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 Manual of Water Supply Practices
cross-connection is an actual or potential connection between any part of a potable water system and

M14
M14 M14
any other environment that contains other substances that would allow such substances to enter the
potable water system. Cross-connection control programs are intended to reduce the risk of contamination
or pollution of the public water system. This fourth edition of AWWA Manual M14, Backflow Prevention and
Cross-Connection Control: Recommended Practices, provides both technical and general guidance on the recom-

Backflow Prevention and Cross-Connection Control: Recommended Practices, Fourth Ed.

Backflow Prevention and
mended procedures and practices for developing, operating, and maintaining a cross-connection control and
backflow prevention program.
This edition includes a new chapter on conducting a cross-connection control survey and expands the discussions on assessing the
risks and preventing backflow. A greatly expanded appendix details how to test most backflow prevention devices. Other issues covered
include backflow prevention principles, assembly, application, installation, and maintenance; health and legal concerns; and detailed Cross-Connection Control
Recommended Practices
information on potential and real hazards.
This manual is intended for use by all professionals charged with protecting the public water supply with proper backflow prevention
and cross-connection control programs.

Fourth Edition

Ideal crop marks Ideal crop marks

www.awwa.org

Dedicated to the world’s most important resource, AWWA sets the standard for water knowledge,
management, and informed public policy. AWWA members provide solutions to improve public
health, protect the environment, strengthen the economy, and enhance our quality of life.

1P–1M 30014-4E (12/14) IW

 Manual of Water Supply Practices

M14

Backflow Prevention and

Cross-Connection Control
Recommended Practices
Fourth Edition

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

Manual of Water Supply Practices—M14, Fourth Edition

Backflow Prevention and Cross-Connection Control:

Recommended Practices

Copyright ©1973, 1989, 2004, 2015 American Water Works Association

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information or retrieval system,
except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for review purposes, without the written permission of
the publisher.

Disclaimer
The authors, contributors, editors, and publisher do not assume responsibility for the validity of the content
or any consequences of their use. In no event will AWWA be liable for direct, indirect, special, incidental, or
consequential damages arising out of the use of information presented in this book. In particular, AWWA
will not be responsible for any costs, including, but not limited to, those incurred as a result of lost revenue.
In no event shall AWWA’s liability exceed the amount paid for the purchase of this book.

If you find errors in this manual, please email [email protected]. Possible errata will be posted at www.
awwa.org/resources-tools/resource-development-groups/manuals-program.aspx.

Project Manager/Senior Technical Editor: Melissa Valentine

Senior Manuals Specialist: Molly Beach
Senior Production Editor: Cheryl Armstrong

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Asay, Stuart F., author.
Backflow prevention and cross connection control : recommended practices / Stuart F. Asay. -- 4th edition.
pages cm. -- (Manual of water supply practices ; M14)
Revision of: Recommended practice for backflow prevention and cross-connection control, 3rd ed., 2004.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-62576-045-6 (alk. paper)
1. Backsiphonage (Plumbing)--Prevention. 2. Cross-connections (Plumbing) III. Title. IV. Title: Recommended
practice for backflow prevention and cross-connection control. V. Series: AWWA manual ; M14.
TH6523.A87 2015
696’.1--dc23
2014037357

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN: 978-1-62576-045-6 eISBN: 978-1-61300-309-1

This AWWA content is the product of thousands of

hours of work by your fellow water professionals.
Revenue from the sales of this AWWA material supports
ongoing product development. Unauthorized distribution,
either electronic or photocopied, is illegal and hinders
AWWA’s mission to support the water community.

American Water Works Association

6666 West Quincy Avenue
Denver, CO 80235-3098
awwa.org

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 Contents

List of Figures, v
List of Tables, vii
Preface, ix
Acknowledgments, xi
Dedication, xiii
Metric Conversions, xv
Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Purpose of Manual, 1
Responsibilities, 2
Health Aspects, 5
Legal Aspects, 7
Chapter 2 Backflow Prevention Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Basic Hydraulics, 11
Types of Backflow, 13
Assessing Degrees of Hazard, 18
Assessing Other Risk Factors, 20
Assessing the Effectiveness of Assemblies and Devices, 21
Chapter 3 Program Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Developing a Cross-Connection Control Program, 24
Types of Programs, 25
Management Programs, 28
Documentation, 33
Human Resources, 33
Program Administration, 35
Chapter 4 Backflow Prevention Assembly Application, Installation, and Maintenance . . . .41
Means of Preventing Backflow, 42
Backflow Prevention Devices, 42
Method for Controlling Backflow, 59
Field Testing, 61
Reference, 64
Chapter 5 Conducting a Cross-Connection Control Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Authority and Responsibilities, 66
Purpose of a Cross-Connection Control Survey, 66
Assessing the Degree of Hazard, 67
Survey Considerations and Concepts, 67
Conducting the Survey, 69
Reference, 74
Chapter 6 Sample Hazards and Proper Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Typical Hazards, 76
Hazards Posed by a Water Supplier, 84
Protection for Specific Customers, 89
References, 91

AWWA Manual 14 iii

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.
BACKFLOW PREVENTION AND CROSS-CONNECTION CONTROL

Appendix A Example Notices and Letters, 93

Appendix B Testing Procedures or Methods, 99
Appendix C Industry Resources, 181
Appendix D Incidents Tables, 183
Glossary, 187
Index, 193
List of AWWA Manuals, 203

iv AWWA Manual M14

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 Figures

1-1 Examples of backflow prevention equipment locations, 4

2-1 Example of barometric loop in a piping configuration, 12

2-2 Backsiphonage backflow due to high rate of water withdrawal, 14
2-3 Backsiphonage backflow caused by reduced pressure on suction side of booster
pump, 15
2-4 Backsiphonage backflow caused by shutdown of water system, 15
2-5 Backpressure backflow caused by carbon dioxide cylinder, 17
2-6 Backpressure backflow caused by pumping system, 18

4-1 Common symbols used for backflow prevention devices, 43

4-2 Dual check device, 44
4-3 Dual check device with atmospheric port, 45
4-4 Atmospheric vacuum breaker, 45
4-5 Hose connection vacuum breaker, 46
4-6 Pressure vacuum breaker assembly, normal flow condition, 48
4-7 Pressure vacuum breaker assembly, backsiphonage condition, 48
4-8 Spill-resistant vacuum breaker, normal flow and backsiphonage conditions, 50
4-9 Check valves open, permitting flow, 51
4-10 Backpressure, both check valves closed, 51
4-11 Negative supply pressure, check valves closed, 51
4-12 Typical double check valve assembly applications, 52
4-13 Reduced-pressure principle backflow prevention assembly, both check valves
open and the differential relief valve closed, 54
4-14 Both check valves closed and the differential pressure relief valve open can be
used for service protection or internal protection, 54
4-15 Backpressure: both check valves closed and the differential pressure relief valve
closed, 54
4-16 Backsiphonage: both check valves closed and the differential pressure relief valve
open, 55
4-17 Typical reduced-pressure principle backflow prevention application, 55
4-18 Double check detector backflow prevention assembly, 57
4-19 Type II double check detector backflow prevention assembly, 57
4-20 Reduced-pressure principle detector backflow prevention assembly, 58
4-21 Type II reduced-pressure principle detector backflow prevention assembly, 58
4-22 AG on tank, 59
4-23 AG on lavatory, 60
4-24 Typical AG applications, 60
4-25 Additional typical AG applications, 61

6-1 Cross-connection control, water treatment plants, 87

6-2 Service-containment and area-isolation water treatment plants, 88

B-1 Double check valve assembly test, 101

B-2 Double check valve assembly test—back pressure condition, 102
B-3 DCVA—Step #1, 103

