Building and Environment 51 (2012) 370e378

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Building and Environment

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Wind tunnel analysis of artificial substrates used in active living walls for indoor
environment conditioning in Mediterranean buildings
A. Franco a, R. Fernández-Cañero a, L. Pérez-Urrestarazu a, D.L. Valera b, *
a
University of Seville, ETSIA Ctra, de Utrera km 1, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
b
University of Almeria, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario ceiA3, Ctra, de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, a low-speed wind tunnel was used for experimental analysis of water volume retained,
Received 8 October 2011 pressure drop, saturation efficiency and water consumption for three types of synthetic substrates used
Received in revised form in active living walls: polyester (PR), polyurethane (PU) and polyamideepolypropylene (PAePP) The
29 November 2011
substrates were of a similar thickness and were tested for different water and air flows. The water
Accepted 3 December 2011
retained increases with higher water flow. The pressure drop increases with the presence of vegetation
and when air speed and water flow is higher. Cooling efficiency is enhanced with vegetation and low air
Keywords:
speed. Specific consumption of water is greater with vegetation at higher air speeds. Therefore, low air
Active living wall
Substrates
(between 0.25 and 0.5 m s
1) and water flows are recommended to ensure a homogeneous wetting of
Wind tunnel the substrate surface. PAePP has the greatest pressure drop of the three, but also presents the best
Evaporative cooling saturation efficiency, with an average water retention capacity and less specific consumption. PU offers
Pressure drop the least resistance to air flow, with an intermediate efficiency level and high water consumption and
Saturation efficiency water retention capacity. PR presents the worst saturation efficiency, a medium level of pressure drop
and high water consumption.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction In the future, average temperatures are expected to increase, so

cooling is becoming a primary and energy demanding problem. For
Given the current energy crisis and emphasis on issues such as example, probabilistic projections on climate change for the United
sustainability, efficiency and environmental concerns, govern- Kingdom [4] suggest an expected increase in demand for cooling in
ments and businesses alike are striving to reduce energy buildings. Hence, the employment of additional evaporative cool-
consumption in buildings and to use their facilities more efficiently. ing systems will be even more necessary to reduce the thermal load
In Spain the residential and services sectors represent 67.5% of of the building.
the total consumption of electricity, 42.1% of which is consumed in In this context, the use of urban greening systems alone or in
buildings [1]. Cooling and heating systems are responsible for 59% combination with conventional air-conditioning systems in build-
of this demand [2], mainly as a result of the high energy require- ings may, in addition to providing a high ornamental and envi-
ments of air-conditioning equipment used to maintain a comfort- ronmental value, contribute to reduce energy consumption.
able living/working environment and to guarantee indoor air The urban greening movement is a response to the loss of green
quality. Indeed, these sectors have greater opportunities to spaces in cities and buildings through the use of many technologies
moderate energy consumption without reducing the level of contributing to the goal of urban sustainability. It aims to transform
comfort and well-being of people [3]. In addition, current high buildings and urban spaces into biotopes, providing many energy
levels of energy consumption are not sustainable because of the and environmental benefits [5]. Living walls on facades and inside
high costs and foreseeable exhaustion of energy sources. In addi- buildings and the installation of green roofs are the most innovative
tion, they also imply major environmental consequences for the urban greening techniques. They provide powerful tools for
planet, increasing emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmo- bioclimatic design and sustainable architecture.
sphere, which contributes to global warming. Vertical greening can be defined as the design and construction
of gardens on vertical surfaces. Pérez et al. [6] recently classified the
many systems currently available, indicating their different levels of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 950015546; fax: þ34 950015491. complexity and technification. The simplest are based on the use of
E-mail address: [email protected] (D.L. Valera). climbing plants for the landscaping of facades, but more complex

