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About the Authors
Ross Dunn
Ross Dunn is Professor Emeritus of History at San
Diego State University, where he taught African,
Islamic, and world history. In his early career he
specialized in North African history, publishing
Resistance in the Desert: Moroccan Responses
to French Imperialism, 1881–1912 (1977). Teaching
world history inspired him to write The Adventures
of Ibn Battuta, a Muslim Traveler of the Fourteenth
Century (1987). This book is in its third edition.
A leadership role in the project to write national
standards for world history led to publication, with
Gary B. Nash and Charlotte Crabtree, of History
on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past
(1997). In 2000 he edited the essay collection The
New World History: A Teacher’s Companion. He
is an associate director of the National Center for
History in the Schools at UCLA. In 2012 he re-
ceived the annual Pioneers of World History award
from the World History Association. He was the
first elected president of that organization.

Laura J. Mitchell
Laura J. Mitchell is Associate Professor at the Uni-
versity of California, Irvine, where she teaches Af-
rican and world history. She strives to make sense
of early-modern societies in a digital age and to
make history accessible to diverse audiences.
Her research on colonial southern Africa has been
supported by grants from Fulbright, the Ameri-
can Council of Learned Societies, the National
Endowment for the Humanities, the UC Office of
the President, and the Mellon Foundation. She has
collaborated with a wide range of scholars and his-
tory educators, serving as president of the Forum
on European Expansion and Global Interaction, as
a member of the World History Association Exec-
utive Council, and as a co-chair of the AP World
History Curriculum Assessment and Development
Committee. Her book Belongings: Property, Fam-
ily and Identity in Colonial South Africa (2009) won
the American Historical Association’s Gutenberg-e
Prize.

About the Authors   vii

 Brief Contents
Introduction The Earth: World History’s Theater 2 chapter 13 Afroeurasia in the Era of Mongol Power,
1200–1350 368
chapter 14 Cities and Empires in the Americas,
900–1500 398
Settling the Planet chapter 15 Calamities and Recoveries across
part
Beginnings to the First Millennium B.C.E. 18 Afroeurasia, 1300–1500 424
1 chapter 1 The Peopling of the World,
7,000,000–10,000 B.C.E. 20
chapter 2 Farms, Cities, and the New Agrarian Age, The Great World Convergence
10,000–2000 B.C.E. 48 part
1450–1750 452
chapter 3 Afroeurasia’s Moving Frontiers:
Farmers, Herders, and Charioteers,
5 chapter 16 Oceans Crossed, Worlds Connected,
3000–1000 B.C.E. 78 1450–1550 454
chapter 4 Early Odysseys in the Americas, Australia, chapter 17 Afroeurasia and Its Powerful States,
and Oceania, 8000–500 B.C.E. 108 1500–1600 484
chapter 18 The Expanding Global Economy:
Expectations and Inequalities,
1550–1700 514
Agrarian Societies and chapter 19 The Changing Balance of Wealth
part
Their Interconnections and Power, 1650–1750 542
2 1200 B.C.E.–300 C.E. 132

chapter 5 Afroeurasia: Centers of Power, Trade,

and New Ideas, 1200–600 B.C.E. 134 The Modern World Takes Shape
part
chapter 6 Empire Building and Cultural Exchange 1750–1914 574
from India to the Mediterranean,
600–200 B.C.E. 160
6 chapter 20 Waves of Revolution, 1720–1830 576
chapter 7 An Age of Giant Empires, chapter 21 Energy and Industrialization,
300 B.C.E.–300 C.E. 190 1750–1850 606
chapter 8 American Complexities, chapter 22 Coping with Change in the New
900 B.C.E.–900 C.E. 220 Industrial Era, 1830–1870 634
chapter 23 Capital, Technology, and the
Changing Balance of Global Power,
1860–1914 664
Shifting Power, Thickening Webs
part
Afroeurasia 200–1000 C.E. 246
3 chapter 9 Turbulent Centuries, 200–600 C.E. 248 The Promise and the Perils
part
chapter 10 Afroeurasia in the Era of Arab Empire, of Accelerating Change
500–800 C.E. 278 7 1890 to the Present 694
chapter 11 State Power and Expanding Networks
of Exchange, 750–1000 C.E. 306 chapter 24 Innovation, Revolution, and Global Crisis,
1890–1920 696
chapter 25 Turbulent Decades, 1918–1935 728
chapter 26 World War II and Its Aftermath,
Interconnections and Their 1933–1950 756
part
Consequences 900–1500 336 chapter 27 The Global Boom and Its Contradictions,
4 chapter 12 Dynamic Centuries across Afroeurasia,
1945–1975 788
1000–1250 338 chapter 28 Countercurrents of Change,
1970 to the Present 818

viii Brief Contents

 Contents
Introduction 2 Afroeurasia’s Mountain Spine 9
The Earth: World History’s Theater 2 The Eleven Seas 9
Rivers 11
The Big Land Masses:
The Main Stage of History 4 Australia 12
Moving Land Masses 4 North and South America 13
Seven Continents, or Only Five? 5 Connecting the Americas 14
Afroeurasia 6 The Americas’ Long Cordillera 14
The Great Arid Zone 7 Rivers and Seas 15
The Tropical Belt 8 The Oceans 15
The Northern Latitudes of Temperate Climate 9

Settling the Planet part

Beginnings to the First Millennium B.C.E. 1

1 The Peopling of the World 7,000,000–10,000 b.c.e. 20

Human Ancestors in Africa and Beyond 23 Colonizers of Europe 34
Early Hominin Evolution 23 The American Frontier 34
Well-Traveled Hominins 24 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE The Kennewick Man
INDIVIDUALS MATTER The Turkana Boy: Controversy 36
A Distant Ancestor 26 Why Did Homo Sapiens People the Earth? 37
Other Traveling Hominins 28 Homo Sapiens: The Last Surviving Hominin 38
Modern Humans in Africa: Why People Look Different 40
The First 100,000 Years 30 Global Culture of the Upper Paleolithic 40
The Debut of Homo Sapiens 30 Dawn of a Multicultural World 40
The Power of Language 30 Social and Economic Life 41
Colonizing the World 33 Technical Wonders 42
The Roads from Africa 33 A World of Symbols 43
South to Australia 34

2 Farms, Cities, and the New Agrarian Age 10,000–2000 b.c.e. 48

The Coming of Farmers: A Peculiar Event 51 Early Complex Societies 58

Early Farming and the Big Thaw 51 Irrigation and Complex Society in Mesopotamia 58
The Drift toward Domestication 52 Complex Society on the Nile 66
Neolithic Innovations 53 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE A Pharaoh’s Warning
The Spread of Agrarian Societies 54 in Stone 68
Sunrise over the Village 55 Harappan Society in the Indus Valley 69
Super Villages 55 Interregional Communication and Commerce 72
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Ötzi: A Neolithic Traveler 57 Complex Societies and the Environment 74

Contents ix
3 Afroeurasia’s Moving Frontiers: Farmers, Herders, and Charioteers 3000–1000 b.c.e. 78

