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The identification of work is an important aspect of many thermodynamic

problems. We have already noted that work can be identified only at the
boundaries of the system. For example, consider this figure, which shows
a gas separated from the vacuum by a membrane. Let the membrane
removed and the gas fill the entire volume. Neglecting any work
associated with the removing of the membrane, we can ask whether work
is done in the process. If we take as our system the gas and the vacuum
space, we can conclude that no work is done because no work can be
identified at the system boundary. If we take the gas as a system, we do
have a change of volume, and we might be tempted to calculate the work
from the integral PdV. However, this is not a quasi-equilibrium process, so
the work cannot be calculated from this relation. Because there is no
resistance at the system boundary as the volume increases, we conclude
that for this system no work is done in this process of filling the vacuum.

Another example can be the next figure we have here. (a) is the system
consists of the container plus the gas. Work crosses the boundary of the
system at the point where the system boundary intersects the shaft, and
this work can be associated with the shearing forces in the rotating shaft.
In (b) the system includes the shaft and the weight as well as the gas and
the container. Therefore, no work crosses the system boundary as the
weight moves downward. As we will see in the next chapter, we can
identify a change of potential energy within the system, but this should
not be confused with work crossing the system boundary.
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HEAT

Lets consider a block of hot copper is placed in a beaker of cold water. we

know from experience that the block of copper cools down and the water
warms up, until the copper and water reach the same temperature.
What causes this decrease in the temperature of the copper and the
increase in the temperature of the water?
We can say it is the result of the transfer of energy from the copper block
to the water. Now we can define heat with this example as:
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred across the
boundary of a system at a given temperature to another system (or the
surroundings) at a lower temperature, dur to the temperature difference
between the two systems.
So, heat is transferred from the system at the higher temperature to the
system at the lower temperature, and the heat transfer happens only
because of the temperature difference between the two systems.
Another aspect of this definition of heat is that a body never contains
heat. and heat can be identified only when it crosses the boundary.
If we consider the hot block of copper as one system and the cold water in
the beaker as another system, we understand that originally none of the
systems contain any heat (BUT they DO contain energy, of course).
When the copper block is placed in the water and there is a thermal
communication between them, heat is transferred from the copper to the
water until we reach the equilibrium of temperature. At this point we no
longer have heat transfer, because there is no temperature difference
anymore.
None of the systems contain heat at the end of this process. Also pay
attention to the point that heat is identified at the boundary of the system
and heat is defined as energy transferred across the system boundary.
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Heat, like work, is a form of energy transfer to or from a system. So, the
units for heat, and for any other form of energy, are the same as the units
for work. In the International System the unit for heat (energy) is the joule.
In the English System, the foot pound force is most used unit for heat.
Heat transferred to a system is considered positive, and heat transferred
from a system is considered negative. Thus, positive heat represents
energy transferred to a system, and negative heat represents energy
transferred from a system.
The symbol Q represents heat. A process in which there is no heat transfer
(Q = 0) is called an adiabatic process.
Heat, like work, is a path function and is recognized as an inexact
differential. It means amount of heat transferred when a system
undergoes a change from state 1 to state 2 depends on the path that the
system follows during change of state.
Since heat is an inexact differential, the differential is written as delta Q.
you can see the equation for heat calculation here:
2

∫ δQ=❑1Q2
1

Q from 1 to 2 is the heat transferred during the given process between

states 1 and 2.
The rate of heat transfer to the system is shown by Q̇ :
δQ
Q̇ ≡
dt

Also we have an other term called specific heat transfer which is shown by
q and it is the heat transfer per unit mass of the system:
Q
q≡
m
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Heat Transfer Modes

Heat transfer is the transport of energy due to a temperature
difference between different amounts of matter. We know that an
ice cube taken out of the freezer will melt when it is placed in a
warmer environment such as a glass of liquid water or on a plate
with room air around it.
The molecules of matter have translational (kinetic), rotational,
and vibrational energy. Energy in these modes can be transmitted
to the nearby molecules by interactions (collisions) or by
exchange of molecules such that energy is emitted by molecules
that have more on average (higher temperature) to those that
have less on average (lower temperature). This energy exchange
between molecules is heat transfer by conduction, and it
increases with the temperature difference and the ability of the
substance to make the transfer. This is expressed in Fourier’s law
of conduction

This equation gives the rate of heat transfer as proportional to the

conductivity, k, the total area, A, and the temperature gradient.
The minus sign indicates the direction of the heat transfer from a
higher-temperature to a lower-temperature region. Often the
gradient is evaluated as a temperature difference divided by a
distance when an estimate has to be made if a mathematical or
numerical solution is not available.
Values of conductivity, k, are on the order of 100 W/m K for
metals, 1 to 10 for nonmetallic solids as glass, ice, and rock, 0.1
to 10 for liquids, around 0.1 for insulation materials, and 0.1 down
to less than 0.01 for gases.
A different mode of heat transfer takes place when a medium is
flowing, called convective heat transfer. In this mode the bulk
motion of a substance moves matter with a certain energy level
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over or near a surface with a different temperature. Now the heat

transfer by conduction is dominated by the manner in which the
bulk motion brings the two substances in contact or close enough.
Examples are the wind blowing over a building or flow through
heat exchangers, which can be air flowing over or through a
radiator with water flowing inside the radiator piping.
The overall heat transfer is typically correlated with Newton’s law
of cooling as

where the transfer properties are gathered into the heat transfer
coefficient, h, which becomes a function of the media properties,
the flow and geometry.