0360-1323/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.12.004
 A. Franco et al. / Building and Environment 51 (2012) 370e378 371

systems, known as living walls or green walls, have recently result is a cooling effect and an increase in the air moisture content.
appeared. In these the plants grow directly on the vertical surface In thermodynamics the process is termed adiabatic, and the
rather than from the base [7]. Some are based on hydroponic enthalpy remains virtually constant [23].
cropping systems, such as the living walls designed by the French The cooling capacity of these systems may be affected in high
botanist Patrick Blanc [8]. They use a support structure providing an humidity locations, such as the Mediterranean coastal areas; but
inorganic substrate into which the plants are inserted, and they can bearing in mind the great variation in humidity throughout the day,
be classified as passive or active systems (Fig. 1). Active systems are these devices prove effective in the central hours, when the
designed with ventilators which force an air flow through the ambient temperature is high and the relative humidity lower. In
substrate and plant rooting system. Therefore the air is filtered and addition, due to their capacity as biofilters [24,25], the rate of
purified in a process known as biofiltration [9] which also acts as renewal of air is lower and therefore less energy consumption is
a natural cooling system. These systems can be completed with required due to ventilation.
a closed circuit irrigation installation, thus improving water use Given that the evaporation of the water occurs in the substrate
efficiency. of the living wall, it is interesting to evaluate the performance of
These facilities are undoubtedly of great beauty, they can be different growing media or substrates. They allow air and water to
installed both inside and outside of the buildings, and they have flow through them, favoring the growth of vegetation and root
numerous energy benefits, such as the increase in the thermal development. In addition, they act as an interchange of energy and
insulation of the building envelope [10,11], energy savings for mass for air-conditioning.
ventilation requirements (ventilation needs are reduced due to the The present work, therefore, aims to assess the suitability of
improvement of biofiltrated air) and temperature reduction three different substrates for use in active living walls. Operating
[12e14]. Other environmental benefits include the improvement of equations will be obtained using a low-speed wind tunnel in
air quality, with the fixation of CO2 and VOCs [15], oxygen laboratory conditions. Different air and water flows and presence of
production, improvement of the working environment, reduction vegetation are tested in order to assess their influence on pressure
of stress and absenteeism [16] and enhancing acoustic comfort [17]. drop, air saturation efficiency and the volume of water evaporated
They also increase biodiversity in the urban environment [18] and and retained.
contribute to the reduction of the urban heat island effect [19,20].
When these systems are installed in the interior of buildings the 2. Material and methods
effects on the conditions of indoor temperature and humidity are
more remarkable [21,22]. 2.1. Low-speed wind tunnel
A new system of active living wall has been developed and
patented in the Higher Technical School of Agronomic Engineering To determine the performance of different substrates for active
in Seville (Spain). As well as maintaining all the benefits of passive living walls, a low-speed open-circuit wind tunnel with a circular
living walls, it also enhances their role as an ecological system for cross-section has been used (Fig. 3). The wind tunnel was designed
climate conditioning and air biofiltration. This living wall can and constructed in the Department of Rural Engineering of the
operate independently (as in the present work) or combined with University of Almería [26], where it was modified and adapted to
the building’s system of air-conditioning and ventilation of (Fig. 2). test evaporative pads [27]. A uniform and stable air flow was ach-
The system operates based on the evaporation of water from the ieved (just as reported by Fang et al. [28]) under controlled
substrate of the active living wall, producing a significant decrease conditions of temperature and humidity. By applying a regulated
in temperature and an increase in the humidity of the air. The water flow an optimal distribution is achieved in the porous media.
change of phase from liquid to vapor requires energy extracted For the purposes of this study, measurements of air speed and
from the hot air from the outside or from warmer indoor air. The flow of water through the porous medium (substrate) are required.

Fig. 1. Vertical greening systems.

372 A. Franco et al. / Building and Environment 51 (2012) 370e378

Fig. 2. Operation of active living walls: (a) Indoors; (b) Outdoors.