Across Afroeurasia: More Farmers, From Middle Kingdom to New Kingdom

More Cities 81 in the Nile Valley 96
The Cavalcade of Inventions 81 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE “Here Is the Situation”:
Complex Society and Commerce The King of Alashiya Writes to the Pharaoh of Egypt 98
in the Mediterranean Basin 82 Rivalry and Diplomacy among Militarized
Developments in Western Europe 84 Kingdoms 99
The Oxus Civilization of Central Asia 85 Early Greeks 99
Complex Society in East Asia 86 Indo-Europeans in Iran and South Asia 100
Pastoral Peoples Ride into History 88 Indo-Europeans and Chariots from the Far West
Horses, Riders, and Wagons 88 to the Far East 101
Pastoral Nomadic Society 89 INDIVIDUALS MATTER The Beauty of Xiaohe:
Encounters between Agrarian Societies A Woman of the Steppes 102
and Migrating Peoples 91 Developments in the Tropical Belt 103
Indo-European Speakers in Southwest Asia: Herders and Farmers South of the Sahara Desert 104
The Hittite Empire 93 Austronesian Farmers in Southeast Asia 105
States of Mesopotamia and Syria 95

4 Early Odysseys in the Americas, Australia, and Oceania 8000–500 b.c.e. 108
Farmers and Platform Builders North of Mexico 120
in the Americas 111 INDIVIDUALS MATTER Harvester Mountain Lord:
American Farmer Power 111 A Mesoamerican King 121
Platform Builders of Norte Chico 114
Change in Australia 123
Andean Societies in the
Change over the Long Term 124
Second Millennium B.C.E. 116
A Continent without Farmers 125
The Mesoamerican Zone of
Intercommunication 117 Pioneers on the Pacific Frontier 126
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE The Olmec Heads 119 Colonizers of Near Oceania 126
Into Remote Oceania 127

Agrarian Societies and Their Interconnections part

1200 B.C.E.–300 C.E. 2

5 Afroeurasia: Centers of Power, Trade, and New Ideas 1200–600 b.c.e. 134

The Clang of Iron 137 The Hebrews and the Origins of Judaism 144
The Spread of Iron: The Southwest Asian INDIVIDUALS MATTER Adad-Guppi:
Epicenter 137 Babylonian Priestess and Queen Mother 146
The Spread of Iron: The Tropical African Phoenicians and Greeks: Trade and Migration 147
Epicenter 137
Woodland Europe and the Mediterranean World 150
Iron’s Benefits and Costs 138
Nubia on the Nile Corridor 151
Warfare, Empire Building, and Trade in Southwest
Asia and the Mediterranean Lands 140
Twelfth-Century Troubles 140
The Neo-Assyrian Empire 142

x Contents
 South Asia: A New Era of City Building 152 The East Asian Sphere 155
New Cities and Kingdoms 153 The Era of the Western and Eastern Zhou 156
The Development of the South Asian Destruction and Innovation during the
Class System 153 Later Zhou Period 156
Brahmins and Brahmanism 154 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE The Book of Songs (Shijing) 157

6 Empire Building and Cultural Exchange from India to the Mediterranean 600–200 b.c.e. 160

Persia Ascending 163 INDIVIDUALS MATTER Queen Arsinoe II:

Empire Building on a New Scale 163 Ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt 178
The Achaemenids as “Universal” Rulers 165 Cultural Trends 179
The Persian Empire as Communication Hub 165 Buddhism and the Maurya Empire in India 181
The Achaemenids and the Teachings of Zoroaster 167 Foundations of Buddhism 181
Achaemenid Multiculturalism 167 The Reign of Ashoka Maurya 183
Inventive Greeks 168 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Rock Edicts of the
Government and Society in the Greek Emperor Ashoka 184
City-States 168
Cavalry and Caravans in Inner Eurasia 185
The Flowering of Athens 171
Nomad Power 186
Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Era 173 Early Times on the Silk Roads 187
Alexander’s Short, Brilliant Career 173
Foundations of the Hellenistic World 175

7 An Age of Giant Empires 300 b.c.e.–300 c.e. 190

Rome and Mediterranean Unification 193 States Between Rome and China 205
Rome the Republic 193 The Xiongnu and Their Relations with Han China 205
Rome the Empire 196 The Parthian and Kushan Empires 206
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Boudicca: The African Kingdoms of Kush and Axum 208
British Rebel Leader 198 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Trade in the African Port
The Era of the Han Empire in East Asia 200 of Adulis 210
The Qin Dynasty and the First Emperor 200 Bridges Across Afroeurasia 211
The Han State and the Ascendance East–West Interregional Trade 211
of Confucianism 202 The First Missionary Religions 213

8 American Complexities 900 b.c.e.–900 c.e. 220

The Spread of Complex Societies South America: Complex Societies

in North America 223 along the Andean Spine 238
Empire Builders of Teotihuacán 224 Andes Urbanization: The Example of Chavín
Zapotec Civilization in the Oaxaca Valley 228 de Huántar 239
The Innovative Maya 229 Back to the Coast: The Moche Society 240
The Nazca 242
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Lady Xoc: An Aristocrat Woman
in Maya Politics 231 Troubles in the Sixth Century 243

WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE A Maya Bible: An Account

of Creation in the Popol Vuh 234
Developments in Upper North America 236

Contents   xi
 Shifting Power, Thickening Webs part

Afroeurasia, 200–1000 C.E. 3

9 Turbulent Centuries 200–600 c.e. 248

The Shifting Map of Empires 251 INDIVIDUALS MATTER St. Augustine of Hippo:
Turbulence in Inner Eurasia 251 Christian Theologian 269
China after the Han Empire: Growth without Unity 251 The Manichean Way 271
The Sasanids: A New Power in Persia 253 Tropical Africa: Farmers, Towns, and Iron 271
Crisis and Recovery in the Roman Empire 254 The Nok Culture 272
The Huns and the Collapse of the Western Empire 257
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE The Sculptures of Nok 273
The Mediterranean Fractured 260
The African East and South 272
A New Empire in South Asia 261
Southeast Asian Contributions to African Society 274
Religions for Troubled Times 264
The Buddhist Web 264
The Christian Web 267

10 Afroeurasia in the Era of Arab Empire 500–800 c.e. 278

New Empires of Steppe and Desert 281 East Asia: Return to Unity in China 298
Empires along the Silk Roads 281 The Tang State 298
The Arab State and the Emergence of Islam 283 INDIVIDUALS MATTER The Empress Wu: Patron of
The Arab Muslim Empire 287 Buddhism 300
Christian Societies in Europe and Africa 291 Migrations to the South 302
The Byzantine Empire Holds Its Own 291 Cultural Integration 302
Christian Society in Europe 292
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Two Views of the Battle
of Tours 296
Dwindling Christian Society in North Africa 297

