Pressure system
Drinking fountain - Drinking fountains offer users • Downfeed Distribution System
a limitless supply of drinking water at any
location where water and sanitary drainage a. Gravity Tank
are readily available.

Building Supply

• The building supply or water service is a

large water supply pipe that carries
potable water from the district or city water
system or other water source to the
building.
 enter the potable water system. A cross-
connection can cause used or
contaminated water to mix with the
water supply. It is an unsanitary and
potentially hazardous condition. For
example, a garden hose with one end
immersed in a bucket of soapy water or
in a swimming pool are possible
backflow conditions.

Water Hammer

• a knocking in the pipes caused when

faucets in the lower levels are shut off
abruptly or automatically

• the force exerted by the decelerating

water causes the pipes to shake and
rattle

Water Supply Design Concerns

Water Velocity

• Noise, erosion of inner pipe walls and

valves, and economy of installation,
operation, and maintenance dictate
the minimum and maximum water
velocity in a plumbing system; as a
result, these have a bearing on pipe
diameter. If pipe diameters are small,
cost is low but noise, erosion (from high
velocities), and pumping costs (from
high-pressure losses) are high. In
contrast, large diameter pipes reduce
noise erosion and pumping costs, but
result in high installation costs. An
intermediate pipe diameter is desirable.

Cavitation

• Cavitation is a physical phenomenon

that occurs in a liquid when it
experiences a drastic drop in pressure
that causes the liquid to vaporize into
small vapor bubbles. As the low pressure
returns to normal pressure levels, these
bubbles implode as the vapor changes
phase back to a liquid and thus
drastically decreases its volume. This
implosion causes noise and high levels
of erosion where the imploding bubbles
contact the walls of a pipe, fitting,
pump, or valve. The noise that develops
sounds similar to gravel flowing through
the system in the area where the
cavitation is developing. Over time, the
erosion results in excessive wear; this
eventually manifests itself as pinhole
leaking.

Cross-Connection

• A cross-connection is an unsatisfactory
connection or arrangement of piping
that can cause nonpotable water to
 MODULE 2: Building Water Supply System water supply of the building be
discontinued.
Building Supply
Meter Connection Details
• The building supply or water service is a
large water supply pipe that carries • Water Meter – A mechanical device used
potable water from the district or city to measure the volume of water passing
water system or other water source to through a pipe.
the building.
• Meter Stop – A valve placed at the street
• The Domestic Cold Water Supply of the side of the water meter and serves as a
plumbing system consists of the piping controlling device for the building
and fittings which supply cold water installation.
from the building water supply to the
• Upfeed Distribution System
fixtures, such as lavatories, bathtubs,
water closets and kitchen sinks. This is a. Direct Pressure
also known as Water Distribution System.
b. Hydropneumatic Pressure System or
The Elements of the Water Supply and Pneumatic Air-Pressure system
Distribution System are:
• Downfeed Distribution System
1. Water Service or House Service
a. Gravity Tank
2. Water Meter

3. Distribution Main or Horizontal Supply

Main

4. Fixture Branches

5. Riser

6. Valves and Control

7. Storage Tanks

Water (Street) Main – A water supply pipe for

public or community use controlled by public
authority.

Water – Service Pipe – The pipe from the water

main, water meter, water supply system or
other approved source of water supply, to the
building or structure served.

Water – Distribution Pipe – A pipe which

conveys potable water from the building
supply pipe to the plumbing fixtures & other
water outlets in the building. Water Supply Design Concerns

Fixture Branch – A pipe connecting several Water Velocity

fixture. • Noise, erosion of inner pipe walls and
Fixture Supply – A water supply pipe valves, and economy of installation,
connecting the fixture with the fixture branch operation, and maintenance dictate
or directly to a main water supply pipe. the minimum and maximum water
velocity in a plumbing system; as a
Service Tap Connection Details result, these have a bearing on pipe
diameter. If pipe diameters are small,
• Corporation Cock – A valve screwed into
cost is low but noise, erosion (from high
the street water main to supply the house
velocities), and pumping costs (from
service connection.
high-pressure losses) are high. In
• Gooseneck – The part of the pipe curved contrast, large diameter pipes reduce
like the neck of a goose, usually flexible. noise erosion and pumping costs, but
Also the lead connection between a result in high installation costs. An
service pipe and water main. intermediate pipe diameter is desirable.

• Curb Stop or Curb Cock – A control valve Cavitation

for the water supply of a building, usually
• Cavitation is a physical phenomenon
placed between the sidewalk and the
that occurs in a liquid when it
street curb; used to shut off the water
experiences a drastic drop in pressure
supply in case of emergency or should the
 that causes the liquid to vaporize into
small vapor bubbles. As the low pressure
returns to normal pressure levels, these
bubbles implode as the vapor changes
phase back to a liquid and thus
drastically decreases its volume. This
implosion causes noise and high levels
of erosion where the imploding bubbles
contact the walls of a pipe, fitting,
pump, or valve. The noise that develops
sounds similar to gravel flowing through
the system in the area where the
cavitation is developing. Over time, the
erosion results in excessive wear; this
eventually manifests itself as pinhole
leaking.

Cross-Connection

• A cross-connection is an unsatisfactory
connection or arrangement of piping
that can cause nonpotable water to
enter the potable water system. A cross-
connection can cause used or
contaminated water to mix with the
water supply. It is an unsanitary and
potentially hazardous condition. For
example, a garden hose with one end
immersed in a bucket of soapy water or
in a swimming pool are possible
backflow conditions.