AWWA Manual M14 v

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.
BACKFLOW PREVENTION AND CROSS-CONNECTION CONTROL

B-4 DCVA—Step #2, 104

B-5 DCVA—Step #3 and DCVA Step #3A, 105
B-6 Pressure vacuum breaker, 107
B-7 PVB—Step #1, 108
B-8 PVB—Step #2, 109
B-9 PVB—Step #3, 110
B-10 RPZ—Step #1A, 112
B-11 RPZ—Step #2, 113
B-12 RPZ—Step #3, 114
B-13 RPZ—Step #4, 115
B-14 RPZ—Step #5, 116
B-15 Spill-resistant pressure vacuum breaker, 117
B-16 Step 1, 118
B-17 Step 2, 119
B-18 Step 3, 120
B-19 Sample test report form, 124
B-20 Ground wire installation, 127
B-21 Major component parts of five-valve differential pressure gauge test
equipment, 139
B-22 Differential pressure gauge test kit, five-valve model, 140
B-23 Differential pressure gauge showing hose connections to test the components of
an RPBA, 140
B-24 Differential pressure gauge showing hose connections to test the #1 check valve of
a DCVA , 141
B-25 Differential pressure gauge showing hose connections to test a PVBA air inlet, 141
B-26 Differential pressure gauge showing hose connections to test a PVBA check
valve, 142
B-27 Differential pressure gauge showing hose connections to test both the check valve
and air inlet of an SVBA, 142
B-28 Test 1—CV#1, 171
B-29 Test 3—CV#2, 172
B-30 Two-valve differential pressure test kit, 176
B-31 Two-valve test kit, 176
B-32 Three-valve test kit, 178
B-33 Reduced-pressure field test with three-valve test kit, 179

vi AWWA Manual M14

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 Tables

2-1 Means of backflow prevention in the United States, 22

2-2 Selection guide for backflow preventers in Canada, 22

6-1 Recommended protection for solar domestic hot-water systems, 84

6-2 Recommended protection at fixtures and equipment found in water treatment
plants, 86
6-3 For service protection (containment), 89
6-4 Containment protection, 90
6-5 Typical backflow prevention devices, 90
6-6 Irrigation and hose connection protection, 91

B-1 Safety-related publications, 129

B-2 RPBA/RPDA test reporting, 133
B-3 DCVA/DCDA test reporting, 134
B-4 PVBA/SVBA test reporting, 137
B-5 Approved minimum test result values, 137

AWWA Manual M14 vii

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.
 This page intentionally blank.

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 Preface

This is the fourth edition of the AWWA Manual M14, Backflow Prevention and Cross-
Connection Control: Recommended Practices. It provides both technical and general informa-
tion to aid in the development, implementation, and management of a cross-connection
control and backflow prevention program, and an understanding of backflow prevention
and cross-connection control concepts. This manual is a review of recommended practice.
It is not an AWWA standard calling for compliance with certain requirements. It is intended
for use by water suppliers and municipalities of all sizes, whether as a reference book or
a textbook for those not familiar with backflow prevention and cross-connection control.
This manual reviews regulatory provisions established to protect the potable water
supply. To achieve this goal, products and measures are discussed to assist in the deter-
mination of controlling hazardous cross-connections. For fundamental knowledge and
a thorough understanding, this entire manual should be carefully studied. Readers will
also find the manual a useful source of information when assistance is needed with spe-
cific or unusual connections to the potable water supply.
This fourth edition of M14 includes updates to regulatory concerns and products
that protect the water supply, and new material on establishing programs to control
cross-connections, including surveying of piping systems to identify and monitor such
connections.

AWWA Manual M14 ix

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.
 This page intentionally blank.

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 Acknowledgments

The AWWA Technical and Educational Council, the Distribution Plant Operations
Division, and the Cross-Connection Control committee gratefully acknowledge the con-
tributions made by those volunteers who drafted, edited, and provided the significant
and critical commentary essential to updating M14. The Technical Review Board members
dedicated numerous hours in the final stages of preparation of this edition to ensure the
overall technical quality, consistency, and accuracy of the manual.

Technical Review Board Members

Stuart F. Asay, Backflow Prevention Institute IAPMO, Westminster, Colo.

Joseph A. Cotruvo, Joseph Cotruvo & Associates LLC, Washington, D.C.
Dawn M. Flancher, American Water Works Association, Denver, Colo.
Aneta King, Halton Regional Muncipality, Oakville, ON, Canada
Randolph J. Pankiewicz, Illinois American Water, Belleville, Ill.

Contributors to the 4th edition

Rand H. Ackroyd, Deceased, Rand Technical Consulting LLC, Newburyport, Mass.

Stuart F. Asay, Backflow Prevention Institute IAPMO, Westminster, Colo.
Roland Asp, National Fire Sprinkler Association Inc., Patterson, N.Y.
Nick Azmo, Azmo Mechanical Inc., Piscataway, N.J.
Lou Allyn Byus, Retired, Jacksonville, Ill.
Dave Bries, City of Montrose, Montrose, Colo.
Nicole Charlton, Philadelphia Water Department, Philadelphia, Pa.
Sean Cleary, Backflow Prevention Institute IAPMO, Scranton, Pa.
Richard A. Coates, Retired, Miami, Fla.
Alicia A. Connelly, City of Norfolk, Norfolk, Va.
Daniel Eisenhauer, Backflow Solutions Inc., Alsip, Ill.
Dylan Gerlack, EPCOR Water Services, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Steve Gould, Peterborough Utilities Commission, Peterborough, ON, Canada
John F. Graham, California Water Service Company, Chico, Calif.
James W. Green, City of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
Byron Hardin, Hardin and Associates Consulting LLC, Coppell, Texas
John F. Higdon, Conbraco Industries, Matthews, N.C.
James Holeva, retired, Fall River, Mass.
Robert Hunter, City of Norfolk, Norfolk, Va.
Alissa Kantola, Val-Matic Valves & Manufacturing Corp., Elmhurst, Ill.
Aneta King, Halton Regional Municipality, Oakville, ON, Canada
Mark S. Kneibel, Hydro Designs Inc., Jenison, Mich.
Diane Meyer, Val-Matic Valves & Manufacturing Corp., Elmhurst, Ill.
Vince Monks, Louisville Water Company, Louisville, Ky.
Dan O’Lone, USEPA, Atlanta, Ga.
John E. Ralston, Louisville Water Company, Louisville, Ky.
Paul H. Schwartz, University of Southern California FCCCHR, Los Angeles, Calif.
Pauli Undesser, Water Quality Association, Lisle, Ill.
Barry Walter, Deceased, Hydro Designs Inc., Chester, Md.
Karl Wiegand, Globe Fire Sprinkler Corp., Standish, Mich.
Michelle J. Williams, City of Norfolk, Norfolk, Va.

AWWA Manual M14 xi

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.
BACKFLOW PREVENTION AND CROSS-CONNECTION CONTROL

Agency Contributors to the 4th edition

New England Water Works Association, a Section of AWWA

AWWA Pacific Northwest Section
The American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE)
University of Florida, Center for Training, Research, and Education for Environ-
mental Occupations (UF TREEO)

xii AWWA Manual M14

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 Dedication

The 4th edition of AWWA’s Manual M14, Backflow Prevention and Cross-Connection
Control: Recommended Practices, is dedicated to Rand Ackroyd and Barry Walter. During
the revision of this manual edition, the industry lost two valuable professionals that were
vital resources and contributors who eagerly shared their collective wisdom.

Rand Ackroyd

Rand Ackroyd became an active member of the M14 committee

in the early 1980s. His experience as vice president of engineering
for Watts Regulator Co. brought a wealth of technical information
regarding backflow preventers, their capabilities, and proper appli-
cations. After leaving Watts, he continued his active involvement
as a go-to resource for nearly every aspect of backflow prevention.

Barry Walter

Barry Walter will be remembered as a professional who was

passionate about his work in the backflow prevention industry. He
derived great satisfaction from teaching a group about the sub-
ject and from participants gaining an understanding of the impor-
tant health and safety aspects of the subject. While working on
this edition of the manual, he was instrumental in coordinating
several chapter teams, working toward consensus, and striving to
achieve the best reference manual on the subject.

These valuable committee members will be missed but never forgotten.

AWWA Manual M14 xiii

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.
 This page intentionally blank.