11 State Power and Expanding Networks of Exchange 750–1000 c.e. 306

Muslim Power and Prosperity 309 Chinese Trade and the Fate of the Tang Dynasty 320
From Damascus to Baghdad: The Abbasid Empire 309 Japan and Korea at the Eastern End of the
Rival Centers of Muslim Power 311 Chain of Seas 321
The Byzantine Resurgence 312 The Sahara Rim: A New Zone
Islam on New Frontiers 313 of Intercommunication 323
A “Green Revolution” in Muslim Lands 314 Gold and Slaves, Copper and Salt 323
Muslim Urban Society 314 The Empire of Ghana 325
The Stream of Ideas 316 Europe’s Struggle for Stability 326
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Abu Bakr al-Razi: Muslims and Magyars 327
Muslim Physician 317 The Viking Adventure 327
Cities, Merchants, and Kingdoms along WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Bjarni Herjolfsson
the Chain of Seas 318 and the Viking Discovery of America 330
Trade of the Arabian Sea 318 The Changing Shape of Western Europe 331
The Maritime Empire of Srivijaya 319

xii Contents
 Interconnections and Their Consequences part

900–1500 4

12 Dynamic Centuries across Afroeurasia 1000–1250 338

The East Asian Powerhouse in the Song Era 341 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE A Jewish Merchant Writes
The Elements of Chinese Prosperity 341 to His Wife 352
Governing China in an Era of Change 343 Cultural Trends in the Muslim Lands 354
China and Its Near Neighbors 345 Foundations of Urban Civilization in Europe 356
Japan within and without the Chinese Sphere 345 Warm Weather, Better Plows 357
China in the Hemisphere 346 New Order in Political Life 358
Conquerors and Migrants in the Muslim INDIVIDUALS MATTER King Philip II:
Lands 347 French State-Builder 360
Turkic Horse Power 348 The Expansion of Western Christendom 360
Muslim Ships on the Mediterranean 350 European Commercial Power in the Mediterranean 363
New Empires in the Western Mediterranean 351 Western Europe’s Cultural Style 363

13 Afroeurasia in the Era of Mongol Power 1200–1350 368

The Ascendance of the Mongol Empires 371 The South Asian Pivot 384
Chingis Khan’s Path of Conquest 371 East and Southern Africa in the
Explaining Mongol Power 373 Indian Ocean World 385
Mongol Expansion after Chingis 374 Urban Society in Europe 386
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Sorghaghtani Beki: Many Governments and Languages 387
A Woman of Influence 376 Private Groups and Charters 388
Mongol Murderers: A Deserved Reputation? 378 The Flow of Ideas 388
The Ambiguous Mongol Peace 379 Trans-Saharan Connections 391
Silk Road Traffic 379 North Africa between the Mediterranean
Slaves, Diplomats, and Career Seekers 380 and the Sahara 392
Cross-Fertilization in Science and Technology 380 The Mali Empire 392
The Changing Religious Map 381 Other West African Kingdoms 393

Profit and Power in the Southern Seas 383 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Ibn Battuta Assesses
Trade and State Building in Southeast Asia 384 the Mali Empire 394

14 Cities and Empires in the Americas 900–1500 398

American Societies in an Age of Environmental American Empires in the Fifteenth Century 413
Change 401 The Aztec Empire 413
The Mound Builders of Cahokia 401
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Nezahualcoyotl (“Fasting Coyote”):
Ancestral Puebloans of the Colorado Plateau 403 Political Strategist, Survivor, and Poet 415
Maya, Mixtec, and Toltec 405 The Incas 417
The Coming of the Nahuas 407
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Chastity and Marriage
The Caribbean and Amazonia 408
in Inca Society 419
States of the Andes 410

Contents xiii
15 Calamities and Recoveries across Afroeurasia 1300–1500 424

Environmental Crises of the INDIVIDUALS MATTER Ibn Khaldun:

Fourteenth Century 427 A Thinker for Troubled Times 435
Downpour and Drought 427 Europe in the Aftermath of the Black Death 434
The Great Pestilence 428 Fifteenth-Century Recuperation 436
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Perspectives on the Technologies for the Future 436
Black Death 430 Ming China: New Prosperity and a
Crises in the Political and Social Realms 431 Maritime Thrust 439
China: The Collapse of Mongol Rule 432 South Asia: A Steadier Course of Change 442
Political and Economic Troubles in the Astronomy and Empire Building in the
Central Muslim Lands 432 Central Muslim Lands 443
The Meaning of Recovery in Europe 445

The Great World Convergence part

1450–1750 5

16 Oceans Crossed, Worlds Connected 1450–1550 454

On the Eve of the Great World Convergence 457 American Catastrophes 469
Changes in the Afroeurasian Trade Network 457 American Death and the Columbian Exchange 471
The Eastern Atlantic Rim 459 The End of the Aztec Empire 474
States in the Americas 462 INDIVIDUALS MATTER Malinche: Translator, Diplomat,
The Birth of the Atlantic World 463 and Slave 475
Changing Maritime Technology 464 Assault on the Inca Empire 475
Europeans and West Africans: Early Encounters 466 Spanish Empire Building 477
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Martin Behaim’s Portuguese Stakes in Brazil 478
Fifteenth-Century Globe 468 New Power Relations in the Southern Seas 478
Columbus’s Atlantic Crossing 469 To Capture the Spice Trade 478
The Trans-Pacific Link 481

17 Afroeurasia and Its Powerful States 1500–1600 484

Afroeurasia’s Political Panorama 487 The New Era of Guns 501
The Ottoman Empire’s Dramatic Expansion 487 New and Deadly Armies 502
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE A European Ambassador The Military Revolution 503
Compares Armies 489 The Limits of Central Power 504
The Safavid Empire of Persia 490 Trends in Religion, Language, and Culture 504
Mughal Power in South Asia 491 Intellectual and Moral Ferment in China 505
Russia: From Principality to Empire 493 Tension between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims 505
Japan and the Tokugawa 495 Religious Crisis in Europe 506
Strong Monarchies in Southeast Asia 496 Vernacular Languages and the State 509
The European States 497 INDIVIDUALS MATTER Gracia Luna Mendes Nasi:
The Songhay Empire 500 A Sixteenth-Century Businesswoman 510
Languages of Cultural Prestige 511

xiv Contents
18 The Expanding Global Economy: Expectations and Inequalities 1550–1700 514
The Global Network Takes Shape 517 Asians and Europeans in the Southern Seas 529
Technology and Organization for Global Exchange 517 Overland Trade on the Silk Roads 530
The Continuing Columbian Exchange 518 The Atlantic Economy: Land, Capital,
Afroeurasia and the Expanding and Slave Labor 530
World Economy 521 The Atlantic Economy and African Slavery 531
Western Europe’s Economic Surge 522 Change in Atlantic Africa 536
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Louis De Geer: WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Servants and Slaves
A Capitalist Success Story 524 on a Barbados Sugar Plantation 537
Centuries of Silver in East Asia 526