Water Hammer

• a knocking in the pipes caused when

faucets in the lower levels are shut off
abruptly or automatically

• the force exerted by the decelerating

water causes the pipes to shake and
rattle

Plumbing Plan
MODULE 4: Drain, Waste, Vent System • VENT PIPE - used for ensuring the
circulation of air in a plumbing system
• SOIL DRAINAGE SYSTEM- The piping that
and for relieving the negative pressure
conveys the discharge of water closets or
exerted on trap seals
fixtures having similar functions (containing
fecal matter), with or without the • VENT STACK- the vertical vent pipe
discharges from other fixtures. installed primarily for providing
circulation of air to and from any part of
• STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM- The piping
the soil, waste of the drainage system
system that receives clear water drainage
from leaders, downspouts, surface run-off, • SEPTIC TANK- A watertight covered
ground water, subsurface water, receptacle designed and constructed
condensate water, cooling water or other to receive the discharge of sewage
similar discharges and conveys them to the from a building sewer, separate solids
point of disposal. All sanitary wastes must from the liquid, digest organic matter
be excluded. and store digested solids the clarified
liquids to discharge for final disposal.
• VENT SYSTEM- the piping system that
receives a flow or air to or from a drainage • PRIVATE SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEM- a
system or to provide a circulation of air septic tank with the effluent discharging
within such system to protect trap seals into a subsurface disposal field,
from siphonage or back pressure seepage pits or of such other facilities or
may be permitted by the plumbing
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR A PROPERLY
code.
DESIGNED DRAINAGE SYSTEM

A cleanout, easily accessible, shall be

provided for inspection or cleaning of the pipe
run. The location of the cleanout shall be:

• At the upper end of every horizontal waste

or soil pipe.

• At every change of horizontal direction of

not more than 22.5degrees

• Within 1.5 m (5’) inside the property line

before the house sewer connection

• At every 15m (50’) to a horizontal run of a

soil or waste pipe

All horizontal piping shall be run in practical

alignment and at a uniform grade of not less
than 2% or 2 cm per meter toward the point of
disposal.

All horizontal piping shall be supported and

anchored at intervals not to exceed 3 meters.

Vertical piping shall be secured at sufficiently

close intervals to keep the pipe in alignment.
Stacks shall be properly supported at their
bases.

Definition of Terms

• WASTE PIPE - conveys only wastewater

or liquid waste free of fecal matter.

• SOIL PIPE- any pipe which conveys the

discharge of water closet, urinal or
fixtures having similar functions, with or
without the discharges from other
fixtures to the building drain or building
sewer

• SOIL STACK PIPE- a vertical soil pipe

conveying fecal matter and waste
water.
MODULE: Introduction to Transportation
Planning

Introduction to Transportation Planning

Engineering – the application of scientific

principles to practical ends as the design,
construction, and application of efficient and
economical structures, equipment, and system

Transport – to carry from one place to another

Planning – the process of making plan of

something

 Transportation engineering or transport

engineering is the application of
technology and scientific principles to the
planning, functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the
safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable,
convenient, economical, and
environmentally compatible movement of
people and goods transport.
 Transportation planning is a preparation
planning to move/transfer human, animal
or other item to some place to another.
 Transportation planning is related to the
operation of highway system, geometry,
and operation of traffic facility.

Why need transportation?

 Moving people and goods

 Enables people to travel from their homes
and places of employment, education,
and etc.
 Enable trade
 Connects the industrial ecology
 Enables economy

Importance of Transportation Planning

 Effective use of transportation

 Technology based

 Take into account land use and resource

control

 Reduce pollutant cause by traffic

 Meets travel demand and response

 Enhances productivity and introduces new

markets for the economic activity

Transportation Planning Period

Short term

 Review matters that can be completed

within three years

 Involves high cost

Long term

 > 5 years

 More structured and complicated

 Designed better than short term

 Involves planning the next 20 to 25 years Trip Generation

Characteristics of Transport Planning  first step in the conventional four-step

transportation forecasting process
 Inter-relationship of different modes of
transportation  Predicts which zone the traffic will flow

 Study of profitability Trip Distribution

 Traffic is controllable  Model of the number of trips that occur

between each origin zone and each
 Determines the desirable demand and
destination zone.
supply of transportation
 Get travel/traffic pattern in a zone
 Pro-development of the area
 Shows the total traffic in certain time,
 Mathematical and stochastic approach in
distance and cost
determining traffic and mode of
transportation Mode choice

Big Picture Process of Transportation Planning  process where the means of traveling is
determined

 The means of travel is referred to the travel

mode, which may be by private
automobile, public transportation, walking,
bicycling, or other means.

 Also called as Modal Split

Route Assignment
Transportation Planning Process
 Concerns the selection of routes
Transportation planning is a cooperative (alternative called paths) between origins
process designed to foster involvement by all and destinations in transportation networks
users of the system, such as the business
community, community groups, environmental  Intended to give a traffic direction to which
organizations, the traveling public, freight road in transport network
operators, and the general public.  Traffic Assignment
 Monitor existing condition Assessment
 Forecasting future population and
employment growth, including assessing  Contains the testing and evaluation of the
projected land uses in the region and alternatives selected before
identifying major growth corridors  Emphasis on the ability of the traffic and
 Identifying current and projected future environmental impact of each alternative
transportation problems strategy
 Developing long-range plans and short-
range programs  To choose and determine the best
 Estimating the impact of recommended transportation system for future needs
future improvements
Transportation Planning Models
 Developing a financial plan for securing
sufficient revenues to cover the costs of
implementing strategies.

Processes in Transportation Planning

Inventory

 Includes data collection and data

processing

 Evaluation of current travel demand and

travel supply

Land uses

 Types of land uses: Recreational, Transport,

Agricultural, Residential, and Commercial

 Distribution of area, population,

employment, economic, social and
activities
Travel Demand Models

 A model is a simplified representation of a

part of the real world–the system of
interest–which focuses on certain elements
considered important from a particular
point of view. Travel demand models: Trip
Generation, Trip Distribution, Mode Choice,
and Route Assignment
 A model is only realistic from a particular
perspective or point of view.
Concepts and Definition
 Other requisite for effective planning
system: administrative practices,  Urban form: The spatial pattern or
institutional framework, skilled professional, “arrangement” of individual elements –
decision makers, media and public such as buildings, streets, parks, and other
land uses (collectively called the built
Land use and Transport Interaction
environment), as well as social groups,
Land use economic activities, and public institutions,
within an urban area.
 Commonly used in agricultural economics
 Urban interaction: The collective set of
 It refers to a parcel of land and the
interrelationships, linkages, and flows that
economic use it was then put to – grazing,
occurs to integrate and bind the pattern
growing crops, mining or building
and behavior of individual land uses,
 Land-use planning can be considered in
groups, and activities into the functioning
two contexts
entities. One of the most important
 It includes all forms of planning,
integrating subsystems is the highway or
transportation planning can be considered
street network.
as a form of land-use planning because it
actually consists of planning for that  Urban spatial structure: Formally combines
proportion of land used for transportation the urban form through the urban
 Land-use planning is a discipline by itself, interaction with a set of organizational rules
having its own set of theories and practices into a city system. Example is the
competitive rent for different locations
Land Use and Transportation
within the urban area which produces an
 A piece of land with a particular type of ‘ordering” of activities in terms of location
land use produces a certain number of trips requirements and the rent that each
person can afford to pay.
 Need for transportation facilities to serve
the trip making demand  Comprehensive plans: Also known as the
master plan or general plan. An official
 The new or improved transportation statement of a geographic unit’s policies
facilities provide better accessibility and intentions pertaining to physical
 Naturally, land value increases and development in the years ahead.
eventually, the original land use changes,  Guidelines: A set of guidelines for
reflecting the state of the land market. development may serve as a
 Cycle continues recommended alternative in a land-use
plan. An implementation technique that
may need legislation.