Other required data include the temperature and humidity of the downstream from the sample to be tested. They were mounted on
air flow before and after crossing the substrate to determine the two rods placed across the width of the test section.
saturation efficiency of the substrate and the volume of evaporated The static pressure drop through the test section was measured
water. Liao and Chiu [29] performed a similar analysis for evapo- by a differential pressure transducer SI 727 (SI-Special Instruments,
rative pads made of alternative materials of PVC sponge. It is also Nörlingen, Germany) connected to two 4 mm diameter Pitot tubes
necessary to measure the air pressure drop through the substrate (Airflow Developments Ltd., Buckinghamshire, England) located
using a pressure transducer connected to two pitot tubes placed 450 mm upstream and downstream from the middle of the test
before and after the pad. The volume of water retained by the section. The transducer measurement range was 0e200 Pa with an
substrate is measured as the difference in weight between the dry accuracy of 0.25% full scale (f.s.), hysteresis and reproducibility of
and wetted pads. 0.1% f.s., and temperature error of 0.025%/ C, and a 0e10 V
In order to carry out tests in the wind tunnel, a specific test signal output.
frame was designed to incorporate the pads. This frame consisted of The signals that the sensors emitted were recorded by means of
a galvanized metal structure with a water distribution system an electric circuit designed ad hoc with eight analogical inputs with
incorporated in the upper part. The water distribution system a resolution of 10 bits, six digital inputs for humidity/temperature
consisted of a 20 mm diameter PVC pipe with 1.5 mm holes 25 mm sensors and an input for three temperature probes controlled by
apart. In the lower part of the frame, there was a water collection a bus. The flow of control and data was managed by an RS232C
system allowing water to drain by gravity into a tank, before being connection to a PC.
recycled by a 12 V axial pump. Water flow at the entrance was
controlled by varying the voltage of the continuous current 2.2. Substrate characterization and test procedure
hydraulic pump and readings from the rotameter (flow meter),
with an average range of 3e22 L per minute and an error of 4%. Three different synthetic and inorganic substrates (Fig. 4) have
The volume of water retained by the substrate depending on the been analyzed regarding their capacity for climate conditioning.
applied flow was averaged taking into account the variation of the Each is made up of several layers of synthetic textile fibers sewn
weight of water in the recirculation tank using a scale system with together forming a grid of 100 by 100 mm. The plants are inserted
analog outputs consisting of a load cell of 50 N capacity and a VMA- through a horizontal opening into a kind of pocket formed between
10 signal conditioner.
Airflow was supplied by a centrifugal fan HCT-45-2T-3/AL
(Sodeca S.A., Sant Quirze de Besora, Spain) with a capacity of
12,800 m3 h
1 and a rotational speed of 2865 rpm. A Micromaster
420 AC Inverter (Siemens España S.A., Madrid, Spain) was used to
regulate the air speed in the test section, with an output frequency
of 0e50 Hz and a set point resolution of 0e1 Hz. The real time
readings were stored on the hard disc of a personal computer via
the data acquisition unit. EE70-VT32C5 (Elektronik, Engerwitzdort,
Austria) air velocity and temperature transmitters were placed
950 mm upstream from the measurement section, equipped with
a directional hot-film anemometer with a working range of
0e10 m s
1 and accuracy of 0.1 m s
1, for air velocity
measurements.
The temperature and humidity of the air current were measured
using six digital relative humidity/temperature sensors of the
SHT75 series (Sensirion, Zurich, Switzerland) with a 9-bit digital
outlet that does not require calibration and with an accuracy of
1.8% for relative humidity and of 0.3  C for temperature. These Fig. 3. Diagram of the wind tunnel with controlled water and air flow rate (not
sensors were located in groups of three, 700 mm upstream and to scale).
 A. Franco et al. / Building and Environment 51 (2012) 370e378 373

Fig. 4. Tested substrates: (a) Polyester (PR); (b) Polyurethane (PU); (c) PolyamideePolypropylene (PAePP).