19 The Changing Balance of Wealth and Power 1650–1750 542

Empires and Big States 545 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE The Journal of a Dutch
Chinese Prosperity and Imperialism 545 Commander at the Cape of Good Hope 562
Russia from the Pacific to Poland 547 Alternative Visions of God, Nature,
The Spanish Empire in America 548 and the Universe 563
Europe: Successes and Failures of Absolutism 550 The Scientific Revolution 563
European Settlement and the Fate The Enlightenment: Rethinking Human Nature
of Indigenous Peoples 556 and Society 565
Early European Settlers in North America 557 The Continuing Growth of Islam and Christianity 568
Russian Settlement of Siberia 559 INDIVIDUALS MATTER Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita:
Europeans and Khoisan in South Africa 561 A Visionary Christian of the Kongo 570

The Modern World Takes Shape part

1750–1914 6

20 Waves of Revolution 1720–1830 576

World Economy and Politics, 1720–1763 579 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Toussaint Louverture Writes
A Commercializing World 579 to the French Directory 598
Troubled Empires in Asia 581 The Second Wave: Revolutions in
Global Sea Trade and the Eighteenth-Century Latin America 599
“World War” 583 Colonial Society on the Eve of Rebellion 599
Revolutions on the North Atlantic Rim 584 The Wars of Independence 600
The Global Context of Popular Revolt 584 INDIVIDUALS MATTER José de San Martín:
The War of Independence in North America 585 Liberator of the Southern Andes 601
The French Revolution 587 Many Young States 602
The Idea of Nationalism 594
The Birth of Haiti 595

Contents xv
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21 Energy and Industrialization 1750–1850 606
The Energy Revolution 609 INDIVIDUALS MATTER Ned Ludd: Legendary Foe
The Fuel That Lies Beneath 609 of Industry 621
The End of the Biological Old Regime 610 Industrialization and Global Trade
Industry on a New Scale 610 in the Early Nineteenth Century 622
Cotton and the Drift to Industrialization 611 The Energy Revolution Takes Hold 623
Mines and Machines 613 The Threads of Commerce 626
Working in Factories 614 Free Trade and the New Doctrine of Liberalism 628
Was There Something Special about Britain? 615 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE On Legalizing Opium
Social and Environmental Consequences in China 630
of Early Industrialization 618

22 Coping with Change in the New Industrial Era 1830–1870 634

Waves of Migrants 637 Religion and Reform 653
The End of the Atlantic Slave Trade 637 Global Trends and Religious Change 653
The Outpouring from Europe 638 Christian Evangelism 654
Neo-Europes and Indigenous Populations 639 Jewish Reform 654
Migrations of Asians and Africans 641 INDIVIDUALS MATTER Ram Mohan Roy:
Oceania Connected 642 Hindu Reformer 655
Groundswells of Political and Social Reform 644 Religious Reform and Revolution in the
Nationalism and the Power of the People 645 Muslim World 656
Varieties of Socialism 646 Global Change and the Calamitous Wars
Movements for Women’s Rights 647 of Midcentury 657
Movements for Political Reform and Unification The Crimean War and the Industrialization
in Europe 648 of Violence 657
Modernizing Reforms in Muslim Lands 649 Paraguay: A War of Annihilation 658
The Taiping Rebellion in China 658
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE A Moroccan Diplomat
in France 651 The Great Indian Rebellion 660
The Limits of Liberalism in Latin America 652 The American Civil War 660

23 Capital, Technology, and the Changing Balance of Global Power 1860–1914 664

The Spread of Steam-Powered Industry 667 European Imperialism and Popular

Wealthy Britain 667 Resistance 681
Industrial Hubs in Europe and the United States 667 The Road to Colonialism in Africa and
Smokestacks in Russia 669 Southeast Asia 681
The Meiji Restoration and Japanese Industry 670 Why Did European Invasions Succeed? 685
Industrialization on Smaller Scales: Resistance Movements and Their Consequences 687
Gains and Disappointments 671 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Contrasting Perspectives
Capitalism’s Global Reach 673 on War in East Africa 689
The Worldwide Communication Grid 673 States That Survived 689
Feeding Industrial Societies 674 INDIVIDUALS MATTER Chulalongkorn:
Rich Regions, Poor Regions 676 Modernizing Monarch 690
The Lot of the Urban Working Classes 677
Globalizing Business, Technology, and Science 680

xvi  Contents
 The Promise and the Perils of part
Accelerating Change 1890 to the Present 7

24 Innovation, Revolution, and Global Crisis 1890–1920 696

Turn-of-the-Century Prosperity, 1890–1914 699 INDIVIDUALS MATTER Qiu Jin: Social Reformer 710
Commerce and Gold 699 The Great War, 1914–1918 712
Urbanization and Migration 699 Lighting the Fuse 712
Scientific and Technological Advances 700 A World at War 714
Global Inequities and Their Consequences 703 Total War 717
Drought and Plague 703 Russia: From War to Revolution 719
Africa and Southeast Asia under New Peace and Consequences 720
Colonial Rulers 704
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Arab Independence
Worker Protest and Nationalist Ferment in Europe 705
That Was Not to Be 722
Five Revolutions 706

25 Turbulent Decades 1918–1935 728

Postwar Trends in Society and Culture 731 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Turkish Views on Dress
Population Trends 731 and National Identity 741
New Ways of Living in the Industrialized World 732 Left and Right in Latin America 742
Scientific Challenges to the Knowable Universe 732 Colonial Rule and Its Opponents in Africa
Modernity and Modernism 733 and Asia 743
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Diego Rivera: Mexican Modernist 734 Economy and Society in the Colonial Empires 744
Ways of Ruling 746
Clashing Ideologies in the Political Arena 735
Foreign Immigrants in Colonized Lands 746
Democratic Hopes 735
Colonial Rule Contested 748
The Soviet Union: Communist Authoritarianism 736
Nationalists and Communists in China 738 The Great Depression and Its Consequences 750
New Governments on the Political Right 739 The Steep Descent 750
Depression and the Continuing Trend toward
Authoritarian Leaders 753

26 World War II and Its Aftermath 1933–1950 756

Empire Building and Global Crisis 759 The War beyond the Theaters of War 774
Empire of the Sun 759 The War and the Global Environment 774
The Nazi State 760 WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Propaganda for
Italy’s Foreign Aggressions 762 Wartime Conservation 776
Fascist Dictatorship in Spain 762 In the Wake of War, 1945–1950 777
The Greatest War 763 Restoring Stability, Enforcing Justice 777
The Years of Axis Victory, 1939–1942 763 The Two New Empires 778
The Years of Counteroffensive, 1942–1945 766 World War II and the Challenge to Colonial
The Second Total War 771 Empires 781
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Olga Lisikova: Soviet Combat Pilot 772 Communist Victory in China 785