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 Metric Conversions

Linear Measurement
inch (in.) × 25.4 = millimeters (mm)
inch (in.) × 2.54 = centimeters (cm)
foot (ft) × 304.8 = millimeters (mm)
foot (ft) × 30.48 = centimeters (cm)
foot (ft) × 0.3048 = meters (m)
yard (yd) × 0.9144 = meters (m)
mile (mi) × 1,609.3 = meters (m)
mile (mi) × 1.6093 = kilometers (km)
millimeter (mm) × 0.03937 = inches (in.)
centimeter (cm) × 0.3937 = inches (in.)
meter (m) × 39.3701 = inches (in.)
meter (m) × 3.2808 = ft (ft)
meter (m) × 1.0936 = yards (yd)
kilometer (km) × 0.6214 = miles (mi)
Area Measurement
square meter (m2) × 10,000 = square centimeters (cm2)
hectare (ha) × 10,000 = square meters (m2)
square inch (in.2) × 6.4516 = square centimeters (cm2)
square foot (ft2) × 0.092903 = square meters (m2)
square yard (yd2) × 0.8361 = square meters (m2)
acre × 0.004047 = square kilometers (km2)
acre × 0.4047 = hectares (ha)
square mile (mi2) × 2.59 = square kilometers (km2)
square centimeter (cm2) × 0.16 = square inches (in.2)
square meters (m2) × 10.7639 = square ft (ft2)
square meters (m2) × 1.1960 = square yards (yd2)
hectare (ha) × 2.471 = acres
square kilometer (km2) × 247.1054 = acres
square kilometer (km2) × 0.3861 = square miles (mi2)
Volume Measurement
cubic inch (in.3) × 16.3871 = cubic centimeters (cm3)
cubic foot (ft3) × 28,317 = cubic centimeters (cm3)
cubic foot (ft3) × 0.028317 = cubic meters (m3)
cubic foot (ft3) × 28.317 = liters (L)
cubic yard (yd3) × 0.7646 = cubic meters (m3)

AWWA Manual M14 xv

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.
 This page intentionally blank.

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 AWWA MANuAL

M14

Chapter 1

Introduction

For millennia, people have been concerned with obtaining and maintaining pure and safe
water supplies. Archeological studies reveal that as early as 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptian
State had a government official who was required to inspect the country’s water supply
every 10 days. With the widespread use of water closets in the 1800s came direct cross-
connections with water mains. This brought into focus the problem that, as one nine-
teenth century authority stated, “foul matters may get into the pipes.”* Currently, many
government and industry professionals are aware of the need to prevent contamination of
potable water supplies through cross-connections. However, the water supplier goals and
levels of involvement may vary.

PURPOSE OF MANUAL
This manual provides guidance to all professionals working with the potable water supply
on the recommended procedures and practices for developing, operating, and maintain-
ing an efficient and effective cross-connection control program. The manual also provides
insight into the basic areas that should be addressed to ensure that public water system
connections are made safely; that those connections will be operated and maintained to
ensure water quality; and that public water suppliers have the basic knowledge needed to
assist in this effort. The purpose of any such program is to reduce the risk of contamina-
tion or pollution of the public water system.
A cross-connection is an actual or potential connection between any part of a potable
water system and an environment that would allow substances to enter the potable water
system. Those substances could include gases, liquids, or solids, such as chemicals, water
products, steam, water from other sources (potable or nonpotable), and any matter that
may change the color or taste of water or add odor to water.

* A.J. Keenan, C.S.I., B.C. Section AWWA Cross-Connection Control, September 1977.

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

2 BACKFLOW PREVENTION AND CROSS-CONNECTION CONTROL

RESPONSIBILITIES
The United States Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) became law in 1974. The purpose of
the act is to protect public health by regulating all public drinking water supplies in the
United States. SDWA was amended in 1986 and again in 1996. As amended, it requires pro-
tection of the public drinking water supply and its sources: both surface water and ground
water. SDWA does not, however, regulate private wells serving fewer than 25 individuals
and it also does not regulate systems having fewer than 15 service connections.
SDWA authorizes the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to
set national health-based standards for public drinking water. These standards have been
established to protect against naturally occurring and man-made contaminants that may
be found in our drinking water supply. Together the USEPA, state regulatory agencies, and
water suppliers work to make sure these standards are monitored and followed.
In Canada, provincial governments have jurisdiction over the public health aspects
of the drinking water supply. Local governments within a province (e.g., regional districts
and municipalities), with the authority of the province, may impose other regulations or
more stringent regulations not in conflict with provincial regulations.
Because there is a difference between the authority of the United States federal gov-
ernment and that of Canada, and between the different states and provinces, the following
discussion, although referring to “federal and state,” illustrates the different regulations
governing a public water supplier.
For US water utilities (public water suppliers), SDWA regulations govern PWSs.
SDWA (see 42 U.S.C. 300f(4)(A)) states: “The term public water system [PWS] means a system
for the provision to the public of water for human consumption through pipes or other
constructed conveyances, if such system has at least fifteen service connections or regu-
larly serves at least twenty-five individuals.”
The public water system includes any collection, treatment, storage, and distribution
facilities under control of the operator of such system.
SDWA states that water suppliers are only responsible for the water quality deliv-
ered to the water consumer’s service connection. In many jurisdictions, this is commonly
referred to as point of entry or point of service. The water supplier is not responsible for
contaminants and/or pollutants that are added to the potable water by any circumstances
under the control of the consumer beyond the public water supply water point of entry.
Currently, SDWA provides that the federal government may grant the state or local
governments primacy for the administration and enforcement of the federal drink-
ing water rules and regulations. Agencies that have been granted primary enforcement
responsibilities must adopt drinking water regulations that are at least as stringent as the
current federal drinking water rules and regulations.
In addition to adopting the federal drinking water rules and regulations, primacy
agencies may adopt additional or more stringent drinking water rules or regulations as
long as the rules or regulations are not in conflict with SDWA and/or other federal rules
or regulations. Thus, in states that have primacy, cross-connection control rules are state
adopted. Similarly, local government such as counties and cities, with the authority of the
state, may also adopt additional or more stringent rules and regulations as long as the
counties and cities are not in conflict with the state law or regulations.
Both federal and state/provincial governments regulate the public health aspects of
drinking water in order to protect the health, safety, and welfare of the water consumer.
From the point of service/entry, federal, state, and local responsibilities to protect the
health, safety, or welfare of the users of water are under the jurisdiction of agencies other
than those regulating PWSs, and include, but are not limited to, the following:

AWWA Manual M14

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 Introduction 3

• Local plumbing and building officials who are responsible for enforcing all pro-
visions of applicable plumbing and building codes relative to the installation,
alteration, repair maintenance, or operation of all plumbing system devices and
equipment including cross-connections on all new construction or any project
that has plumbing or any building that has a construction, plumbing, or build-
ing permit open. In such cases, the local code official will make all the required
inspections or they may accept reports of inspection by approved agencies or indi-
viduals. Plumbing codes provide for point-of-use backflow protection for potable
water systems. The local code officials usually have limited or no jurisdiction over
any pre-existing structures.
• Fire marshals who are responsible for regulating fire protection systems (e.g., fire
sprinkler systems) downstream of the potable water system supply connection
entering the premises.
• Safety inspectors (Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA]; Work-
ers’ Compensation Board [WCB] [Canada]; Mine Safety and Health Administrators
[MSHA]) who are responsible for inspecting potable water systems (plumbing) for
workers’ safety.
• Health officials who are responsible for inspecting restaurants and other food
preparation facilities (e.g., dairies), health care facilities (e.g., nursing homes), etc.
• Agricultural inspectors who are responsible for the safe handling of chemicals
(e.g., pesticides) used in growing and processing agricultural products.
These agencies have jurisdiction over work done on the customer’s premises. Most
have regulations that involve cross-connection control, and these different regulations
may be in conflict with the procedures for cross-connection control recommended in this
manual. The authority of these agencies over the water supplier’s customers may be con-
tinuing or may be limited by the issuance of a final permit (e.g., for building occupancy)
(see Figure 1-1).
The implementation of a program for the effective control of cross-connections
requires the cooperation of the water supplier, the primacy agency, plumbing/building
officials, plumbers, the water consumer, and the backflow prevention assembly tester.
Each has specific responsibilities and each must carry out their responsibilities in order to
prevent pollution or contamination of the PWS.
Much confusion about cross-connection control exists due to a misunderstanding
between many water suppliers, property owners, and code officials that under SDWA, the
water suppliers are responsible for water quality to the last free-flowing tap. This confu-
sion may result from some federal rules/regulations requiring water suppliers to monitor
certain water quality parameters, such as maximum contaminant level (MCL) violations
or necessary action levels for treatment techniques, which are measured at the tap and
are reflective of the corrosivity of the water being supplied. Additional information can
be obtained from the local authority having jurisdiction. However, this does not impose a
responsibility on the water supplier for regulating plumbing. As stated in SDWA, “Maxi-
mum contaminant level means the maximum permissible level of a contaminant in water
which is delivered to any user of a public water system.”
Cross-connection control regulations provide water utilities a legal basis for review-
ing water users for actual or potential cross-connections. More importantly, they impose
requirements that adequately protect the PWS whenever a potential hazard is discovered.