the layers of fiber. These substrates are a porous medium that must values were obtained of the variation of weight in the recirculation
allow plant development and enhance epiphyte growth, while also water tank for the substrate without vegetation. As no air flow was
allowing air and water to flow through them. applied and the measurement time was 10 min for each water
The following substrates were tested: flow, the water evaporated during the test was considered
negligible.
- PR: Comprising three layers, the external and internal ones Subsequently, in order to determine the remaining operating
made of an insect mesh and a 15 mm polyester fiber between parameters, a water flow was set. After 10 min the fan was started
them. at an initial velocity close to 0.05 m s
1, gradually incremented by
- PU: Comprising three 5 mm layers of polyurethane. 0.15 m s
1 up to 1 m s
1. After each increment, the substrate was
- PAePP: Comprising a 6 mm external layer of polyamide and allowed to adapt to the new conditions for a period of 5 min. At
a 10 mm interior layer of polypropylene. each speed, 50 data values were taken with each sensor, with a data
acquisition interval of 3 s. Tests were repeated with vegetation in
Three samples of each substrate were tested (0.6 m wide by the substrates in order to compare their performance.
0.65 m high). The total thickness of all three substrates is approx-
imately 15 mm. The influence of vegetation in the operating 2.3. Mathematical model
parameters of the substrates was analyzed by planting Pothos
(Scindapsus aureus Engl.) in 50% of the grid of the wind tunnel test Saturation efficiency (h) is the key index used to evaluate the
section. The leaf area index was maintained constant in the benefits of substrates. This is determined as the ratio between the
different samples and substrates. Wang and Zhang [30] also used drop in air temperature after passing through the pad and the
this type of vegetation in the evaluation of an air filtration system. maximum possible drop under conditions of air saturation [23]:
The 20 mm PVC pipe used for wetting had 1.5 mm holes sepa-
rated by 25 mm, leaving four holes each grid of the substrate to T1
T2
h¼ (1)
obtain a homogeneous wet pattern. It was inserted between the T1
Twb
layers of each substrate sample with the holes directed vertically
where T1 is the dry temperature of the incoming air ( C); T2 is the
downwards.
dry temperature of the outgoing air ( C), and Twb is the thermo-
The flows of water employed expressed as volume per unit area
dynamic temperature of the wet-bulb at the entrance.
were: 0 (dry), 615, 770, 925, 1075 and 1230 L h
1 m
2. Franco et al.
The value of saturation efficiency depends on the air speed
[31] found a direct influence of water flow in the operation
through the pad, the specific surface of the pad (wet surface) and
parameters of corrugated cellulose evaporative pads. The flow was
the water/air ratio.
regulated by varying the tension of the hydraulic pump with
The specific water consumption (Cw) of the pads
a power source and adjusting it with a rotameter, and three repli-
(kg h
1 m
2  C
1) is expressed as the mass flow of evaporated
cations were made for each flow and substrate sample. Initially
water (me) per unit of exposed surface (A) and the maximum
these flows were used to determine the volume of water retained
thermal difference possible given the conditions of air entering the
by substrates without vegetation, as it is more interesting to know
pad [27]
the substrates’ water retention capacity before it is altered by the
volume of peat when plants are transplanted (approximately me
Cw ¼ (2)
300 cm3/plant). On analyzing the other operating parameters in the ðT1
T2 Þ$A
wind tunnel, the air stream passing through the substrate was
observed to cause an undesirable drip out of water at flows of over where the mass flow of evaporated water (me) is obtained by
770 L h
1 m
2. Consequently, only three flow variables were tested: applying the water vapor balance:
dry (only for the pressure drop), 615 and 770 L h
1 m
2.
me ¼ mv2
mv1 (3)
The range of speeds of the air inlet was set between 0.05 and
1 m s
1. Higher speeds are not recommended due to problems of mv1 and mv2 are the flows of vapor at the entrance and exit of the
mechanical damage to vegetation. pad, respectively (kg h
1).
The test procedure began by determining the volume of water Dividing equation (3) by the flow of dry air (ma) in kg h
1 which
retained by the substrate depending on the flow applied. Average is constant between the entrance and exit of the pad:
374 A. Franco et al. / Building and Environment 51 (2012) 370e378

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Volume of water retained by the substrates

The results show that the volume of water retained by

substrates per unit area is directly related to the flow of water
applied at the top (Fig. 5). PU retains most water, 0.77 to 2.05 L m
2
(average of 1.42 L m
2, average error of 6.37%), followed by PAePP,
0.66 to 1.60 L m
2 (average of 1.15 L m
2, average error of 5.98%),
while PR retained between 0.34 and 0.75 L m
2 (average of
0.55 L m
2, average error of 5.60%). These results are reasonable as
PR is a more hydrophobe material so a higher flow of water was
observed running by the surface of the substrate. PU presents more
porosity which increments its ability to retain water.
Fig. 5. Volume of water retained by surface and error based on flow unit.