 Legislation: Some of the recommendations

from the land-use plan can be transformed
into bills that can subsequently be
submitted to the legislative body for
possible enactment into law.

 Codes: Housing and building codes are

important implementation techniques for
land-use management. Ensure the quality
of community growth by establishing
certain standards.

 Zoning: The oldest and most commonly

used legal device for implementing local
land use plans. Ensures that land uses in a
geographic unit are compatible in relation
to one another.
 Subdivision regulations: Control the Hansen’s Accessibility Model
development and change occurring within
 Holding Capacity - the amount of vacant
the community and encourage efficient
land suitable and available for residential
and desirable local services
use
 Infrastructures: The life-support facilities of a  Additional factor in attracting future
geographic unit. population to the zone

Land Use Development Method

 Land use planning for a city is a complex

task
 Land is allocated among alternative uses in
private markets with public regulation
 Development mainly from locational
decision by a large number of private
developers
 Land use models serve two purposes:
 Forecasting the total activities of an urban
area
 Allocating these activities among
predetermined sets

Hansen’s Accessibility Model

 Predict the location of population based

on the premise that employment is the
predominant factor
  The extent, cost and quality of available
transportation; refers to supply, users are
sensitive to the level of service provided by
transportation mode: travel time, cost,
convenience, comfort, and safety

Sequential Steps for Travel Forecasting

 Four step process: Trip Generation, Trip

Trip Generation Distribution, Mode Choice, and Trip
Introduction Assignment

 Travel demand is expressed as the number  Trip Distribution, Mode Choice, and Trip
of persons or vehicles per unit time that can assignment is an iterative process
be expected to travel on a given segment  Simultaneous model structures have also
of transportation network been used in practice, particularly to
 Forecasts of travel demand are used to forecast intercity travel.
establish the vehicular volume on future or
modified transportation system alternatives
 The methods used in forecasting demand
will depend on the availability of data and
on specific constraints on the project, such
as availability of funds and project
schedules

Demand Forecasting Approaches

 There are two basic demand forecasting

situations in transportation planning:
(a)travel demand studies for urban areas
and (b)inter-city travel demand

 For (a), database is prepared by using

home interview and/or roadside interview
surveys

 For (a), information gathered provided the

characteristics of the trip maker, such as
age, sex, income, auto ownership, and so
forth; the land use at each end of the trip;
and the mode of travel.

 For (a), the data can be used to formulate

relationship between variables and to
calibrate models

 There are two basic demand forecasting

situations in transportation planning:
(a)travel demand studies for urban areas
and (b)inter-city travel demand

 For (b), it is aggregated to a greater extent

than for urban travel forecasting

 For (b), city population, average city

income, and travel time or travel cost
between city pairs are used

Factors Influencing Travel Demand

 The location and intensity of land use;

accounts to the amount of traffic
generated by a parcel of land depends on
how the land is used

 The socioeconomic characteristics of

people living in the area; lifestyles and
values affect how people decide to use
their resources for transportation
MODULE: TRIP GENERATION

Trip Generation

 Trip generation is the process of

determining the number of trips that will
begin or end in each traffic analysis zone
within a study area
Growth Factor Modelling Example
 Aims to predict the total number of trips
generated by (Oi) and attracted to (Dj) Consider a zone with 250 households with car
 Each trip has two ends, and these are and 250 households without car. Assuming we
described in terms of trip purpose: know the average trip generation of each
produced by traffic zone or attracted to a group:
traffic zone
Car-owning household produce: 6trips/day
 Measures of urban activity are converted
to number of trips Non-car-owning household produce:
 Quantify the relationship between urban 2.5trips/day
activity and travel
Also assume that in the future, all household will
Objectives of Trip Generation have a car; therefore, assuming that income
and population remain constant. Estimate the
 Trip Generation analysis has two functions
number of trips in the zone
 To develop a relationship between trip end
production or attraction and land use

 To use the relationship to estimate the

number of trips generated at some future
date

Definition of Terms

 Trip or journey – one-way movement from a Category Analysis (Cross-classification)

point of origin to a point of destination  Technique developed by Federal Highway
 Home-based work (HBW) trip – a trip for Administration to determine the number of
which the purpose is to go from home to trips that begin or end at the home.
work or from work to home  Home based trip can represent a significant
proportion of all trips
 Home-based other (HBO) trip – a trip for  Accounts the relationship of
which the purpose is to go from home to socioeconomic measures and trip
another location other than work (e.g. production
shopping school, theater) or from non-work  Most commonly used are income and auto
locations to home ownership
 Non-Home based (NHB) trip – a trip for Category Analysis (Cross-classification)
which neither trip end is at home Example
 Trip Attraction – the non-home end of a  Survey data showing Trips per Household,
home based trip or the destination of NHB Income, and Auto ownership. Develop a
trip matrices connecting income to auto
 Trip Production – the home end of an home ownership. How many trips will a household
based trip or as the origin of an NHB trip with 10000 income and one auto
generate?
Three ways to estimate the number of trips

 Growth Factor Modeling

 Category analysis

 Regression Model

Growth Factor Modelling

 A technique which can be applied to

predict future number of journeys
Regression Model

 Easy and relatively inexpensive

 Correlation among independent variables
may create estimate problems
 The assumptions of linearity and additive
impacts on trip generation may be wrong
 Trip generation is never “negative” in reality
no matter what value the independent
variable has

Regression Model Example

A small study area represented by six traffic

zones has the following characteristics:

Regression Model Example

A small study area represented by six traffic

zones has the following characteristics:

Set-up linear regression equation that illustrate

the data, calculate R-squared
MODULE: Mode Choice

Mode Choice

Introduction

 Mode choice is that aspect of the demand

analysis process that determines the
number (or percentage) of trips between
zones that are made by automobile and by
transit.
 Mode choice models attempt to replicate
the relevant characteristics of the traveler,
the transportation system, and the trip itself,
such that a realistic estimate of the number
of trips by each mode for each zonal pair is
obtained
 Mode usage analysis can be done at
various points in the forecasting process.
The most common point is after trip
distribution because the information on
where trips are going allows the mode
usage relationship to compare the
alternative transportation services
competing for users

Factors affecting Mode Choice

 The characteristics of the trip makers (e.g.

family income, number of autos available,
family size, residential density)

 The characteristics of the trip (e.g. trip

distance, time of day)

 The characteristics of the transportation

system (e.g. riding time, waiting time)

Logit Model

 An alternative approach used in

transportation demand analysis is to
consider the relative utility of each mode as
a summation of each modal attribute. Then
the choice of a mode is expressed as a
probability distribution. The better a mode
is, the more utility it has for the potential
traveler.

 The logit formulation is a share model that Trip Assignment

divides the persons between the various
modes depending on each mode’s relative Introduction
desirability for any given trip.
 The final step in the transportation
 Modes are said to be relatively more forecasting process is to determine the
desirable if they are faster, cheaper, or actual street and highway routes that will
have other mode favorable features than be used and the number of automobiles
competitive modes and buses that can be expected on each
highway segment.
 Since the numbers of trips by transit and
auto that will travel between zones are
known from the previous steps in the
process, each trip O-D can be assigned to
a highway or transit route
 The sum of the results for each segment of
the system results in a forecast of the
average daily or peak hour traffic volumes
that will occur on the urban transportation
system that serves the study area.
Minimum Path Algorithm

 Minimum-path techniques are based on

the assumption that travelers want to use
the minimum impedance route between
two points.

 The trip between zones are loaded onto

the links making up the minimum path. This
technique is sometimes referred to as “all-
or-nothing” because all trips between a
given origin and destination are loaded on
the links comprising the minimum path and
nothing is loaded on the other links.

 After all possible interchanges are

considered, the result is an estimate of the Minimum Path with Capacity Restraint
volume on each link in the network.
 Capacity-restraint techniques are based on
 This method can cause some links to be the findings that as the traffic flow
assigned more travel volume than the link increases, the speed decreases.
has capacity at the original assumed  There is a relationship between impedance
speed. and flow for all types of highways.
 Capacity restraint attempts to balance the
Example
assigned volume, the capacity of a facility,
Assign the vehicle trips shown in the O-D trip and the related speed
table to the network shown in figure using the
Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) method
all-or-nothing assignment technique. Make a
list of the links in the network and indicate the  This traffic-flow-dependent travel-time
volume assigned to each. Calculate the total relationship is represented by the general
vehicle minutes of travel. Show the minimum polynomial function:
path and assign traffic for each of the five
nodes.

Davidson Method

Davidson (1966) has suggested the use of an

expression giving travel time relationship
similar to the BPR formula:

Example

A freeway section 10 miles long has a free-

flow speed of 60 mph. Qmax = 2000 veh/hr, Q
= 1000 veh/hr, t = 0.1, a = 0.474, and b = 4,
and T0 = 10min. Apply the (a) Davidson’s and
BPR’s methods to find TQ.
Module 7: Fire Safety on Buildings

Fire - Fire is a combustion reaction that requires

oxygen (air), heat, and fuel. Typically, a spark
or flame ignites the fire, beginning the
combustion reaction. In order for combustion
to continue, there must be sufficient heat
given off by the reaction and a proper blend
of oxygen and fuel. The rate at which a fire
burns is dependent on the composition of the
fuel, the surface area of the fuel, the rate at
which fuel absorbs heat, and the amount of
oxygen that is present.

Fire Triangle

● Fuels are materials that burn. The higher the

temperature, the easier and quicker they
burn. Common fuels includes: (1) Solvents
such as acetone, alcohols, and toluene, (2)
Gases such as acetylene and propane, (3)
Solids such as wood and paper.
● Oxidizers: Oxygen or other substances
capable of releasing oxygen to a fire.
Common oxidizers includes: (1) acids,
especially nitric and perchloric acids, (2)
chlorine dioxide, (3) Others such as
potassium permanganate and potassium
chlorate
● An ignition source can be: Spark, static
electricity, arcs from electrical equipment
(faulty), lit cigarette, hot light bulb
Flash Point - The lowest temperature at which
sufficient vapors form above the liquid to
produce an ignitable mixture with air

Fire Classification

Fire Extinguisher
 protect moving objects like coal. Well suited for
coal conveyor protection

Flame Detectors - is a sensor designed to

detect and respond to the presence of a
flame or fire, allowing flame detection.
Responses to a detected flame depend on the
installation, but can include sounding an
alarm, deactivating a fuel line (such as a
propane or a natural gas line), and activating
a fire suppression system.
How does a fire extinguisher work?
Radiant Energy (UV & IR) – used for long
distances and accurate sensing of flames
using the fire’s ultraviolet and infrared
properties

Smoke Detectors (Ionization) - Ionization-type

smoke alarms have a small amount of
radioactive material between two electrically
charged plates, which ionizes the air and
causes current to flow between the plates.
When smoke enters the chamber, it disrupts
the flow of ions, thus reducing the flow of
● Parts of a Fire extinguisher current and activating the alarm.

Smoke Detectors (Photoelectric) -

Photoelectric-type alarms aim a light source
into a sensing chamber at an angle away from
the sensor. Smoke enters the chamber,
reflecting light onto the light sensor; triggering
the alarm.

Manual fire alarm activation - typically

achieved through the use of a pull station (USA
& Canada) or call point (Europe, Australia, and
Asia), which then sounds the evacuation alarm
for the relevant building or zone.
Placement of fire extinguisher
Automatic fire sprinkler system - An automatic
fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection
system that normally consists of a water supply,
a series of interconnected pipes, valves and
heat activated fire sprinklers.