AWWA Manual M14

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

4 BACKFLOW PREVENTION AND CROSS-CONNECTION CONTROL

Jurisdiction of the
Jurisdiction of the plumbing code
water supplier
Property line

A. Location on private side of property line

Containment:
Water supply protection
from the property’s
entire plumbing system.

Containment
backflow
2/1
006
WOG
OW
600
1/2

G
WOG
600
1/2
2/1
006
WOG
OW

006
OW

2/1
600
1/2

preventer FLOMATIC
RPZ
140°F-175 PSI

B. Location on public entity side of property line

Figure 1-1 Examples of backflow prevention equipment locations

Courtesy of Stuart F. Asay

AWWA Manual M14

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 Introduction 5

HEALTH ASPECTS
Protection of drinking water for public health emphasizes preventing contamination. A
multiple-barrier approach is used from the source to the tap. The following are major bar-
riers established for PWSs:
• Sources of supply: Prevent human contaminants, such as pathogens (e.g., viruses
and bacteria) or chemicals from entering the water supply through watershed con-
trol and wellhead protection programs.
• Treatment techniques: Remove or reduce natural and human contaminants to
comply with maximum contaminant levels established by regulations, or other-
wise provided by the system.
• Chlorination: Maintain chlorine residual in the water supply to control microbio-
logical quality.
• Storage: Provide covered storage and prevent microbiological contamination
through openings in reservoirs.
• Distribution: Comply with installation and material standards and provide mini-
mum operating pressures to prevent contaminants from entering the system.
• Cross-connection control: Provide premises isolation (containment of service) or
equivalent in-premises fixture protection to prevent contaminants from entering
the water supplier’s system.
• Water quality monitoring: Provide surveillance of system to detect contaminants
in the water supply.
• System operator: Ensure that qualified personnel operate PWSs through operator
certification.
• Emergency plan: Establish procedures for correcting problems detected in water
quality monitoring or caused by natural disasters.
On the customer’s premises, plumbing and health codes establish minimum design,
installation, and operating requirements for public health protection. Major items in the
plumbing codes are as follows:
• Distribution: Install approved materials and follow design requirements to
ensure adequate pressure at fixtures.
• Cross-connection control: Provide backflow preventers at fixtures and appliances
to prevent contaminants or pollutants from entering the potable water system.
• Licensed plumber: Require that a licensed plumber (with some exceptions, such
as a landscape contractor or fire-sprinkler contractor) perform work that is plumb-
ing code compliant.
These requirements are conservative. They include a high safety factor for system
design (reliability) and for acceptable contaminant levels. For example, regulation of
chemical contaminants may be based on a possible adverse health effect from the long-
term (e.g., lifetime) consumption of two liters of water per day with a chemical at a level
above the MCL.
Most SDWA requirements deal with possible chronic (long-term) health effects.
Contamination of a water distribution system through a cross-connection may result in
acute (immediate adverse) health effects that cause illness or death of one or more persons­
and/or financial losses. Although cross-connection control is only one of the multiple bar-
riers to protect potable water quality, it is one of the most important. Without the water
supplier’s cross-connection control program, the distribution system may become the
weak link in the multiple-barrier approach.

AWWA Manual M14

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

6 BACKFLOW PREVENTION AND CROSS-CONNECTION CONTROL

Potable water is water that does not contain objectionable pollutants or contami-
nants, and is considered satisfactory for drinking or culinary purposes. By this definition,
potable water need not be sterile. Potable water may contain nonpathogenic organisms
and other substances. For cross-connection control purposes, potable water is considered
to be safe for human consumption, meaning it is free from harmful or objectionable mate-
rials, as described by the health authority. In assessing the degree of hazard, “safe for
human consumption” or “free from harmful or objectionable materials” are not clearly
defined parameters. A chemical toxin in high concentrations may cause no harm when
consumed in low concentrations. In assessing the actual and potential degrees of hazard,
microbiological, chemical, radiologic, and physical parameters must be considered. These
parameters are described in the following sections.

Microbiological
Waterborne disease pathogens are the primary concern in cross-connection control. Water-
borne diseases are caused by the following major groups: bacteria, virus, algae, fungi, pro-
tozoa, and parasitic. The risk to public health of a waterborne disease transmitted through
the public water supply is exacerbated by the
• Large population that may be exposed to the contaminant.
• Ability to immediately detect contamination. The first indication may be a posi-
tive microbiological sample.
• Effectiveness in tracing the source. For example, Giardia lamblia cysts may enter
the distribution system from a reservoir or through a cross-connection with an
auxiliary supply.
The amount of the infectious organism ingested contributes to the difficulty of
assessing the relative risk to public health from a microbiological contaminant. The health
effect to an individual consuming a microbiological contaminant varies by the type of
organism, the quantity ingested, and the strength of the person’s immune system. For
example, water with a low level of the total coliform bacteria Citrobacter freundii presents
little adverse health concern; however, this bacterium may colonize distribution system
piping and could become a health risk. By comparison, the ingestion of only a few Giardia
lamblia cysts may be infectious.
Although a microbiological contaminant may not be a pathogen or opportunistic
pathogen (one that affects a person with a weak immune system), their presence in the
water distribution system may be an indirect concern. Some microbiological contaminants
may cause taste and odor problems or increase the chlorine demand. A coliform bacteria
detected in the water supplier’s monitoring program may require mitigation measures
from resampling to a boil-water order with an emergency water main flushing and disin-
fection program.
To assess the problem of bacteria entering the distribution system, the water supplier
must consider the following issues:
• Poor-quality source water may enhance bacteria growth and regrowth in the distri-
bution system. For example, source water with a high level of organic compounds
provides a food source for bacteria that may enter the distribution system due to a
backflow incident. Other quality concerns include water with high turbidity, sulfate-
reducing bacteria, and iron and manganese that provide a biofilm (slime) or biomass
(sediment) in water mains that facilitate bacterial regrowth.
• Distribution system piping that is in poor condition may aid bacteria growth. For
example, corrosive water may cause tuberculation to form on old unlined cast-iron

AWWA Manual M14

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

 Introduction 7

and steel water mains. The tubercles provide a rough surface that shelters bacteria
and a biofilm from the disinfectant.
Systems may have inadequate capacity to maintain pressure during peak water
demand periods (e.g., fire flow, hot summer weather). Many old distribution systems
have a relatively high frequency of breaks or leaks. Whenever there is a reduction or
loss of pressure in the distribution system, there is the possibility that contaminants
will flow back into the potable water system.
• Difficulty maintaining disinfectant residuals, such as chlorine, in the distribution
system makes it possible for pathogens to survive.
Because each water system is different, the concerns about microbiological contami-
nation are different for each water supplier.

Chemical
There are acute and chronic toxic effects that can occur from exposure to harmful
chemicals.
The health effects of a toxic chemical vary by type of chemical and quantity ingested
by the infected person. For most people, ingestion of water with a high copper level may
likely cause nausea, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and/or headache. In the small portion of
the population that is extremely sensitive to copper, the health effects may be poisonous,
perhaps causing death.
Some chemicals have a low level of toxicity. However, when combined with the
chemicals that are added to a water supply, a potentially more harmful chemical may
form. Chemical contaminants may also react with the piping material in the plumbing or
distribution system to leach toxic metals into the water. Because every water system treats
its water differently, concerns about corrosive water are different.