3.2. Pressure drop

me ¼ ma ðW2
W1 Þ (4)
The pressure drop data of the three substrates samples, obtained
where W1 and W2 are the absolute humidity of the air at the
in the wind tunnel at different air speeds and water flows, both
entrance and exit of the pad, respectively ðkgw kg
1 a Þ and with and without vegetation, are shown in Fig. 6.
ma ¼ ra$Qa, in which ra is the air density (kg m
3) and Qa is the air
As expected, increasing the speed of air passing through the pad
flow through the pad (m3 h
1).
also increments the pressure drop. For the range of speeds between
Substituting expression (2) in equation (1), the pad’s evaporated
0.25 and 1 m s
1, PAdPP presents the highest pressure drop,
water depends on the air speed through it, the saturation efficiency
between 3.57 Pa (dry without vegetation) and 71.11 Pa
of the pad and the air conditions on entering the pad:
(770 L h
1 m
2 with vegetation), followed by PR, between 3.10 Pa
me (dry without vegetation) and 26.65 Pa (770 L h
1 m
2 with vege-
Cw ¼ (5) tation). For PU this value varied between 1.78 Pa (dry without
hðT1
Twb ÞA
vegetation) and 9.23 Pa (770 L h
1 m
2 with vegetation). The lower
The pressure loss produced by substrates for the different pressure drop in all substrates occurs without vegetation and in dry
speeds of the air and water flow applied, both with and without conditions and it increases with vegetation and a higher water flow.
vegetation, is directly obtained by the pressure difference between PU shows lower pressure drop due to its higher porosity.
the input and output registered by the pressure transducer and The presence of vegetation increased the pressure drop, as both
pitot tubes. the root system and the leaf mass offer greater resistance to the air

Fig. 6. Pressure drop vs. air speed: (a) Polyester (PR); (b) Polyurethane (PU); (c) PolyamideePolypropylene (PAePP).
 A. Franco et al. / Building and Environment 51 (2012) 370e378 375

flow. This is true for all substrates under all experimental condi-
tions. Average increases of pressure loss are 47.88% for PR, 42.59%
for PU and 58.34% for PAePP.
For all three substrates, the higher water flow applied, the greater
the pressure drop for a given air velocity. In the case of PR the pres-
sure drop increases from 63.77% to 81.55% at 0 and 615 L h
1 m
2,
respectively, and from 6.02% to 20.22% at 615 and 770 L h
1 m
2,
respectively. For PU, these increases are 30.27e35.57% and
1.75e4.73% respectively. The highest pressure drop increases were
with PAePP, 127.94e266.99% and 14.62e46.43% respectively. This
may be due to the reduction of the panel porosity (m3 m
3) as the
water layer that moves over the internal surface is higher and
reduces the volume of air per unit volume.
Comparing the three types of substrates with and without the
presence of vegetation for different tested flows (Fig. 7), PU offers
least resistance to the air flow, followed by PR, with increases of
101.54e164.23% without vegetation and 113.24e198.96% with
vegetation. PAePP produces the highest pressure drop with
increases of 150.00e536.56% without vegetation and
136.32e539.87% with vegetation compared to PU.

3.3. Air saturation efficiency

Generally speaking, at higher air speeds, the contact time

between the air and water is lower, decreasing the degree of satu-
ration of the air, and therefore lowering the saturation efficiency
(Fig. 8). The same applies to the specific surface of the substrate;
Fig. 7. Pressure drop vs. air speed: (a) without vegetation; (b) with vegetation.
when it is reduced, the surface of contact between water and air is
also reduced, and therefore air saturation efficiency is lower.
For the range of speeds between 0.25 and 1 m s
1, PAePP
presents the highest efficiency: between 45.45% (770 L h
1 m
2
with vegetation) and 26.66% (615 L h
1 m
2 without vegetation),

Fig. 8. Saturation efficiency vs. air speed: (a) Polyester (PR); (b) Polyurethane (PU); (c) PolyamideePolypropylene (PAePP).
376 A. Franco et al. / Building and Environment 51 (2012) 370e378

followed by PU which varies between 40.89% (770 L h
1 m
2 with

vegetation) and 7.39% (770 L h
1 m
2 without vegetation). PR is less
efficient: between 25.18% (770 L h
1 m
2 with vegetation) and
11.59% (615 L h
1 m
2 without vegetation). For air speeds over
0.5 m s
1, PR is slightly superior to PU.
The high saturation efficiency for PAePP is related to its high
resistance to air flow showed previously. PR retains less water
which affects to the contact surface between air and water.
Therefore, less water evaporates and the efficiency is lower.
Taking into account the water flows, the results obtained show
no differences in air saturation efficiency for PR and PAePP when
the flow of water increases. On the other hand, again due to its
higher porosity, the efficiency of PU with vegetation increases by
around 17.84% if the water flow is higher.
The presence of vegetation increases air saturation efficiency in
the three substrates because it creates greater resistance to the air
flow, resulting in longer contact with water and an increase in
evaporation (Fig. 9). The average rise in efficiency due to the
presence of vegetation was highest for PU (132.97%), followed by PR
and PAePP (53.57% and 26.64%, respectively).