Basic components of fire sprinkler system

● STOP VALVE
● VALVE MONITOR
● ALARM VALVE
● AUTOMATIC FIRE SPRINKLER
Fire Alarm Systems ● ALARM TEST VALVE
● MOTORISED ALARM BELL OR GONG
● Spark/Ember Detectors
● PRESSURE SWITCH
● Flame Detectors
● FLOW SWITCH
● Combination
● JACKING PUMP
● Radiant Energy (UV& IR)
Types of Sprinkler System
● Smoke Detector (Ionization &
Photoelectric) ● WET PIPE
● Heat Detectors (Fixed temperature & ● DRY PIPE
rate-of-rise) ● DELUGE
Fire Alarm Systems ● PRE-ACTION
● FOAM WATER SPRINKLER SYSTEM
Spark/Ember Detectors - Ember Detectors are
● WATER MIST SYSTEM
designed to detect embers with faster
response and reliability. Specially designed to
Wet Pipe systems typically inject a concentrated
foam mixture into a water-based
- Wet type systems are the most common
deluge system.
type of sprinkler system that is installed.
Water Mist
- The wet pipe system is also the simplest and
most reliable with easy installation and low - A water mist system is a fire protection
maintenance cost. system which uses very fine water sprays
- A wet pipe system has water in the pipes in - This type of system is typically used
the ambient or normal condition and has where water damage may be a
heat responsive elements on all sprinklers. concern, or where water supplies are
Thus, water is instantaneously discharged limited.
from a sprinkler when it activates. - This systems allows the cooling of both
Dry Pipe the flame and surrounding gases by
evaporation
- In areas where low temperatures could
Fire Pumps
cause a wet pipe system to freeze, a dry
pipe system is intended for use. - It is a part of a fire sprinkler system's
- Dry pipe systems are pressurized with air water supply and powered by electric,
in the ambient condition and diesel or steam. The pump intake is
experience an inherent delay in the either connected to the public
discharge of water to allow the underground water supply piping, or a
pressurized air in the system to escape. static water source (e.g., tank, reservoir,
- Usually contain larger pipes to lake). FIRE PUMPS should have its own
compensate with the larger pressure electric generator, if it is connected to
- Maintenance is more costly and the main generator of the building, it
complicated must have an Automatic Transfer Switch
Deluge to have a continuous and uninterrupted
supply of water.
- Deluge systems are systems in which all
- Components: Pump, Motor, Controllers,
sprinklers connected to the water piping
Jockey Pump, Water tank
system are open, in which a heat or
Standpipe System - are a series of pipes which
smoke sensor triggers first which is
connect a water supply to hose connections,
separate from the sprinkler heads.
basically an extension of the fire hydrant
- These systems are used for special system. They are designed to provide a pre-
hazards where rapid fire spread is a piped water system for building occupants or
concern, as they provide a the fire department.
simultaneous application of water over
the entire hazard.
- Has a manual lever or switch SECTION 10.2.6.5 of FCOTP
Pre-Action
- All automatic sprinkler and standpipe
- Has a two trigger activation system like systems required by this code shall be
Deluge systems inspected, tested, and maintained in
- This type of system provides added accordance with NFPA 25, Standard for the
protection against false sprinkler head Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of
activation Water Based Fire Protection Systems
- Pre-action systems are used where it is - Sprinkler impairment procedures is also
not acceptable to have a sprinkler covered by NFPA 25
activate unless there is a real threat of - The nearest fire station should be notified
fire, i.e. for high value stock or within 24 hours if a AFSS is out of service for
irreplaceable items, for example, more than 4 hours in a 24-hour period and
archive material, libraries and computer a fire watch should be present
backup systems. - Supervisory attachments shall be
Foam installed and monitored for integrity in
- A foam fire protection system should be accordance with NFPA 72, a distinctive
used to protect buildings that contain supervisory signal shall be provided to
combustible materials and other indicate a condition that would impair
hazards that a normal water-based fire the satisfactory operation of the sprinkler
protection system could not suppress in system
the event of a fire. - For alarm signal transmission where
- The foam system suppresses the fire by supervision of automatic sprinkler
separating the fuel from the air. These systems is required, water flow alarms
 shall be transmitted to an approved, Module 8: Building Security
proprietary alarm receiving facility, a
Building Security
remote station, a central station, or the
fire station - A building security system can be thought
of as a life-safety system. It can assist in the
safety of building occupant and business
- Supervisory attachments shall be installed
personnel because it minimizes prohibited
and monitored for integrity in accordance
entry by unauthorized persons such as
with NFPA 72, a distinctive supervisory signal
disgruntled former employees, terrorists, or
shall be provided to indicate a condition
common criminals. It also prevents damage
that would impair the satisfactory operation
that can result in building occupant injuries
of the sprinkler system
- Building security must be approached in
- For alarm signal transmission where
building design, selection of materials used
supervision of automatic sprinkler systems is
in the building, occupant control, and
required, water flow alarms shall be
surveillance and alarm systems.
transmitted to an approved, proprietary
alarm receiving facility, a remote station, a
central station, or the fire station Initial Building Design

- Security issues in a building should be

considered in the early planning and
architectural design stages. This will simplify
the ensuing security system design,
decrease security costs, and reduce the
potential for crimes to occur in the building
or building complex. All aspects of the
design should be considered including
access routes, landscaping, signage,
lighting, materials, colors, entryways, and
interior layouts.
- Designers of a building should pay
particular attention to the locations of
doors, windows, loading docks, and money
handling rooms. These areas should all be
easy to view from other surrounding areas
and be well lit (as should elevators and
stairways). Ledges and exterior
ornamentation that might allow people to
climb up the side of the building should be
avoided. One of the best investments in
terms of security is the provision of high
levels of illumination throughout the project.