Physical
There are few physical hazards that are not also chemical hazards. Examples of “pure”
physical hazards include hot water and steam. Human contact with these hazards may
result in burning of the skin, eyes, etc. In addition, physical hazards may also cause dam-
age to the distribution system piping or materials.

LEGAL ASPECTS
Removing or controlling all cross-connections is a challenging task, one that could require
resources beyond the financial capacity of many water systems, as well as public health
and plumbing inspection departments. Frequently, property owners will modify a
plumbing system, allowing uncontrolled cross-connections. Once contamination from
a cross-connection occurs, it is likely that one or more persons will suffer some type of
loss, e.g., a minor financial loss to cover the cost of flushing a plumbing system or serious
injury or illness or death and resulting social and economic damages.

Government Statutes, Regulations, and Local Controls

Federal and state/provincial legislative bodies are heavily involved in adopting stat-
utes that have a major impact on drinking water suppliers. Appropriate administrative
agencies also promulgate regulations and periodic regulatory changes pursuant to their
statutory authority. Local governments also may impose controls over water consumers
through ordinances, regulations, rules, orders, and permits.

AWWA Manual M14

Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

8 BACKFLOW PREVENTION AND CROSS-CONNECTION CONTROL

Once the statutes, local ordinances, regulations, and other administrative actions
have been enacted, regulated entities are responsible for knowing and obeying these
laws. Although most government agencies make an effort to notify affected parties of
their newly established and ongoing obligations, contractors and builder groups should be
involved in the process of enacting laws and developing regulations.
As previously stated, the primary federal statute governing the safety of PWSs in the
United States is SDWA. Although major portions of SDWA are concerned with informa-
tion gathering, the 1996 amendments recognized source water protection, operator train-
ing, funding for water system improvements, and public information as important new
components for providing safe drinking water.
SDWA’s reporting requirements may also apply to a backflow incident, whether it is
the subject of enforcement or not. A variety of circumstances and events, such as failure
to comply with the primary drinking water standards and other violations, must now be
reported to those served by a PWS (see 42 U.S.C. 300g-3(c)). This type of required disclo-
sure is a strong deterrent, even in the absence of civil penalties, because it exposes a water
supplier to a third-party lawsuit under other statutory and common law.
Other laws and regulations that impact water suppliers and customers include
• Federal and state environmental and consumer protection regulations, including
product liability laws (e.g., supply of tainted product: contaminated water)
• State requirements for the implementation of a cross-connection control pro-
gram, testing of assemblies by certified testers, reporting of backflow incidents,
records, etc.
• Plumbing codes and/or related industry standards (e.g., IPC, UPC, NFPA)
Water suppliers should remain aware of applicable state and local laws and regula-
tions and consult qualified legal counsel concerning their possible application in the case
of a backflow incident.

Common-Law Doctrines
Even though the water supplier has the responsibility for administration of a cross­
connection control program, the building owner also plays a part in protection of the
water supply within their facility. As such, all applicable building codes, fire sprinkler
standards, and plumbing codes as well as any OSHA or Canadian Center for Occupational
Health and Safety requirements need to be met. The building owner should also ensure
that the necessary testing and maintenance of any backflow prevention equipment is con-
ducted on their premises per requirements of the program administrator.
A common-law duty of every water supplier is to supply potable water to its custom-
ers. A water supplier’s cross-connection control program should be designed to reason-
ably reduce the risk of contamination of the supplier’s system and the water supplier’s
exposure to legal liability. If it is determined that a water supplier has failed to meet this
duty, the water supplier could be held liable to its customers for damages proximately
caused by the water supplier’s breach of this duty. If other parties (contractors or other
individuals) are at fault, their liability to any injured party may be determined in a similar
manner, with any party found to have caused damage to another, assessed damages for
some and possibly all injuries suffered.
Liability for supplying impure water has long been recognized as common law, most
often for the incident of disease or poisoning that result from the violation, as well as for
damage to machinery and goods suffered by commercial customers. Although case law
varies from state to state, the general standard created by these cases is one of exercis-
ing reasonable or ordinary care to furnish pure water. Liability may result if this duty to

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Copyright © 2015 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

Random documents with unrelated
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 At this point in the young Squire's discourse, Blazer,
probably considering that he had not received due notice for
his deed of valour, began to growl and whine. The
consciences of both boys being somewhat overloaded,
however, they interpreted his remarks as referring to
themselves; and not desiring to provoke him further, they
dropped their hostile attitude.

Bill was the first to make a move.

"You ought to shake hands," said Hal, as he turned to

slink off.

But Bill's magnanimity was not capable of rising to this

degree; and he felt as if he was being quite as generous as
any one could reasonably expect in allowing poor dripping
Dick to slip through his fingers in this easy way.

Hal stood gazing after Dick's retreating figure, as he ran

off home at the top of his speed. "It's a pity that boys don't
care more about being like Jesus Christ," observed he. "Of
course, it's a sort of thing that takes a lot of trying, and
boys naturally don't like trouble. They like play a good deal
better. But then they ought to consider that they won't have
to play when they're men; and what sort of men will they
make, if they don't choose a good copy? As to it's being
hard to imitate such a grand example as Jesus Christ—well!
It isn't as if you'd got it all to do by yourself. There's the
Holy Spirit, you know, who is promised in the Bible to all
those who want to get along well."

Having delivered himself of these originally expressed

sentiments, Hal also set forward; Maggie, with a thoughtful
expression on her brow, walking by his side, and Blazer
trotting on in front.

"Girls don't care about it either," said she presently.

"And that," added Hal, "is why there are so many bad
men and women in the world. I should like it, when I'm
Squire, if all the people on my estate were Christians—real
ones, you know; not shams. You'd see the difference! It
would entirely do away with policemen and gaols, and all
that sort of thing."

CHAPTER XIX.
REVENGE.
 ALL this while the Squire had been waiting for Dick in
vain. At length, his usual luncheon-time being nearly half an
hour past, he gave up, and set off down the hill, still
thinking that he might meet him by the way; but desiring
Mrs. Crozier, if such should not prove the case, to send Dick
up to the Manor House that afternoon.

This, however, Mrs. Crozier had no chance of doing.

Hurrying up the fields from the riverbank, it had occurred to
Dick that it would be more prudent to dry his clothes before
going home; so, taking a short cut across the grass to the
back of the Manor Farm, he made his way to a haystack he
knew of, which had been partly cut away on the sunny side.
Here, stripping off his garments, and spreading them out in
the sun, he covered himself up with the loose, warm hay, to
wait and think over the story by which he would account for
his absence from dinner, and his battered face.

Meanwhile Hal, hearing the church clock strike half-past

one, had left Maggie to take Blazer home, and had struck
across the fields and past the farm. Hot and flushed with
hurrying, he arrived at the lodge gate just as the Squire
came in sight.

Hal pulled up to wait for him, glad of breathing space.

The Squire was walking briskly. "We shall deserve a

scolding for keeping lunch waiting," said he as he came up.
"How come you to be late too?—And what have you done
with the other boys? By the by, have you seen anything of
Dick Crozier?"

"That's what made me late," answered Hal, guessing

that his grandfather must have met Dick in his deplorable
condition. "He had enough of his ducking, I should think."
 The Squire stared. "Enough of what?"

"But you met him?" said Hal.

"Not a bit of it," returned the Squire. "I've been waiting

this hour or more in Mrs. Crozier's parlour to lecture him."

Then Hal told his tale.

Bill also had heard half-past one go, and had suddenly
recollected that he was on a promise of good behaviour.
Now, he was sorely perplexed what to do. It was clear
enough that his behaviour was not exactly good; but how to
tell his story to his own credit, or, in fact, to get believed at
all, Bill was entirely at a loss. So, hungry as he was, he did
what cowards always do—kept out of it, and went
wandering about the fields behind the farm.