Contents xvii
27 The Global Boom and Its Contradictions 1945–1975 788
Population and Economy: Fights for Freedom and Justice 803
An Era of Spectacular Growth 791 Paths to Independence: Protest and Negotiation 804
Global Population at Its Crest 791
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE Frantz Fanon on the
The Postwar Economic Boom 791 Shortcomings of the National Bourgeoisie 806
Economic Growth in Communist States 793 Paths to Independence: Insurgency and
The Worldwide Lure of Industrialization 795 Revolution 807
Cities, Suburbs, and Shantytowns 796 Struggles for Stability in Young States 807
Postwar Consumer Society 796 High Expectations and Social Protest 811
The Biosphere in Distress 798
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Alexander Dubček: Leader
The Cold War Wears On 801 of the Prague Spring 814
The Era of Mutually Assured Destruction 801
The Cold War Goes Global 802

28 Countercurrents of Change 1970 to the Present 818

An Electrified World 821 Countercurrents in the Search for

The Era of the Integrated Circuit 821 Global Order 837
The Electronics of Transport 822 The World State System since 1970 837
Computers and the Body 823 A World of Organizations 839
Unintended Consequences of Disorder and Breakdown in an Era of
Electronic Innovation 824 Global Integration 842
Countercurrents in the Global Economy 824 Palestinians and Israelis 846
The 1970s: An Economic Turning Point 825 Into the Anthropocene 846
Conflicting Capitalist Doctrines 826 Environment and Environmentalism 847
Shifting Centers of Economic Power 827 The Perils of Climate Change 848
WEIGHING THE EVIDENCE An Artist’s Comment INDIVIDUALS MATTER Wangari Maathai:
on Capitalism in China 829 Environmental Activist and Nobel Laureate 849
The Persistence of Poverty 833
Migration and the Global Economy 836

Glossary G-1
Recommended Readings RR-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1

xviii  Contents
 An Interview
with the Authors of
Panorama: A World History
Ross Dunn and Laura Mitchell discuss how they came to Like all writers of world history, we have made choices
write Panorama and how they believe it contributes to the to leave out a great deal of perfectly useful and interest-
study of the human past. ing knowledge. Only by doing this are we able to keep our
sights on the panoramic view and on the unified narrative.
Q: Tell us about the unique approach you have We have also, however, aimed to write in concrete, descrip-
taken in Panorama. tive language, recognizing that history is fundamentally
A: In Panorama, we have created a unified narrative of world about human beings, individually or in groups, thinking,
history, assuming that the primary subject we are investi- working, fighting, and creating.
gating is humankind as a whole, and the primary setting of
the narrative is the globe. We have organized the chapters Q: How are you able to combine the telling of
chronologically, by consecutive historical periods—never “large-scale” history with in-depth, “small-scale”
repeating a period from different regional or thematic an- knowledge of people and events?
gles. Our aim is to advance the mission of conceptualizing A: In every chapter, we shift between larger- and smaller-
the human experience in ways that are more holistic and scale narratives, but we aim consistently to relate devel-
integrated. To do this, we have had to select the very broad opments at relatively small scales to those at much larger
developments that define particular historical periods and scales. We cannot understand the Industrial Revolution as
that we think readers ought to understand. the world event it was by studying just one English factory
town, but historians might write about such a town as an
Q: Why did you choose this approach? example of how large-scale changes played out on a local
A: We wanted to contribute to the important work of mak- level and affected people’s lives.
ing the history of humankind intelligible, to write a unified
narrative that is clear and coherent and that gives readers Q: Does Panorama have a central theme?
a sturdy framework for thinking about the global past. We A: Yes, it does. This theme is the growing complexity of
believe we can begin to understand big and rapid changes human society from the early era of stone toolmaking to
in the world today only if we have a mental scaffolding of today. Looking over the very long term of history, we see
ideas and words for thinking, talking, and writing about a nearly continuous though by no means inevitable trend
the world as a whole. Similarly, we can begin to grasp how toward greater complexity in the relations of human groups
the world got to be the way it is only if we have world-scale with one another and with the earthly environment. This
narratives that help us connect the histories of particular movement from lesser to greater complexity has been mani-
groups—nations, civilizations, religions, corporations—to fested across the ages in several nearly continuous trends of
patterns of change in human society writ large. growth, even though the rates and dimensions of change in
these areas have been uneven:
Q: How do you balance large historical
• Global population (more people and more groups inter-
generalizations with knowledge about particular
acting with one another)
peoples, places, and events?
• Human use of the planet’s energy supply to produce
A: We know from experience that if the presentation is too
food and other goods
broad, abstract, or theoretical, students may have a hard
time grasping the generalizations. But if the writing is too • Human intervention to alter the natural and physical
loaded with historical details (all of which may be signifi- environment
cant at some level), then the big pictures of change tend to • The intricacy and sophistication of technology and
get lost in thickets of information about particular societies, science
individuals, conquests, wars, philosophies, artistic move- • The density and speed of systems of communication
ments, and so on. and transport

An Interview with the Authors of Panorama: A World History xix

• The density of human networks of interchange, includ- with billions—when they got along without doing these
ing movement of people, goods, and ideas things for hundreds of thousands of years.
• The size of governments and their capacity to manage
and control people Q: You refer to your narrative as “unified”;
• The technical capabilities of weaponry to kill people can you elaborate?
and destroy property A: One element of our approach to a unified narrative is to
• The size and elaborateness of systems of belief, includ- conceive of Africa, Asia, and Europe together as a single
ing religions, ethical structures, and philosophies land mass, a sort of “supercontinent” within which humans
interacted, or at least had the physical possibility of inter-
Throughout the book, we pose the same question in acting, since paleolithic times. As discussed in our Intro-
different ways: How and why did the world move relent- duction, we refer to this supercontinent as Afroeurasia. For
lessly toward greater cultural complexity, despite breaks periods of world history up to 1500 c.e., we conceive of the
and unevenness in that trend, for example, short-term world as divided into four primary geographical regions:
drops in global population, periods of economic contrac- Afroeurasia (where the great majority of human beings
tion, or the disappearance of particular languages and local have always lived—about 86 percent today), the Americas
religions? (North and South together), Australia, and Oceania (the
Island Pacific). Within these regions, human groups inter-
Q: How did you decide on the topics acted with one another, though with greater or lesser in-
for each chapter? tensity and from different chronological starting points. On
A: In aiming to write a unified narrative of history, we fol- the other hand, people did not interact, at least not in any
lowed the basic principle of bringing to the fore historical sustained way, between one of these regions and another
developments that had (and may still have) an impact on because wide expanses of ocean and to some extent con-
relatively large numbers of people, that is, developments trasting climatic conditions prevented or discouraged it. For
of large scale. We let these big developments generally de- periods up to 1500 c.e., therefore, we explore developments
termine the chronological frame of each chapter, and we in these regions in different chapters or sections of chapters,
investigate them in whatever geographical context seems even though we also introduce points of historical compar-
appropriate for clear discussion of their importance. If most ison between one region and another. Starting in the late
chapters focus in part on developments in a region, it is be- fifteenth century, the four regions began to throw out lines
cause a development of large-scale significance happened of communication to one another, though not all at once.
or started there in that particular period. For example, we The Great World Convergence, as we call it, began when
devote a primary chapter section to developments in China sea captains established regular transport routes between
under the Song dynasties of the eleventh and twelfth centu- Afroeurasia and the Americas. For periods after 1500, we
ries because China in those centuries generated exuberant treat the entire world as a single zone within which human
economic innovation and growth, a phenomenon that had interrelations became increasingly complex and large-scale
effects all across the Eastern Hemisphere. developments occurred. From that chronological point to
the present, all the chapters are global in scope.
Q: What is distinctive about Panorama’s
periodization of the past? Q: How does Panorama cover the significance of
A: As a unified narrative, Panorama proposes a plan for di- individuals—both men and women—in the course
viding the past into specific chunks of time, with the be- of human history?
ginnings and endings of those chunks determined by the A: Panorama endeavors to take full account of the histori-
important historical developments that occurred within cal fact that men and women share the planet. Even though
them. Our periodization plan is a single chronology, or time- much of the narrative is not explicitly gender specific, it
line moving from the remote to the recent past. One way that aims to be “gender sensitive.” This has meant repeatedly
Panorama’s periodization differs from the majority of world asking ourselves as we move from topic to topic how both
history books is its greater attention to very early human men and women, whether aristocrats, city workers, peas-
history, that is, to the long paleolithic era that preceded the ants, or forager-hunters, acted as agents of change.
coming of agriculture. The whole paleolithic era (old stone In every chapter of this book, the cast of characters is
age), which started perhaps 2.5 million years ago, constitutes necessarily very large. We aim, however, to remind read-
about 99.6 percent of the history of humankind and its near ers of the importance of individuals as agents of change by
biological ancestors. Attention to early history encourages introducing a chapter feature titled “Individuals Matter.”
readers to think about how and why humans made radical It presents a biographical sketch of an individual whose
changes in the way they lived—taking up farming, building life in some way illuminates the period the chapter ad-
cities, creating mechanized industries, populating the world dresses. In most cases, this individual is a person of public

