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Light Weight Materials
Light Weight Materials

Processing and Characterization

Edited by

Kaushik Kumar
Bathini Sridhar Babu
J. Paulo Davim
First published 2021 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA

www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2021

The rights of Kaushik Kumar, Bathini Sridhar Babu and J. Paulo Davim to be identified as the authors of
this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2021947485

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-797-2
 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Part 1. Manufacturing Processing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 1. Additive Manufacturing: Technology, Materials

and Applications in Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Veeman DHINAKARAN, Mahesh VARSHA SHREE, Thimmaiah JAGADEESHA and
Madabushi SWAPNA SAI
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2. Additive manufacturing configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3. Classification of AM technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1. Laser beam melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2. Electron beam melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.3. Selective laser melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.4. Direct metal laser sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.5. Laser metal fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.6. Direct metal deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4. Materials used in AM technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.1. Titanium and its alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2. Inconel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.3. Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.4. Stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5. Aerospace applications of additive manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6. Challenges faced in the aerospace industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7. Overcoming aerospace challenges with AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
vi Light Weight Materials

1.8. Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.9. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.10. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.11. Key terms and definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Chapter 2. Study of the Manufacturing Process of Polymer

Spur Gears: A Light Weight Gear Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Jitendra Kumar KATIYAR and Hemalata JENA
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2. Gear manufacturing process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.1. Gear hobbing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.2. Injection molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3. Additive manufacturing/rapid prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4. Laser ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5. Hot embossing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Chapter 3. Recent Trends in Welding Polymers and

Polymer–Metal Hybrid Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Jinesh Kumar JAIN and Pankaj SONIA
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2. Polymer and composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3. Polymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4. Synthesis of polymer composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5. Types of fillers in composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.1. Effect of reinforcement orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6. Welding polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7. Introduction of lightweight metal and alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.7.1. Magnesium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.7.2. Aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.8. Welding dissimilar metal alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8.1. Friction stir welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8.2. Welding polymer and metal alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.9. Industrial application of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.10. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.11. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
 Contents vii

Part 2. Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Chapter 4. Preparation and Characterization of a Composite

Material Using Sisal fibers for Light Body Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Zewdie ALEMAYEHU, Ramesh Babu NALLAMOTHU, Mekonnen LİBEN,
Seshu Kishan NALLAMOTHU and Anantha Kamal NALLAMOTHU
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.1.1. Statement of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.1.2. General objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1.3. Specific objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1.4. Significance of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2. Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.2. Previous works on natural fiber polymer composites . . . . . . . . . 78
4.3. Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.1. Sample preparation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.4. Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.4.1. Experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.4.2. Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.5. Comparison of previous works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5.1. Tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5.2. Bending strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.6. Conclusion and recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.6.1. Recommendations for prospective applications . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.2. Scope for future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Chapter 5. Optimizing the Polystyrene Catalytic Cracking

Process Using Response Surface Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Selvaganapathy THAMBIYAPILLAI, Muthuvelayudham RAMANUJAM
and Jayakumar MANI
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2. Material and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.2.1. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.2.2. Experimental procedure and characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.2.3. Design of catalytic cracking experiment using response surface
methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
viii Light Weight Materials

5.3. Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

5.3.1. Thermal analysis of polystyrene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.3.2. SEM-EDX analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.3.3. Model development for catalytic cracking of polystyrene . . . . . . 124
5.3.4. Combined effect of process parameters on the response (Y) . . . . 128
5.3.5. Characterization of liquid yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.3.6. Factors affecting catalytic cracking of polystyrene . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Part 3. Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Chapter 6. FEA Comparative Studies on Heat Flux and Thermal

Stress Analysis during Conduction Mode and Keyhole Mode
in the Laser Beam Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Harinadh VEMANABOINA, Suresh AKELLA and Ramesh Kumar BUDDU
6.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.2. Heat in laser welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.3. Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.4. Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.4.1. Keyhole model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.4.2. Conduction model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Chapter 7. Effect of Formability Parameters on Tailor-Welded

Blanks of Light Weight Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Dappu DEEPIKA, Akkireddy Anitha LAKSHMI, Tanya BUDDI and Chalamalasetti
Srinivas RAO
7.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.2. Experimental procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.3. Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
 Contents ix

Chapter 8. Design and Analysis of Sedan Car B-pillar Outer Panel

Using Abirbara with S-glass Fiber Hybrid Composites . . . . . . . . . 197
Ramesh Babu NALLAMOTHU, Melkamu Yigrem YIHUNIE, Anantha Kamal
NALLAMOTHU and Seshu Kishan NALLAMOTHU
8.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.2. Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.2.1. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.2.2. Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.3. Composite preparation, testing and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.3.1. Composite preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.3.2. Testing and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
8.4. Design analysis of the B-pillar panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
8.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.6. Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
8.7. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
8.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
 Preface

We would like to present the book Light Weight Materials: Processing

and Characterization. In the automotive industry, the need to reduce vehicle
weight has led to extensive research efforts to develop aluminum and
magnesium alloys for structural car body parts. In aerospace, the move
towards composite airframe structures has led to an increased use of
formable titanium alloys. All of the above-mentioned materials can be
categorized into a group called “lightweight materials”. The distinguishing
feature of lightweight materials is their low densities, ranging from as low as
0.80 g/cm3 for unfilled polymers to as high as 4.5 g/cm3 for titanium.
Although the density of titanium is higher than that of unfilled polymers, it is
significantly lighter than metals: alloy steel (7.86 g/cm3) and superalloys
(7.8–9.4 g/cm3). In a nutshell, lightweight materials exhibit a wide range of
properties and therefore offer a wide range of applications.