Different parts of building security systems

● Perimeter Protection
● Interior Protection
● Video and Audio Surveillance
● Control Panels and Centers
● Alarms
● Electronic Access Control Systems
● Security Personnel
● Emergency Power Systems
● Emergency Lighting
● Emergency Action Planning
Perimeter Protection

- The first level of protection for any security

system is perimeter protection. Perimeter
protection includes such areas as doors
and windows.
- Alarm contacts, either the plunger or the On remote control surveillance cameras,
magnetic type, can be installed on doors pan, tilt, and zoom capabilities can be
and windows to protect against controlled from a central location. The
unauthorized entry. signal is transmitted through a local area
- The plunger-type contact is installed so that network or via the Internet
when the door or window is closed, a Control Panels and Centers
plunger is pushed in, and when the door or
- To allow the occupant to leave and re-
window is opened, the plunger pushes out,
enter without sounding the alarm, an
setting off the alarm.
exit/entry control panel is installed. It
- The magnetic-type contact consists of two
includes an outside key-operated switch
contacts that are surface mounted, so that
and an inside switch at the door. This type
when the door or window is closed they
of control panel will sound the alarm if any
make contact with each other, and when
attempt is made to disconnect the outside
the door or window is opened the magnets
wall plate. Indicator lights on the wall plate
are separated, setting off the alarm.
turn on when the system is activated. Some
exterior control panels are simply activated
Other examples: fence, gates, facility walls, and de-activated by an outside key-
barriers operated switch, with none of the
protective features mentioned.
Interior Protection
- In commercial installations, a main control
Interior protection provides a backup to panel performs more complex functions. It
perimeter protection. This includes: consists of a keypad, video console,
- Infrared (IR) motion detectors pick up body backup battery, and transformer. Remote
heat from any living being within the sensing devices are connected to the main
protected areas. IR detectors can be panel. The system typically includes CCTV
strategically placed inside a space to cameras and monitors. On large
provide this kind of protection. installations, remote control panels are
- Glass break detectors are digital tactically positioned at outlying locations.
microphones that have a range of up to 25 The main control panel and remote control
ft (8 m) and can recognize the sound panels are connected so they can
associated with breaking glass. Glass break communicate with one another
detectors can be installed near any Alarms
window or pane of glass that can be - The alarm set off by the various systems
broken by forced entry. may be a bell inside and/or outside the
- Floor mat detectors will activate the alarm building, a bell inside and a horn outside, a
if stepped on. Common concealed horn inside and/or outside, or a horn with a
locations for the floor mat entry detector light (beacon). In many locales, the alarm
include under the rugs, inside all exterior system can be connected directly to the
doors, and just below windows. fire or police station.
- Emergency immediate-response keys and
pendants are used to summon aid in an
emergency. When pressed for 2 s, the Electronic Access Control Systems
emergency key or pendant will send an ● Many large companies use electronic
alarm to the central monitoring station for access control systems to control employee
immediate notification of the proper entrance by identifying an authorized
authorities. individual and allowing that person access
to a restricted area. Access control can
Video and Audio Surveillance deny an unauthorized employee or
outsider access into a restricted building or
- Closed circuit television (CCTV) video space. It also allows management to
surveillance systems can allow a small increase employee productivity by
number of security staff to monitor indoor preventing unrestricted traffic to different
areas of a building and the building site. A areas of the building. It can also track
few basic applications include loading employee movement through a building or
docks, parking areas, areas of high room. The owner can recall this information
shoplifting potential, schools, casinos, and at a later time as the system can store this
banking institutions information in a database. Commonly
- Surveillance cameras serve as a way to used:
monitor events and to provide a deterrent.
- Insertion of a coded electronic cardkey lights are capable of powering exit and
into a wall-mounted receptacle that emergency lights for more than an hour.
decodes the key and activates the door Emergency lighting is a critical element
lock only for the proper key. of a safety system in the event of a
- Photo identification requires the employee power failure. Emergency illumination is
to punch a coded number on a keyboard. typically required in all buildings where
Within seconds, a picture of the person who the existing system serves an occupant
is assigned that code is flashed on the load of 100 or more.
screen for the guard to check Emergency Action Planning
- Biometric identification, the latest
- A building emergency action (BEA) plan
technology, is the automatic assessment
provides for immediate, positive, and
and recognition of a unique body feature
orderly action to safeguard life and
(e.g., fingerprint, eye and face recognition)
property in the event of any emergency or
or personal action (e.g., voice recognition).
disaster (except enemy attack). The BEA
plan should address emergencies that the
Security Personnel employer may reasonably expect in the
workplace. It establishes policies,
- Security guards are personnel that provide
procedures, and an organizational
security in many buildings by serving as a
structure for response to emergencies and
physical presence that tends to deter crime
identifies the roles played by various
and improper activities. Guards are
personnel.
positioned at strategic points in the facility
- A building evacuation plan is a central part
so they have an overlapping view to
of the BEA plan that ensures orderly
monitor activities. They might sit at a control
evacuation of building occupants by
desk near the main entrance to the
establishing emergency escape
building and monitor or control access. The
procedures and escape route assignments.
central console of surveillance equipment
A decision to evacuate is made by the
might be used to assist the guard in
designated leader of the emergency
monitoring events. Guards might also be
management team based typically on the
used for occupant or vehicular traffic
worst-case scenario of the incident
control in emergency situations.
Building Security

Emergency Power Systems

- Lengthy or recurring power outages are an

inconvenience because lighting, space
heating, and air conditioning and alarm
systems no longer operate.
- Emergency power is electricity that is
generated locally on a limited basis for the
purpose of supplying electricity to critical Residential House
devices during a general power outage.
Precious Items
Emergency power can be provided by a
backup battery system or emergency ● Family
stand-by generator system. Typically only ● Property
small devices such as emergency lighting ● Vehicles
and alarm and communication panels
operate on battery backup systems.
Main Threats
- Emergency power systems consist of two
major parts: a generator that produces ● Intruders
electricity and an engine that drives the ● Domestic Workers
generator. The generator can be switched ● Electrical Faults
on manually or automatically. ● LPG

Emergency Lighting Security Needs

- Emergency lights enable building ● Door and window lock

occupants to safely escape the building ● Trellis doors
in the event of a power failure. ● Intruder Alarm
Equipped with backup batteries, these ● CCTV
Library and Museums Security Needs

Precious Items ● CCTV

● Firewall
● Books
● Fire detection and suppression
● Computers
● Alarms
● Furniture
● Locks

Main Threats

● Library Users
● Fire
● Intruders

Security Needs

● CCTV
● Fire detection, suppression
● Alarms
● Locks

OFFICE

Precious Items

● Computers
● Furniture
● Intellectual Property
● Other Valuables

Main Threats

● Employees
● Intruders
● Fire

Security Needs

● Guards
● Access Control
● CCTV
● Intruder Alarm
● Fire detection and suppression

BANK

Precious Items

● Cash
● People
● Documents
● Intellectual Property
● Valuable Items
● Computer
● Furniture
Main Threats