xx   An Interview with the Authors of Panorama: A World History

importance, for example, Empress Wu of the Chinese Tang Q: Is there a theme to your chapter-opening
dynasty, or Diego Rivera, the twentieth-century Mexican vignettes?
artist. In a few chapters, however, the individual is an “or- A: Yes. A key element of the trend toward greater complex-
dinary” woman or man whose life or deeds illustrate some ity in world history has been the development of systems
aspect of the period—for example, Ötzi, the ascribed name of communication that have allowed humans to move from
of a neolithic traveler in the Alps, or Olga Lisikova, a Rus- one place to another and to create networks for exchanging
sian combat pilot in World War II. ideas and things in increasingly complicated ways and at
faster and faster speeds. To highlight this aspect of human
Q: Does Panorama incorporate primary sources?
complexity, we open each chapter with a brief story or vi-
A: Yes. A feature titled “Weighing the Evidence” appears in gnette that has to do with some kind of communication,
every chapter—and in the accompanying Connect History transport, or movement pertinent to the historical period
program—offering students an opportunity to critically ex- under study. The subjects of these stories range widely from
amine a piece of historical evidence relating to the chapter camel caravans to the profession of telephone operator.
content. The selection is usually a written document (for ex-
ample, a nineteenth-century Moroccan diplomat’s descrip-
Q: Is Panorama available as an e-book?
tion of France), though in a few chapters a visual artifact
(for example, an image of a giant stone head from ancient A: Even better—it is available as a SmartBook, which means
Mexico) is included. In some chapters, we present two not only that students can read it online, but they can quiz
pieces of evidence to compare with each other. “Weighing themselves after every section. The SmartBook then adapts
the Evidence” includes questions that prompt readers to an- to their response, highlighting areas in the narrative that
alyze, interpret, and discuss the selection. This feature re- they need to study more.
minds readers that the Panorama narrative rests on the work
of thousands of professional historians and other scholars Q: Are any other digital resources available?
who have examined, authenticated, and interpreted written A: Absolutely. The Connect History program offers activities
documents, works of art, fossilized bones, and numerous with Panorama’s maps, primary sources, key concepts and
other kinds of primary evidence. terms, as well as auto-gradable test items and essay questions.

An Interview with the Authors of Panorama: A World History   xxi

 Panorama: A New
View of World History
Panorama presents the big picture: a unified chronological narrative of world history that
gives students a valuable framework for thinking about the global past.

Panorama’s seven parts correspond to seven

eras of global history. Within each part, chap-
ters are organized chronologically by consecu-PART 3: 200 C.E to 1000 C.E.
tive historical periods, never repeating a period
10,000 B.C.E. 8,000 B.C.E. 6,000 B.C.E.
from different regional or thematic angles. This
4,000 B.C.E 2,000 B.C.E. 1

organization gives students the mental scaf-

part 3 folding needed to think about the world as a
whole. Each part-opening spread previews the
Shifting Power, Thickening Webs major trends of the global era and includes
Afroeurasia, 200–1000 c.e. both a time-band placing that period in the
larger context of world history and a graph
illustrating the era’s population growth.