3.4. Specific water consumption

Water consumption is an important parameter due to the

shortage of this resource. This value is used to design the irrigation
system of the living wall and to choose a suitable pump for water
recirculation. The amount of water evaporated by the substrate is
related to the air temperature and humidity, the speed of the air
Fig. 9. Saturation efficiency vs. air speed: (a) without vegetation; (b) with vegetation.
flow and the substrate characteristics (thickness, transfer surface,
presence of vegetation, etc.).
Fig. 10 shows the specific water consumption for the three types
of substrates studied at different air and water flows. It is expressed

Fig. 10. Water consumption vs. air speed: (a) Polyester (PR); (b) Polyurethane (PU); (c) PolyamideePolypropylene (PAePP).
 A. Franco et al. / Building and Environment 51 (2012) 370e378 377

than the others (between 0.77 and 2.05 L m
2), though the
performance of PAePP is also good. PR presents the worst water
retention values (0.34e0.75 L m
2).
The resistance to air flow (pressure drop) through the three
substrates increases at high air speeds and water flows. High air
speeds are not recommended, as they lead to high resistance,
damage to vegetation and substrate desiccation and low saturation
efficiencies. The recommended range of air speed is between 0.25
and 0.5 m s
1. In this range, PAePP shows the largest pressure drop
followed by PR. An air flow of over 770 L h
1 m
2 produces
undesirable leaking of water from the substrate, and so ventilators
should be chosen carefully in order to provide a correct speed and
flow. As for the water flow, it should be enough to saturate the
substrate but without increasing the pressure drop in excess.
The air saturation efficiency drops as the speed of the air passing
through the substrate increases, and it is slightly affected by the
increase in the flow of water. For the correct interval of speeds,
PAePP proved to be the most efficient while PR was the least. Water
consumption is also higher when air speed increases.
The presence of vegetation produces greater resistance to the air
flow and increases air saturation, though it obviously leads to
increased water consumption (22.6% on average). The average
increase in the pressure drop due to the presence of vegetation was
highest for PAePP (58.3%) and lowest for PU. The average increase
in efficiency due to the presence of vegetation was high for PU but
lower for PR and PAePP.
Fig. 11. Water consumption vs. air speed: (a) without vegetation; (b) with vegetation.
Taking into account all the parameters, PAePP performs best
(high saturation efficiency, average water retention capacity and
as liters of water evaporated per hour per square meter and  C low water consumption), even though it presents higher drops in
reduction in temperature (Eq. (5)). As the speed of the air flow pressure. PU offers least resistance and has an average level of
increases, so does water consumption. For a range of speeds efficiency, but its water consumption and water retention capacity
between 0.25 and 1 m s
1, average specific water consumption of are high. PR showed the worst saturation efficiency, average pres-
the three types of substrate without vegetation are 0.45 and sure drop and high water consumption.
1.45 L h
1 m
2  C
1, respectively. With vegetation, the averages are
between 0.55 and 1.79 L h
1 m
2  C
1. This means that water Acknowledgments
consumption is on average 22.83% higher due to the presence of
vegetation. This work was funded by projects AGL2010-22284-C03-01 of
Comparison of the substrates reflects minor differences (Fig. 11). the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación of Spain and P09-AGR-4593
PR presents the highest specific water consumption, between 14.4% of the Junta de Andalucía, and is based upon work supported by
and 23% (without vegetation) and 22.48% and 51.82% (with vege- OTRI (University of Seville) under the Program for Technology
tation) greater than PAePP. Compared to PU, this increase is Transfer Activities 2010.
between 22% and 42.5% without vegetation and from 39.6% to
52.3% with vegetation. References
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