● Employees
● Robbers
● Fire
● Hackers
● Power Cut
Module 9: Building Conveying Systems - The counterweight is a set of steel or iron
plates fastened to one end of the hoisting
Conveying Systems - Building conveying
rope that counterbalances the car. It is
systems mechanically move occupants and
goods. In most buildings, these systems include weighted to be equal to the car’s dead
passenger and freight elevators, dumbwaiters, weight plus 40 to 50% of car load capacity.
escalators, moving ramps and walkways, and - Traction machine is an electric machine in
lifts for people and wheelchairs. Business and which the friction between the hoist ropes
industrial operations may require specially and the drive sheave is used to move the
designed material handling equipment (i.e., elevator car with the cable
conveyors, chutes, and pneumatic tube
systems), hoists, cranes, and scaffolding.
Facilities on large sites may have monorails
and other types of people movers

Elevators

- A lift or elevator is an appliance to transport

men or material two or more floors in a Basic Components of Elevator
vertical direction by means of a guided car
or platform. The necessity of lifts in multi-
storied buildings has been so well Elevator Car - also called a cage, is the load-
recognized that no multi-storied building is carrying unit, including the frame, enclosure,
planned without proper provision for and car door.
elevators. The platform is a flat, relatively horizontal
- It is in fact mandatory to install elevators in framework to which a car is mounted and on
all buildings 24m in height which passengers stand or the load is placed
- The two basic types of elevator
The cab is a decorative room in which
technologies are hydraulic and traction.
occupants ride in a passenger elevator

The elevator car moves vertically in a hoistway,

Hydraulic Elevators which is the shaft-like space in which the
- Hydraulic elevators use a fluid-driven elevator travels. It is enclosed by fireproof walls.
hydraulic jack to lift the elevator car. Pit – space at the bottom of the hoistway
- Basic components of a hydraulic elevator under the car.
system are shown below:
- It operates when the pump draws oil from Penthouse - the space between the top of the
elevator hoistway and the underside of the
the reservoir, pressurizes it, pushing the oil
roof
through the oil line to the jack, and driving
the elevator car upward. A release of fluid Landing - the portion of a floor, balcony, or
through the control valve and back to the platform used to receive and discharge
reservoir decreases oil pressure, which passengers or freight
allows the plunger and connected elevator Hoistway doors - provide an opening in the
car to move downward. hoistway to allow passengers or freight to
Hydraulic jack access the elevator car at a landing.
Pump – powered by an electric motor that
increases the pressure in the hydraulic fluid
Classification of elevators
Control valve - between the cylinder and
reservoir controls the pressure in the jack ● Passenger Elevator
● Freight Elevator
Fluid reservoir tank ● Dumbwaiters
Traction Elevator ● Manlifts

- Traction elevators have a drive machine

with an electric motor and pulley-like Passenger Elevator
(grooved) drive sheave that holds cables Passenger elevators are designed to carry
that move the elevator car up or down people and small packages. They typically
- Steel cables, called hoisting ropes, support have capacities from 1500 to 5000 lb (680 to
the elevator and counterweight during 2300 kg), in 500 lb (230 kg) increments.
normal operation. There are typically 3 to 8 Passenger elevators are operated by the
cables for each elevator passenger and have attractive interior finishes
 generally limited to a capacity of about
750 lb (340 kg).

Manlift

- Manlift is an elevator installed in a

variety of structures and locations to
provide vertical transportation of
authorized personnel and their tools and
equipment only. These elevators are
typically installed in structures such as
grain elevators, radio antennas and
bridge towers, underground facilities,
dams, power plants, and similar
structures

Escalator

- An escalator is a power-driven,
continuously moving stairway system used
for transporting people. They can move in a
linear or spiral (curved) manner. Spiral
escalators are designed to match the
curve of a building. They are used to move
pedestrian traffic in places where elevators
would be impractical or less efficient
- Escalators can be placed in the same
physical space as stairs. They have the
capacity to move large numbers of
people. In contrast to the elevator,
escalators have no waiting interval. As a
result, they are typically used in department
stores, shopping malls, sporting arenas,
stadiums, airports, convention centers,
hotels, subways, office complexes, and
Freight Elevator public buildings. Factors that affect
escalator design include physical
- Freight elevators are used to carry
requirements (vertical and horizontal
material, goods, equipment, and
distance to be spanned), location, traffic
vehicles, rather than people. In many
patterns, safety considerations, and
freight elevator installations, passengers
aesthetic preferences
often accompany the freight, so they
are governed by the same safety
requirements. Freight elevators are Basic Components of Escalator
typically capable of carrying heavier - Drive unit is a machine that drives the
loads than a passenger elevator, escalator. It consists of an electric motor,
generally from 5000 to 10 000 lb (2300 to decelerator, electromagnetic brake, V belt,
4500 kg), but can be up to 13 tons/26 sprocket, and other components. It is
000 lb (11 700 kg) weight capacity. powered by constant speed AC electric
motor
Dumbwaiters - The sprocket drive consists of wheels
installed at top and bottom (each end) to
- Dumbwaiter is a small freight elevator
drive the steps (pallets). The top sprocket
used to transport lightweight freight
drives the moving steps, while the bottom
such as food, laundry, books, records,
sprocket turns the steps.
and other small items. Passengers are
- The steps (pallets) are made from one-
not permitted on dumbwaiters.
piece, die-cast aluminum or steel. They
Dumbwaiters are generally driven by a
serve as the moving platform on which an
small electric motor with a
escalator passenger rides
counterweight or may be hand
operated using a roped pulley. They are
- The balustrade is the side of an escalator easier to use than getting in and out of
system. It extends above the steps and small elevators.
includes skirt panels, interior panels, decks, - There are two types of walkway
and handrails. technologies: pallet type and moving belt.
- A moving handrail provides a handhold - Pallet-type walkway is a continuous series
that riders use for balance and safety on of flat metal plates, called pallets, that are
their ride up or down. The handrail is joined together to form a walkway. Usually
powered by the same system that powers there is a metal or rubber surface (extra
the steps. It moves along the top of the traction)
balustrade in synchronization with the steps. - Moving belt walkway systems are
comprised of a mesh metal or rubber belt
with a rubber walking surface that move
over metal rollers