I
f in the very long term human history has been a
story of more and more people sharing the planet,
while inventing increasingly complex of ways of or-
ganizing themselves, interacting with one another,
and exploiting the earth’s energy to their own ben-
efit, this trend has not been entirely steady. Within
the overall movement toward greater complexity,
there have been cycles in which population has
PART 3: 200 C.E to 1000 C.E.
declined and recovered, cities have shrunk and flourished again, and
economies have contracted and expanded. These cycles may be
8,000 B.C.E. 6,000 B.C.E. 4,000 B.C.E 2,000 B.C.E. 1 2,000 C.E.
merely regional in scope, but they have also had interregional or even
global dimensions, as we have seen in modern times when business
recessions reverberate quickly around the world. The three chapters
Not all empires fell and not all economies went into deep and eastern Africa. Following unification under Arab leadership,
in Part 3 encompass approximately eight hundred years in the history
recession during these centuries. The armies of Sasanid Per- that corridor became more animated than ever before. From
of Afroeurasia, an era when the demographic and economic trends of the
sia and the eastern Roman empire held back nomad invaders. Southwest Asia, Arab soldiers, preachers, and merchants intro-
previous millennium temporarily slowed down or even reversed themselves,
In South Asia, the kings of the Gupta state united a large part duced Islam along the routes of conquest and trade. This new
before accelerating again at an even faster pace. expression of monotheistic faith drew on the teachings of both
of the subcontinent. Several regions, including southern China,
The third century c.e., where Part 3 begins, represents a jarring break—in some Judaism and Christianity, and it put great emphasis on social
Southeast Asia, and tropical West Africa, generally escaped
places violent and destructive—in the prevailing pattern of population and economic cooperation and codes of proper ethical and legal behavior.
dismal depressions and continued to prosper, despite regional
growth. Between about 200 and 600, the Han, Kushana, Parthian, and western Ro Ro- Thus, Islam joined Buddhism and Christianity as a universalist
wars and dynastic changes. Long-distance trade on the Inner
man empires all collapsed. These upheavals occurred partly in connection with the faith offering the promise of community harmony and individual
Eurasian silk roads and the chain of seas from China to South-
aggressive migrations of peoples from the Inner Eurasian steppes into neighboring salvation. Together, these three religions reached just about
west Asia fell off, but only the western Mediterranean suffered every part of Afroeurasia in the late millennium.
agrarian lands. Western Europe, North Africa, northern India, and northern China all
an extended commercial slump.
experienced serious economic turmoil. Disease epidemics that swept around the Between 200 and 1000 c.e. migrant farmers, long-distance
In the sixth century, the engines of population and economic
Mediterranean rim and across Southwest Asia in the sixth century had similar con con- merchants, conquering armies, and wandering missionaries
growth began to rev up nearly everywhere in Afroeurasia:
sequences. Conditions of life in several regions became harsh enough that Afroeur Afroeur- brought more of Afroeurasia into a single arena of human inter-
asia’s overall population declined by several tens ■■ After three and
of millions a half centuries
between of fragmentation, China
the third and change. This happened without any revolutionary breakthroughs
seventh centuries, perhaps the first significant drop achieved
sincepolitical unification
the invention under the Sui and Tang dynasties
of agriculture. in communication and transport technology, though artisans
(581–907). This development sparked a new round of technical
and engineers tinkered endlessly with ship designs, navigational
1S innovation and rapid population growth in the rice-growing
tools, and more efficient systems of banking and credit. By the
N south.
1L A terra-cotta camel and rider from the era of the Tang dynasty in China. end of the millennium, signs of new economic growth and so-
■■ In South Asia the Gupta empire disintegrated in the mid-
cial complexity were abundant. Afroeurasia’s overall population
sixth century, but this crisis appears to have had little effect on
DF 246 the subcontinent’s swelling production of cotton textiles, pep- climbed nearly back to where it had been eight hundred years
per, and cinnamon, goods that found eager markets across earlier. Interlinked commercial networks operated across the
Afroeurasia. breadth of Afroeurasia. China was moving into an era of unprec-
■■ In western Africa, merchants who discovered the hardy edented industrial growth. And after suffering a half-millennium
Revised Pages
qualities of the dromedary camel set up commercial opera- of chronic disorder, western Europeans were building a new ur-
tions that connected the Mediterranean lands with West ban civilization.
Africa. This pioneering enterprise, well under way by the
seventh century, lubricated the whole Afroeurasian
exchange system with injections of West African gold. Estimated World Population in Millions

■■ Assaults of Eurasian nomads on China, India, and Part 3

250 200 1000
Southwest Asia tailed off. In the steppes new war- Afroeurasia
C.E. to C.E.

rior empires arose in the sixth century, but they also

stabilized political conditions and recharged silk road 200
commerce. In the late first millennium, Europe endured
an incursion of Magyar warriors from the steppes, but
150
these intruders settled down quickly.
■■ Finally, invaders from the Arabian Desert, who pro-
claimed Islam as a new universalist religion, politically 100

united most of Southwest Asia, a region of agricultural

and urban productivity that had been divided between 50
rival states for nearly a thousand years. The cities of
Americas
Southwest Asia had for millennia funneled commercial Australia &
Oceania 1S
goods and new ideas along a corridor that connected 400 B.C.E. 200 600 1000 N
the Mediterranean basin with the whole expanse of Asia 1L

247 DF

xxii
Revised Pages
 Panorama’s maps are designed
for optimal classroom projection
A Panoramic View as well as pedagogical clarity
(see Map List, pp. xxvii–xxviii).
Maps titled “A Panoramic View”
at the beginning of each chapter
provide a big-picture overview for
PRUSSIA
Volga
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
the narrative. Within each chapter,
QUEBEC
POLAND
AUSTRIA additional maps zoom into the
THIRTEEN QING EMPIRE
regional or local level or provide
AN
other views. Questions for each
LOUISIANA JAPAN
COLONIES M E
NEW TO IR i
MEXICO TEXAS OT MP ngz
E Ya
map engage students in thinking
FLORIDA
SAINT DOMINGUE BENGAL
NEW (Fr.)
Bombay Calcutta
about geography and history.
SPAIN
AT L A N T I C
DAHOMEY Madras PHILIPPINES
OCEAN
ASHANTI
BENIN

INDIAN DUTCH
EAST INDIES
BRAZIL ANGOLA OCEAN JAVA

PACIFIC MOZAMBIQUE
OCEAN

Britain and territories

France and territories
Portugal and territories
Spain and territories
Netherlands and territories
Regions of conflict in
the Seven Years’ War

MAP 20.1 Major states and colonial territories after the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763).
Empires claimed huge swaths of territory—some in contiguous stretches of land and others overseas. Desire for even more territory and wealth fueled rival-
ries among empires. What aspects of this political map of states after the Seven Years’ War might explain the global nature of that conflict among European
powers?

Connect History, an online learning tool, offers 28

1S
interactive maps that actively engage students, Ye
L en
Travels of Marco Polo
a Travels of Ibn Battuta
Ob
N supporting geographical as well as historical nis
ey
RUSSIAN
1L
e
a

cS
B alti PRINCIPALITIES

thinking. These dynamic maps allow students London

POLAND Kiev
olg
a KIPCHAK KHANATE
(THE GOLDEN HORDE)
Am
V

ur
Paris S HUNGARY
A L PVenice D
DF to selectively 578
focus on20 elements
Chapter of the map. For
| Waves of Revolution
anube Kaffa G OBI
Ca

Genoa Black Sea CAUCASUS

Ad

m CHAGATAI
spia
ria

Aa

r ya u
D

KHANATE
tic

Rome ea MTS
YUAN Sea of
n Se
S

Constantinople Samarkand Daidu

example, they can examine the spread of specific

Granada EMPIRE Japan
Yellow

KO
a

Tabriz Nishapur Merv (Beijing)

RE
M ed Maragheh Balkh
Tangier iterraneanAntioch
JAPAN

A
Se a Baghdad Herat H
Eu

Fez h
Acre rat IM
ILKHANATE
p

Yangzi

crops one at a time, then reconstruct the full global Cairo es A East
Delhi G L A Y A Hangzhou
S
Revised Pages MAMLUK du
s an China
Pe

ia ge
rs

SULTANATE nG
DELHI s Quanzhou Sea
In

u lf
Medina SULTANATE

process of agricultural diffusion. Other interactive

S A H A R A Guangzhou PACIFIC
le

Mecca
Ni

Arabian
Red

INDIA
Timbuktu Sea Bay of OCEAN
VI ekong
Sea

maps enable students to analyze periodization,

M
ET

Bengal
NA

MALI South
Nig

Aden Calicut China

er

Sea

comparing changing political boundaries or the

SOU T H E AST
ASIA
Samudra
C

spread of technology over time.