The final mode of heat transfer is radiation, which transmits

energy as electromagnetic waves in space. The transfer can
happen in empty space and does not require any matter, but the
emission (generation) of the radiation and the absorption do
require a substance to be present.
Surface emission is usually written as a fraction, emissivity ε, of a
perfect black body emission as
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with the surface temperature, Ts, and the Stefan-Boltzmann

constant, σ. Typical values of emissivity range from 0.92 for
nonmetallic surfaces to 0.6 to 0.9 for nonpolished metallic
surfaces to less than 0.1 for highly polished metallic surfaces.
Radiation is distributed over a range of wavelengths and it is
emitted and absorbed differently for different surfaces, but such a
discussion is out of scope of this course.

Example 3:
A saturated water vapor at 200°C is contained in a piston-cylinder system.
The initial volume is 0.01 m³. The vapor undergoes a quasi-equilibrium
expansion at constant temperature, and the final pressure is 200 kPa.
a) Calculate the work done during the expansion.
b) If the vapor is assumed to behave as an ideal gas, what would be the
error in the calculated work?

Solution
T1=200 V1=0.01 m3 P2=200 kPa T=const 1W2=? %e=?
We do not have an equation for p and V here. So we cannot use integral of
PdV. What we can do here?
We can draw the PV diagram and calculate the area under the PV diagram
Now how we can draw it?
T1=200 it is the saturation T2=200°C
temperature. according to the P2=200 kPa
table B1.1 : P1=1553.8 kPa we The temperature is constant here.
said that we have only the The pressure is below the sat
saturated vapor. We can find the pressure. So what we will have?
vg from the table ν1=0.12736 Superheated vapor!
m3/kg. V1=0.01 m3 ν =1.0803 m3/kg
T1=200°C V2=m.v2=0.07852*1.0803=0.085
P1= 1553.8 kPa 04 m3
ν 1=0.12736 m3/kg
V1=0.01 m3
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m=V1/v1=0.01/0.12736 =
0.07852 kg
Now to plot PV diagram we should consider some points and calculate the
volume like final state.

a b C
Pa=1400 Kpa Pb=1200 kPa Pc=800 kPa
Ta=200°C Tb=200°C T=200°C
ν a=0.14302 m3/kg ν b=0.1693 m3/kg ν c=0.2608 m3/kg
Va=mva=0.0112 m3 Vb=0.0133 m3 Vc=0.0205 m3

d E
Pd=500 kPa Pe=300 kPa
Td=200 °C Te=200°C
ν d= 0.4249 m3/kg ν e=0.7163 m3/kg
Vd=0.033 m3 Ve=0.056 m3
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Now we will consider each section as a straight line so we can calculate

the area under the graph for each section. So we will have 1W2=36.3 kJ
How many point we should consider? As we increase the number of point
the accuracy will increase. But limited number of pressures are reported in
the table.
What if I consider the points which are not in the table? Then I have to use
a linear interpolation there. So no need to that and we can consider linear
plot here instead. So we can only consider the pressures that exists in the
table.
b) the vapor is considered to be ideal gas
if we consider ideal gas, the temperature was constant so the P1V1=P2V2
from here we can find V2= 0.07769 m3
we have from the last week:
1W2=P1V1 ln (V2/V1)=1553.8*0.01 ln(0.07769/0.01)=31.855 kj
%error=(real work- work with ideal gas assumption)/real work=
36.3−31.855
=12.2 %
36.3
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Example 4
A spherical balloon with an initial radius of 10 m is to be filled with helium
from a high-pressure tank. The tank pressure is 15 MPa, and the
temperature is 25°C. Initially, the balloon is flat, and the atmospheric
pressure is 1 atm.
a) How much work is done on the atmosphere while filling the balloon?
b) What should be the volume of the high-pressure tank so that the final
pressures in the tank and the balloon are equal?
Solution
When we connect the balloon to the tank and open the valve to fill the
ballon the gas inside the tank is transferring into the balloon. To do this,
the helenium molecules have to overcome the molecules in the air so they
are doing some work on the air.
Now the question is how much work is done on the atmosphere. And in
the next part it asks how much the volume of the tank should be so when
the balloon is filled the tank and balloon have equal pressures.
a) We consider that the balloon is filled slowly so the process is quasi
aquillibrium. So we can write the work to be

( 43 π R −0)=423 Mj
2
❑1 W 2=∫ PdV =P (V 2−V 1 ) ¿ 101∗
3

b) The helium can be considered ideal gas. The total mass of helium is
constant. It was only in tank then it is distributed between tank and
ballon but the total mass is constant. The volume at the beginning was
the volume of tank. At the end the volume is sum of tank and ballon.
The stand atmospheric temperature is considered to be 15 °C.
P 1V 1=mRT 1
P 2 ( V 1+V bl ) =mRT 2
P1 V 1 T 1 273+ 25
= = =1.03
P 2 ( V 1+V bl ) T 2 273+ 15
15000 kPa∗V 1
=1.03
(
101 kPa∗ V 1+ π 10
4
3 ) 3
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3 0.007∗4 3 3
V 1=0.007 m Vbl= π 10 =29.4 m
3