ESCALATOR ARRANGEMENT

Walkways and Ramps

- A moving walkway is a power-driven,

continuous, slow-moving conveyor belt that
transports people horizontally. They are also
called moving sidewalk, moving pavement,
walkalator, and travelator. An inclined
moving walkway, also called a moving
ramp or power ramp, is a moving walkway
that transports people on an incline, up to
a 12° angle of inclination. Moving walkways
are more accessible to those in
wheelchairs, as they are usually thought
Module 10: Acoustics in Building actually purchased and, once purchased,
before planning room arrangements and
Acoustics in Building
wall materials.
- Acoustics is the science of sound which - Once a site has been selected, exterior
assures the optimum conditions for noise problems can be reduced by
producing and listening to speech, music, orienting the building on the site to reduce
etc. direct sound transmission and reflective
- Acoustical design and construction is done sound from surrounding buildings and
for dissipation of the noises, external and equipment.
internal and insulation against sound - Another method of sound reduction is to
shield the building from major noise sources
using other buildings, barrier walls, and
Sound Transmission in Buildings
natural topography and vegetation (e.g.,
- Sound may be transmitted through the air berms and trees).
or through the structure. Airborne sound is - The general layout and design must
transmitted through air or gas as a medium consider existing or possible future noises
rather than a liquid or solid. Structure-borne from surrounding areas. If there is an
sound is transmitted through a construction existing noise source (e.g., noisy equipment
assembly (e.g., wall, floor, and ceiling). used in an existing building), the general
- Planning is required to reduce the layout of the proposed building should
transmission of sound from the exterior to place rooms that require quiet away from
the interior and from room to room. the existing noise and from noisy rooms
Basically, in each space it is necessary to
keep the necessary sounds in and
Arrangement of Layout
undesirable sounds out.
- Sound is not selective; it passes (transmits) - Noisy rooms should be separated from
through most building materials and any quiet rooms by as great a distance as
openings, no matter how small. As sound possible. The building layout should be
passes through building materials (walls, designed so that rooms that are not as
floors, and ceilings), its intensity is reduced. susceptible to noise (e.g., closets and
The amount of reduction is dependent on corridors) act as buffers between those
the types of materials and the construction areas that contain noise sources and those
used. that require quiet
- Sound passes more readily through lighter, - The rooms from which the noise will
more porous materials than through heavy, originate should be located wherever noise
dense, massive materials and assemblies of from exterior sources may be expected.
materials. Quiet areas should be located as far as
- The use of sound-absorbent materials on possible from exterior noise sources.
walls, ceilings, and floors will increase the - For example, a conference room should
transmission of sound through the surface; not be placed next to manufacturing areas
that is, it will make the room in which the or even noisy business machine areas or
sound originates quieter, but part of the secretarial pools. Sound travel between
sound will travel to the surrounding rooms. rooms must also be controlled by avoiding
air paths in the placement and design of
doors and windows
Factors to Consider in Acoustical Design in
Buildings Shape of Rooms

● Surrounding Environment - The room proportions used will affect the

● Arrangement of Layout sound reflection within the space.
● Shape of Room - Room shapes to be avoided are long,
● Reflecting Surfaces narrow rooms or corridors with high ceilings
● Isolation of vibrations and rooms that are nearly cubical. Each of
● Isolation of Impact these room proportions will cause excessive
● Isolation of sound reverberation (sound reflection or echoing).
● Background noise - Ceilings that are domed or vaulted (or any
concave surfaces) tend to focus the sound,
causing it to be distorted. Large auditoriums
Surrounding Environment with low ceilings also create a situation in
- The surrounding environment should be which it is difficult for some of the audience
carefully reviewed before a building site is to hear. Concave surfaces and large flat
surfaces may be broken with splayed areas
 in order to diffuse the reflection of sound Isolation of Impact
and to direct the sound as desired.
- Impact sound is that sound caused when
one object strikes another. Typical
Absorbing Surfaces examples of impact sound are footsteps,
falling objects (such as shoes, toys, and
- Sound is absorbed when it encounters a
machine parts), and hammering.
material that will convert some or all of it
- When a structure is rigid and continuous,
into heat, or that allows it to pass through
the sound easily travels through it. Impact
not to return.
noise is controlled most effectively by using
- All walls, floors, ceilings, and furnishings
absorptive materials (such as carpeting), by
have sound-absorbing characteristics that
isolating the noise sources (using
control the amount of sound they reflect
discontinuous construction and by reducing
and absorb.
flanking
- If the surfaces in a room tend to be highly
reflective, the room will seem loud, and it
may have a slight echo Isolation of Sound
- Acoustical tile is commonly used when a
- The amount of airborne sound transmitted
surface material with high absorption
between rooms will depend on the
characteristics is desired. Acoustical tile is
materials and methods used in the
most frequently used on ceilings, but is also
construction. Sound transmission through
an economical wall covering.
walls depends on the mass (or unit weight)
of the walls and on their inelasticity.
Focusing Surfaces - Lead, as a dense material, works well in
isolating sound. Massive, thick walls provide
- Reflected sound waves can be focused
excellent sound barriers, but economically
intentionally or inadvertently. A flat surface
there is a point of diminishing returns
(i.e., a wall) reflects sound better than an
- Building frame walls with staggered studs
irregular surface, which tends to break up
and with blanket sound insulation between
sound waves. Reflection from large
the outer wall surfaces is a good method of
concave surfaces also focuses sound.
sound control.
Sounds near the focus of a curved surface
may be heard too loudly.
- Rough walls tend to diffuse sound, Sound Masking
reflecting it in a variety of directions. This
- Sound masking is the addition of natural or
allows a spectator to perceive sounds from
artificial sound of a different frequency into
every part of the room, making it seem
an environment to mask or cover-up noise.
lively and full.
- Sound masking reduces or eliminates
- It is desirable to add some anti-focusing
awareness of existing noise in a specific
surfaces or devices called acoustical
area. It can make a work environment
baffles and banners, which are used to
more comfortable and more productive by
absorb reflected noise (reverberated
creating speech privacy and making
sound) bouncing off reflective walls, floors,
workers less distracted
or ceilings.
- An effective method of sound masking is to
introduce background sound within the
Isolation of Vibration room. White noise, a type of background
noise that is produced by combining
- Soft, resilient subfloor materials are often
sounds of all different frequencies together
used under the wearing surface of the
into an unintelligible sound, may be
floors and under the equipment to reduce
introduced into the space.
the transfer of vibration from the equipment
to the structure
- Equipment located in the basement of a
building may be placed on resilient mounts
and a concrete pad that is isolated, by
expansion joints, from the rest of the floor.