"I don't see much in Bill's fine promises," remarked his

mother, as her husband set foot on the threshold; "for all
the Squire made himself surety for the boy. He ought to ha'
been in this hour ago; and I ha'n't set eyes on him since
nine o'clock, when he went down to school."

"'Spare the rod and spoil the child,'" quoted Mumby,

sitting down heavily in his accustomed corner by the
chimney-piece. "I wouldn't ha' let him off so easy for
anybody else; but if the worst comes to the worst, why, I
must reckon up wi' him, for all the Squires in the world. A
father's got his dooty to his boy to think of first; and I ain't
agoin' to shirk mine, not for all the firmament." After which
paternal speech, he fell to work in silence on the steaming
lump of steak pudding which his wife served out to him.

"Now, wife," said he, as he pushed his plate back and

got up, "when Bill turns up, you don't give him a scrap o'
this, d'ye mind? Dinner-time's when I come in, and, if he
ain't ready for his'n then, why, he can go without, or else
make shift to fill himself with bread." And having lighted his
pipe, he went out again.

But Bill, having once given way to his cowardly fears,

grew less and less brave about showing his face at home,
and, as he was getting dreadfully famished, he began to
wonder how he could get a meal. He thought of the gap in
the hedge; but that was almost within sight of home, and
the men would be just returning to work. Besides, Bill had
had enough of stealing eggs. But it struck him that he
might find some small birds' eggs to suck. At the bottom of
the field in the hedge which bounded it from the orchard
were some trees of which the blackbirds were particularly
fond; and to these Bill now directed his steps, in hopes that
he might find something to stay his hunger.

He was unusually lucky too. The first nest which he

found contained four or five fledglings; but the second and
the third had each five eggs in it, all of which he sucked.

"Better than nothing," said Bill to himself, as he threw

the last shell down, and prepared to descend the trunk
again. "It'd take a lot o' them to make up a goose's egg,
though."

But in moving on to the next group of trees, Bill passed

the haystack, and, casting a look round, to see that no one
was about, whom should he discover but his old enemy,
lying fast asleep in the hay, his clothes spread out around
him on the grass to dry?

Once out of his wet garments, and snugly covered up,

with the hot May sun shining down upon him, Dick had soon
become so helplessly drowsy, that before the lapse of many
minutes, he had become oblivious to everything, and was
soundly sleeping off the effects of his cold plunge.

Bill stood still a moment in sheer amazement; then he

tiptoed nearer, with his neck outstretched, laughing to
himself, to think how completely luck had placed Dick in his
power. A moment more, and he had darted forward,
gathered up the clothes, and, as swiftly as caution would
allow, had sped up the ladder with them.

"Now you're done, my fine fellow, or my name ain't

Bill!" said he to himself, as he lodged his bundle, and took
up his position at the top of the ladder, where the thatched
slant was cut away. "Let's see how you'll look running home
without your clothes!"

But an hour passed, and Dick did not rouse.

At first Bill had forgotten his hunger; now he began to

cast longing looks at the branches of the trees beyond the
stack. It was already seven or eight hours since he
breakfasted; and he was beginning to find revenge rather
painful.

Another half-hour went by.

Bill's patience was nearly exhausted, but Dick was still

sound asleep, entirely unconscious of the trick that had
been played him.

"I wonder," exclaimed Bill, "how long he's wound up

for!"

But the idea of Dick's awakening only suggested other

difficulties; for the longer Bill put off going home, the less
pleasant he found the prospect of having to face it out in
the end. It would certainly make ten times worse of it, if
this should come out. Perhaps, on the whole, it would be
better to descend at once, and leave Dick to make the
discovery of his loss alone; but Bill somehow could not give
up the fun.

"Let's rouse him up," said he at length; and pulling out

some of the osier switches with which the thatch was
pegged, he broke them into bits, and commenced pelting at
Dick's upturned face. The first half-dozen missed, but
presently one hit the mark. Dick stirred in his sleep, and
turned over on his back, baring one arm and poking one
foot up through the hay.

Bill chuckled, and sent another missile straight for his

face. This time it missed; but the next hit hard, right in the
centre of his forehead. Dick's eyes opened, then dropped to
again, and he turned over on his other side. Bill aimed
again, and hit him in the ear. This time, up went one of
Dick's hands to rub the place, and he awoke outright.

First of all, he stared round in a bewildered sort of way,

as if unable to make out his surroundings; then he
examined his bare arm, and pushed the hay back from his
chest, as if to remind himself that he was without garments.
Finally he sat upright, the dry covering falling back from his
arms and shoulders.

Now was Bill's time of triumph. Feasting on Dick's look

of utter dismay, he no longer even felt his hunger. The very
thought of Dick's having to get from the farm to the top of
the hill beyond the Manor House without a rag to his back,
was ample reward for all his waiting and fasting. Bill's
revenge was so delicious to the taste, that it was all he
could do to restrain his chuckles of delight. But Bill was not
going to spoil the fun. By a strong effort of self-control, he
mastered his merriment, and sat still to watch what course
his unfortunate victim would adopt.

Whilst Dick had been snugly rolled up in the hay, the

Manor House boys and their cousins, not satisfied with their
morning's game at hare and hounds, had been for a long
walk round in the opposite direction; and just as Dick sat
up, hardly able to believe his eyes, yet guessing who had
played him the trick, and wondering what in the world he
was to do, up they came along the favourite pathway from
the riverbank across the fields.

Bill from the top of the stack not only heard, but saw
them trooping merrily along—Hal, on his crutches in the
midst, keeping up bravely with the rest. Dick, also, from the
shelter of the stack, heard the sound of their gay laughter,
as they chattered by the way; and it just flashed across his
mind that here was an opportunity to get helped out of his
awkward predicament. Only the situation was so utterly
ridiculous, that natural pride made him shrink from
exposure. He was still hesitating, unable to make up his
mind whether to call to them or to wait till dark should lend
a friendly cloak to flight, when he heard Sigismund shout,
"Who'll climb a haystack?"

Will took up the challenge, and off they raced across the
grass, Hal following at his quickest.

Will and Sigismund were first at the stack. They had

scarcely reached it, however, when there was a grand
outcry, and a tremendous explosion of laughter; for there,
bolt upright, and stark naked to the waist, sat Dick Crozier,
with the most comical look of helplessness upon his face.

"Hullo!" exclaimed Will.

"Whatever are you up to?" cried Sigismund.

 "A leaf out of Robinson Crusoe," yelled one of the
cousins, holding his sides; "a naked savage!"

"A what?" shouted Hal, putting on all the speed he

could command.

Dick had turned red all over.

"He's taking a sun bath," jeered Will.

"They say it's very salutary," added one of the others,

his eyes running over with merriment.

"Don't let the police catch you at it, that's all," said
another, as Dick tried to scrape the hay together round him.

Sigismund had turned back towards Hal, who by this

time was nearly at the spot. "It's Dick Crozier," called he.

"Dick Crozier!" echoed Hal. "What's the matter?"

 The next instant, however, the question answered itself,
and for a brief space Hal was at a loss whether to laugh or
look serious.

"But where are your clothes?" asked he at length, in a

tone of incredulity.

"Goodness knows," answered Dick snappishly, "Gone."

"But how did you get out of them?" asked Hal further.

"Took 'em off," said Dick in a surly voice.

"Queer place to choose," put in Will.

"But what have you done with them?" asked Hal, utterly
at a loss.

"Nothing!" exclaimed Dick indignantly. "They're gone."

"Gone?"

"Can't you understand!" broke out Dick, with injured

dignity most ludicrous to behold. "Some one's taken 'em."

The others roared with laughter anew; but the whole

thing suddenly flashed upon Hal. Dick, afraid to go home,
had conceived the idea of drying his clothes in the sun; and
Bill, finding him there asleep, had played him this waggish
but shameful trick.

Hal didn't laugh.