This book primarily aims to provide researchers and students with an

overview of the recent advancements in the processing, manufacturing and
characterization of lightweight materials, which promises increased
flexibility in manufacturing in tandem with mass communication, improved
productivity and better quality. It has a collection of chapters contributed by
eminent researchers who focus on the topics associated with lightweight
materials, including the current buzzword composite materials. This book
provides the recent advancements in the processing, manufacturing and
characterization of lightweight materials and hence would be a panacea in all
areas of lightweight materials.

This book has two major objectives. Firstly its chapters by eminent
researchers in the field enlighten readers about the current status of the
xii Light Weight Materials

subject. Secondly, as the densities vary a lot so do the applications ranging

from automobile, aviation to bio-mechatronics; hence, this book would serve
as an excellent guideline for people in all of these fields.

The chapters of this book are divided into three parts, namely Part 1:
Manufacturing Processing Techniques, Part 2: Characterization and Part 3:
Analysis.

Part 1 contains Chapters 1–3, Part 2 contains Chapters 4 and 5 and Part 3
contains Chapters 6–8.

Chapter 1 explains an advanced technique called additive manufacturing

(AM), which is predominantly known as 3D printing and rapid prototyping.
It is an on-demand production without any dedicated apparatus or tooling,
which allows breakthrough performance and supreme flexibility in
industries. The aerospace industry is the primary user of AM, as it enables it
to create complex user-defined part design and fabricate with different
lightweight materials without wastage of raw materials, reducing the time
and cost of production. This chapter provides in-depth knowledge about its
classification and selection process for various applications required by
engineering industries, especially in the aerospace industry.

Chapter 2 mainly deals with the manufacturing of polymer gears. Polymer

gears are widely used in medical devices upon which human lives depend.
In addition, they are useful in other applications such as in the automotive and
manufacturing industries. A precise gear of better design and effective
manufacturing process decides its long-term application, strength and
property. Polymer gears can be fabricated with the same machining process
as metal gears, usually milling or hobbing from a blank. However, for
lightweight materials, such as polymers, it is preferable to be either fabricated
by injection molding or machined from a rod (additive manufacturing).
The details of such manufacturing techniques are presented in this chapter.

Chapter 3, the last chapter of Part 1, discusses in detail reinforcing,

performance analysis, processing and characterization of various methods of
polymer welding, i.e. laser welding, infrared welding, spin welding, stir
welding, and vibration welding. This chapter also covers various alloys of
aluminum for lightweight applications and the current status of polymer
composite applications in industries and future prospects. This chapter
highlights the complications related to fusion, heat transfer and joint
 Preface xiii

strength, as well as their solutions with the future prospect of polymer

welding empowering polymers to be an absolute substitute for metal, which
can be achieved by understanding the concept of dissimilar welding for
joining polymer composites with metals and their controlling factors, and by
selecting an appropriate welding process for various types of polymers.

Chapter 4, the first chapter of Part 2, provides the reader with an idea of
fabrication and a description of the processing techniques of natural-based
composites for light body vehicle applications. In doing so, the genetic
equation for modeling tool flank wear is developed using experimentally
measured flank wear values and genetic programming. Using these results,
the genetic model presenting the connection between cutting parameters and
tool flank wear is extracted. Then, based on a defined machining
performance index and the obtained genetic equation, optimum cutting
parameters are determined. This chapter concludes that the proposed
modeling and optimization methodology offer the optimum cutting
parameters and can be implemented in real industrial applications.

Chapter 5 presents the response surface methodology, an optimization

technique, to design a catalytic cracking experiment of plastic waste. The
catalyst-to-feedstock ratio, the operating temperature and the reaction time
were chosen as an effective parameter of the catalytic cracking process. The
characterization of the obtained liquid product was performed using the
Fourier transform with infrared (FTIR) spectra, gas chromatography with
mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis and physico-chemical analysis. This
chapter concludes that the developed quadratic model is well fit to the
experimental domains and predicts operating conditions that are most
suitable for conducting catalytic cracking experiments under recycling
techniques of lightweight materials, especially plastics.

Chapter 6, the first chapter of Part 3, discusses laser welding. The

uniqueness of this chapter is the way it has dealt with the subject. The finite
element analysis was used to select suitable models for the Gaussian beam
profile and the application of the Frustum model to conduction mode
welding and keyhole laser welds. Temperature and stress analysis was
carried out within and around the weld region. This chapter discusses the
analytical comparative approximation of different model approaches
applicable to the laser weld process, and indicates that the parametric study
information will be useful to the engineers of nuclear fabrication
applications in finalizing different components.
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