"Run for some clothes, one of you," ordered he; "to the
cottages will be quickest. Bill shall answer for this—the
mean scoundrel!" added he, in a tone of voice that changed
the expression of that youth's face in a twinkling, and made
the others look in awe at Hal.
 Sigismund, always ready to do his elder brother's
bidding, dashed off, followed by one of his cousins; but at
that instant, Will, recollecting what they had come for,
glanced upward, and caught sight of Bill.

"Hullo!" cried he. "There he is! Look! Look! Up there!"

All eyes were instantly directed to the top of the stack.

But Bill, suddenly arriving at the determination that it would
be more prudent to make off, had scrambled to the ridge,
and over; and all of him except his hands had disappeared.

"Why! He's got the clothes up there!" exclaimed one of

the cousins, catching sight of the bundle.

"I'm going up," said Will, setting foot on the ladder.

"Stop, stop!" cried Hal, afraid of a tussle at such a

height from the ground, and half hoping that some one
would come back from the cottages with Sigismund, and
see fair play. "Let be till Sidge and Watt come back."

But Bill had caught Will's words like a shot, and,

determined upon escape at all costs, had let go the ridge.
Almost the same instant they heard a heavy thud upon the
ground.

"What was that?" cried Will and the two cousins in a

breath.

Hal turned white.

"He has never jumped it?" cried he.

Not a sound came from the other side of the stack; but
there was scarcely a doubt as to what had happened. For a
moment none of them dared stir; then Hal put one crutch
forward, and nerved himself for the awful possibility,
praying as he went,—"God grant he isn't dead!"

On the grass, a yard or so from the foot of the stack,

lay Bill, white as a sheet. At first sight Hal uttered a cry of
horror, thinking that his worst fears were realized. But at
the sound of his voice Bill's eyes opened.

"My leg!" moaned he. "My leg!"

The right leg was doubled backwards underneath him,

broken at the thigh.

"Here!" shouted Hal. "Help! Where are you all? Won't

anybody lend a hand?"

The others had followed him, however, and were closer

than he knew of. Half-a-dozen hands were instantly
stretched out; Bill was quickly lifted, and the injured limb
straightened.

"Bring him round on to the hay," directed Hal. "He'll lie

easier there, whilst you go for help."

So Bill was carried round to where Dick sat—now

shivering with terror and alarm.

"He'll want a stretcher," said Hal next. "You three can't

carry him; and I should think it will be a case for the
Infirmary."

The three boys declared themselves quite equal to the

task of carrying Bill, and were anxious to start at once. But
as they were in the midst of a warm debate with Hal, who
stood out for the superior merits of a stretcher, the sound of
footsteps announced the return of Sigismund and Watt.
 "Grandfather is behind," shouted Sigismund
triumphantly, as he advanced. "Now we shall see fair play."

The Squire had been up the hill to Mrs. Crozier's again,

after hearing Hal's account of Dick's ducking; and perplexed
at finding him still absent, had proceeded to Mrs. Mumby's
cottage, to hear what Bill had to tell on the subject.
Learning from Sigismund the fresh turn of affairs, he now at
once followed to the scene of action, Mrs. Mumby hurrying
after, vowing punishment on Bill for this fresh escapade,
and carrying his Sunday suit for Dick.

Seeing Mrs. Mumby, Hal, with a quick thought for her

mother's heart, at once started forward.

"Don't be frightened," called he, as he swung himself

towards her; "it's only his leg. Bill went and tried to jump
down from the top, and he has broken his thigh."

Of course, as neither Mrs. Mumby nor the Squire knew

anything about the "king o' the haystack" position which Bill
had for the last three hours enjoyed, further explanation
was called for. But Hal soon put them in possession of the
principal facts—how Will had caught sight of the young
rascal, and started to go up after him; and how Bill,
resolved not to be caught, had left his hold and slidden
down with a rush.

In another minute, Will and Sigismund were racing to

the farmyard, with the Squire's orders that a cart be
brought round at once, to convey Bill to the Infirmary.

"Well, young man," said the Squire, as he stood over

Bill awaiting their return, "I should think that you have had
lessons enough by this time. For, remember, this all comes
of getting through a hedge to steal goose eggs."
 CHAPTER XX.
IN MEMORY OF FARMER BLUFF.

A FEW hours later, Bill had made acquaintance with one

of the narrow beds in the accident ward of the Riverbridge
Infirmary, where—after going through the exhausting
process of having his clothes removed, and his leg put in
splints—he fell asleep and dreamt all sorts of extraordinary
things. Amongst others, that the Squire had caught him
stealing eggs in the hay, and had him nailed out on a flat
board—like the stoats on the lower boarding of the barn;
and that when he tried to get away, Farmer Bluff's dog
came and barked at him. Then the dog suddenly changed
into a woman with a snow-cloud on her head, who clapped
ice on his forehead, to make him forget for a little while.
This imaginary ice being none other than the hand of the
kind-hearted night nurse, under the touch of whose cool
palm Bill from time to time forgot his feverish struggles to
toss about. And so the morning dawned; the first of forty
days, or more, that the Bill would have to spend upon that
narrow bed.
 In the meantime, Dick, arrayed in Bill's Sunday suit,
and escorted by the Squire, had gone off up the hill, leaving
his half-dry clothes in Mrs. Mumby's charge.

Arrived at home, he was at once put to bed between

blankets, and made to swallow a large basinful of hot gruel,
which would have been unpalatable enough, had he not
been so long fasting that anything of the nature of food was
welcome.

Between the gruel and the blankets, he was soon

perspiring violently, and in a sound sleep, from which he did
not rouse until long after Bill—in accordance with the early
rule of the Infirmary—had breakfasted. Then, feeling very
much dispirited and out of sorts, and looking a wretched
object, with his bruised and battered face and fists, he
dressed and came downstairs, more thankful than words
can describe, to find his father already gone, and as grateful
for the message he had left behind, excusing him from
school for the day, on condition that he did not stir outside
the house.

Dick, as may readily be imagined, willingly accepted the

condition, and remained at home, answering his mother's
numerous questions, and enduring her reproaches as
stoically as he could; and looking forward with great
misgivings to the lecture which, he knew only too well, he
could not hope to escape, on his father's return from
business.

Next morning, he went back to school as usual, and

after several days of quizzing and jeering on the part of his
schoolmates, things fell back into their ordinary course. By
degrees the cuts and bruises disappeared; and but for two
things Dick might perhaps have soon succeeded in
forgetting the whole occurrence—at any rate until Bill's
discharge from the Infirmary brought him home, with one
leg a full inch shorter than the other, to limp for life—a
perpetual reminder of the whole disgraceful affair.

Meanwhile, Dick had been forced to abide by the harsh,

though just words with which his father had concluded his
lecture that evening.

"You pride yourself on common sense," said Mr. Crozier,

"and have on more than one occasion rebelled against
seeing by the light of my maturer wisdom. Common sense
should have taught you that no person, young or old, can
violate the laws of God, but they are sure to reap due
punishment. Bill has learnt the wholesome truth in a
manner that I hope he will not easily forget. It will be my
duty to make sure that you remember too. I had intended
taking you on the river this coming Bank Holiday, to give
you your first lesson in rowing. But since you have so
persistently and dishonourably disregarded my injunctions
with regard to it, I shall put off doing so another year, or
until I find that you have learnt obedience."

As time went on, Dick found this decision of his father's

harder than he had even thought; for several of his
schoolmates had boats upon the river, and every invitation
to their water-parties had to be refused.

The hardest time of all was when Hal invited him to his
birthday picnic.

Hal's birthday was always the closing fête of the

summer holidays; and this year the Squire had planned an
excursion to some picturesque old ruins, eight or ten miles
up stream. A large pleasure-boat had been hired, with men
to tow or row, as convenience required; and there were
grand preparations to be undertaken in the Manor House
kitchen for the rural spread. A number of cousins, boys and
girls, were to join them, and Hal—as hero of the day—was
invested with carte blanche to invite as many as the boat
would accommodate.

"Ask just whom you please," the Squire said to him,

knowing that he might rely on Hal's good taste. "The more
the merrier, so long as we can see our water-mark. I want
your picnic to be a grand success."

Hal instantly thought of Dick.

Now, it was not surprising that Dick, heartily ashamed

of the figure he had cut on the unfortunate afternoon of
Bill's accident, should have so carefully avoided Hal ever
since, that they had not once so much as exchanged nods.
The fact was, Dick hardly thought that Hal would care to
speak to him again. But Hal, much as he disapproved of
Dick's conduct, was not the sort of boy to throw him up on
that account; and guessing that shame was most probably
Dick's chief reason for holding aloof, he was determined to
do his utmost towards bringing about a correct
understanding. And here was his opportunity.

The first thing was to waylay Dick. This was not difficult.
Hal had only to watch at the plantation palings till he saw
Dick coming down the hill; then lay in wait inside the gate
till just as he came up, and pop out on him before he had a
chance to run.

Dick looked "caught," and tried to get away; but Hal

was not to be done in that fashion. He button-holed him
without ado, and stated his business.

Dick stammered an excuse; but Hal saw, by the blank

look on his face, that there was something behind it. A little
pressing brought it out.
 "And it's no go," said Dick regretfully. "You might as well
waste your strength trying to move a mountain as my
father when his mind is made up."

Hal offered to see what he could do to soften Mr.

Crozier's heart; but Dick shook his head.

"It's no go," repeated he; "and I shall have to stay

away."

So all that glorious September day Dick spent in vain

regrets that but for his own folly, he might have been one of
Hal's merry birthday party.

But as the autumn days fell on the woods, a shadow

settled on the cottage by the gate, where Farmer Bluff was
drawing towards his death. Death is not always dark. The
end of life is sometimes like a glorious sunset, when the
light of day sinks in triumphant promise of another dawn.
But Farmer Bluff had sinned, and had never made the Bible
promises his own.

Hal often went to sit beside his bed.

"The others play as well without me," he would say.

"I'm not much good in games, you see; and I would rather
come and help you bear your pain."

"It's not so much the pain," the farmer said to him one
day. "I'd go on bearing that. But they tell me that I'm going
fast; and I can't see where. I've never been a praying man;
and now it's dark. 'Prepare to meet thy God,' they say. How
can a man prepare?—What can I do?—I've lost my right to
think of ever getting Him to listen to my prayers; and I
must go before His judgment-seat with all my sins upon my
back."

Hal was silent.

"It's very sad," said he presently; "because, you see,

you've wasted all the best part of your life. And I should
think a man wouldn't like to have to go to God and ask to
be taken into heaven, when he'd done so badly all along. Of
course, there was the prodigal, who squandered all his
father gave him so disgracefully; but you see, he was a
young man, and he went back to work again as soon as the
feast was over. The Bible doesn't say so; but it seems to me
he'd work like two, whenever he remembered how his
father ran to meet him, open-armed. You're more like the
man who didn't come to work until the eleventh hour,"
added Hal thoughtfully.

Farmer Bluff asked to have the passage read to him.

"He got his penny just the same as all the rest, you
see," said Hal, when he had finished it.

But the sick man shook his head.

"That's not like me," he said. "He worked one hour. I'm
past that. I'm good for nothing; I've destroyed myself."

And Hal went away grieved; for he felt the words were
just. And yet—although he knew that God was ready to
receive all those who turn to Him through Christ—he could
not think of how to tell him so.

But the following Sunday, as he sat beside the Squire in

the high-backed Manor pew, his crutches either side of him,
the "how" was made quite plain.
 "This is the work of God," the vicar read, "that ye
believe on Him whom God hath sent."

Will and Sigismund were very busy watching a wasp

that had strayed in at one of the windows, and was making
up its mind to settle on the velvet hangings of the pew.
They glanced at Hal, but his thoughts were too much
occupied with Farmer Bluff to notice any of their signs.

All at once he seemed to see how it is faith in Christ

alone that gives the sinner peace, when looking back
repentant on a misspent life.

He seemed to see, too, how that "faith" can be called

"work," since "to be" alone enables man "to do."

"I've got it, Farmer Bluff!" he cried, next time he went

up to his room. "Believe in Jesus Christ,—that is 'the work
of God;' and you can do that lying here. It's only to be
sorry, and to trust in Christ, who died for us." And sitting
down by him, he found the verse and read it out.

"And I think," he added, "that perhaps in heaven God

will give you something to do for Him, to make amends for
what you left undone down here."

The dying man lay still for some minutes; then a light
broke over his face, and he repeated,—"Only to be sorry—
He knows I'm truly sorry—and to trust in Christ—who died
for me. That's all 'the work of God.'"

And so, just when the bitter punishment of all his sins
was near at hand, the Saviour's sacrifice brought peace and
light; and Farmer Bluff began the life that might have been
so full of fruit in this world and the next, had he but
commenced it earlier.
 But next time Hal came upstairs to see him, he said he
had been thinking there was one thing he could do. "I could
warn some other sinner what an awful grief it is to go down
to the grave with nothing but a wasted life," said he; "and
maybe they might listen to a man who hasn't many days to
live."

So Hal brought Dick and Bill to see the dying man; and
Farmer Bluff talked to them in a way that neither of the
boys ever forgot.

"There's one thing more I want to do before I die," said

Farmer Bluff to Hal, when they were gone. "I feel the end is
coming fast; another day I mayn't have strength. That mug.
It's on the chest of drawers. Bring it me, will you?"

Hal fetched the silver mug, and brought it to the bed.

The old man took it in his hands and turned it over

many times.

"I want to give it to you," he said at length; "because

I'd like it melted down. I wouldn't like to put the blame of
all my folly on this silver mug; because the evil was inside
me, in my evil heart, that nothing save the grace of God
could change. But it seems like part of the old life. It stood
there by my side and tempted me; and I should like to feel
that when my body's underneath the grass, the old life is all
done away. No matter what you make of it, so you promise
me to have it melted down."

"I promise," answered Hal.

And the farmer put the mug into his hand.

"Then there's Grip and Blazer," continued Farmer Bluff.

"I've given Grip to Dobson there, next door; but Maggie and
her mother very likely mayn't stay here, and Blazer is very
much attached to you. I'd like to know he'll have a master
when I'm gone."

"And why not have the silver made into a collar for
him?" cried Hal suddenly. "And he shall wear the mug upon
his neck, in memory of you."

So it was agreed; and Hal went home.

Hal never saw his old friend any more alive. Going
home through heavy rain that afternoon, he caught a chill
that forced him to stay indoors for several days; and one
morning, before the week was out, a message came to say
that at the break of dawn, poor Farmer Bluff's spirit had
departed to its rest.

The cottage by the wood was soon untenanted again.

Maggie, through the Squire's interest, was got into an
orphan school, where she soon gave promise of a bright
and useful womanhood; and Mrs. Rust obtained a
responsible place as housekeeper, where she went on
saving up whatever she could spare, to lay by with the little
sum of money left her by her brother at his death; so that
when old age crept on she might not be a burden on her
child.

Meanwhile, from the day when Blazer became Hal's

property, the young Squire was seldom seen abroad without
his dog; and on his neck, Blazer always wore a massive
silver collar, bearing on one side his name and the four
words—"Who saved two lives;" and on the other, the
inscription—"In memory of his old master, Farmer Bluff."
 Thus reminded what a solemn charge is God's great gift
of life, Hal went onward towards the time when his aged
grandfather must follow Farmer Bluff, and leave the Manor
in his hands.

There is little hope that he will ever be robust enough to

lead the steeplechase, or ride out in the morning mist
behind the hounds. Probably he will never learn to do
without his crutches, and will never be "a stalwart
Englishman" to look upon. But his heart is brave and true;
and these are things he does not much regret. His strong
determination is to do his best in hunting out the sin and
godlessness that work such havoc in the lives of men; and—
God helping him—to be the foremost in the race that has
the throne of heaven for its aim.

But that time, he hopes, is still some years ahead.

Meanwhile, he strives to gather wisdom as he grows;

and since his copy—as he told Dick Crozier—is the perfect
God-man, Jesus Christ, there is no doubt that he will grow
to be a useful, honoured man, and at last receive the
incorruptible crown.

THE END.

PRINTED BY MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED,

EDINBURGH.
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