Mogadishu
on

SUMATRA
go

AT L A N T I C INDIAN
OCEAN OCEAN JA VA
Kilwa
0 1000 2000 mi

A Panoramic View 0 1000 2000 km

1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500

Yuan empire
Chagatai khanate
Kipchak khanate (the Golden Horde)
NETHERLANDS
St. Petersburg RU SSIAN EMPIRE Ilkhanate of Iran and Iraq
CANADA BRITAIN
DENMARK

BELGIUM
GERMANY
AUSTRO-
HUNGARIAN
Mamluk sultanate
FRANCE EMPIRE

UNITED PORTUGAL
SPAIN
ITALY Beijing
JAPAN Delhi sultanate
GREECE OT TOMA N
S TAT E S E M PI RE QING EMPIRE
Tokyo
MOROCCO IRAN

AT L A N T I C RIO DE
ALGERIA LIBYA
EGYPT
MAP 13.2 Mongol states and their neighbors, 1300.
ORO Calcutta
Hawaiian
Islands
MEXICO
OCEAN FRENCH
I N DI A BURMA Macao What geographical or ecological features might help account for the Chagatai khanate being the economically weakest of the four great Mongol states?
ANGLO-
WEST AFRICA ERITREA THAILAND PHILIPPINES
GAMBIA EGYPTIAN Goa FRENCH
BRITISH GUIANA SUDAN INDOCHINA
VENEZUELA GOLD NIGERIA
COAST ETHIOPIA
MALAYA
COLOMBIA CAMEROON
LIBERIA KAISER authority. Horse archers had to advance into the subtropical military momentum and to protect his position against
ECUADOR BELGIAN INDIAN DUTCH EAST INDIES WILHELM’S
Manaus CONGO GERMAN
EAST AFRICA
LAND
south, where open pasture gave way to densely populated family rivals, he campaigned furiously throughout his
BRAZIL OCEAN
PERU ANGOLA TIMOR
rice-growing lands and warm-climate diseases took many reign, incorporating the far southwestern region of Yunnan
PACIFIC BOLIVIA
GERMAN
Mongol lives. One by one, however, the invaders captured into the Yuan state, attacking Burma, and sending naval ex-
OCEAN CHILE
PARAGUAY SOUTHWEST
AFRICA
MADAGASCAR
AUS T R A L IA the Song’s stout-walled cities, while defecting Chinese sail- peditions against Vietnam and Java. He also asserted Mon-
AR GE

URUGUAY
UNION
OF SOUTH ors helped the Mongols win naval battles on the southern gol domination over mountainous Korea, where the rulers
AFRICA
NT INA

Buenos Aires NEW

ZEALAND
rivers and coasts. The great capital of Hangzhou fell in 1276, of the Koryo dynasty agreed humbly to pay tribute.
0 1000 2000 mi and the last Song emperor died three years later. Once Korea was subdued, Kubilai looked east across
0 1000 2000 km
Kubilai Khan, adopting the dynastic name Yuan, mean- the Korea Strait to Japan, which he and his commanders
British dependencies Portuguese dependencies Italian dependencies
ing “the origin,” united northern and southern China for knew to have a prosperous rice economy, numerous towns, 1S
French dependencies German dependencies U.S. dependencies
the first time in a century and a half. But partly to keep up and busy trade with Chinese ports. In the later thirteenth N
Spanish dependencies Dutch dependencies Belgian dependencies
1L
Japanese dependencies

The Ascendance of the Mongol Empires 375 DF

MAP 24.1 States and colonial dependencies, 1910.

On the eve of World War I, western European countries, the United States, and Japan claimed or administered large parts of Africa, Asia, and the Island Confirming Pages
Pacific. Which countries claimed the largest overseas empires? dun07046_Ch13_368-397.indd 375 11/14/13 7:32 AM

unbearably expensive. Instead, the struggle lasted more Pacific. In this chapter, we focus on the conflict’s global di- xxiii
than four years, took close to sixteen million military and mensions, its relationship to industry and technology, and
civilian lives, aborted global economic growth, and spilled its immediate, largely disastrous consequences.
from Europe into Africa, Asia, the Americas, and the Island
 Each chapter offers students the opportunity to
examine historical evidence through a Weighing the
Weighing THE EVIDENCE Evidence selection. The primary sources in these
Frantz Fanon on the Shortcomings of the National Bourgeoisie
boxed features include public and private documents,
One of the most influential texts to emerge from colonial independence movements is Frantz Fanon’s The visual sources, and material artifacts; sometimes two
Wretched of the Earth. Fanon (1925–1961) came from a middle-class family on the French Caribbean island of
Martinique. During World War II he went to North Africa to join the Free French resistance against the Ger-
mans. He was wounded in battle and awarded the Croix de Guerre. After the war he studied medicine and
sources are presented for comparison. A headnote
psychiatry in France. There, he became starkly aware of the limits of social assimilation. Though he had grown
up in a thoroughly French environment and fought for the country, whites never viewed him as an equal. His
puts the source in context, and a series of questions
interest in the psychological effects of colonialism resulted in his first book, Black Skin, White Masks (1952).
In 1953 Fanon accepted a position at an Algerian psychiatric hospital and gave support to FLN revolution-
after the source challenges students to think deeply
aries. He became acutely aware, through experiences of his patients, of the violent foundations of French
colonial rule. In 1956 the French government expelled him from Algeria. He then moved to Tunisia where he
and analytically about its significance.
continued his work on behalf of Algerian independence.
Suffering from terminal leukemia, Fanon wrote The Wretched of the Earth in 1961. The book attracted no-
toriety for its apparent approval of violence as a means to end colonial rule. Fanon recognized, however, that
both perpetrators and victims of violence can never escape its psychological effects. In subsequent essays
he explained that revolutionary violence must be short lived, or it will destroy all whom it touches.
In the excerpt below, he discusses how the nation (here referring to a body of people with shared political
goals) must negotiate the transition from colonialism to independence. Within a general Marxist framework of
class struggle, Fanon argues that the indigenous colonial bourgeoisie are ill equipped to lead the nation be-
cause they have identified with the values of their capitalist colonial oppressors and lost touch with the masses.

The national middle class which takes over power at the end it as tourists avid for the exotic, for big-game hunting and for
of the colonial regime is an under-developed middle class. It casinos. . . . Because it is bereft of ideas, because it lives to
has practically no economic power, and in any case it is in no itself and cuts itself off from the people, undermined by its
way commensurate with the bourgeoisie of the mother coun- hereditary incapacity to think in terms of all the problems of
try which it hopes to replace. . . . the nation as seen from the point of view of the whole of that
Seen through its eyes, its mission has nothing to do with nation, the national middle class will have nothing better to do
transforming the nation; it consists, prosaically, of being the than to take on the role of manager for Western enterprise, and
transmission line between the nation and a capitalism, ram- it will in practice set up its country as the brothel of Europe. . . .
pant though camouflaged, which today puts on the masque of If you really wish your country to avoid regression, or at best
neocolonialism. The national bourgeoisie will be quite content halts and uncertainties, a rapid step must be taken from na-
with the role of the Western bourgeoisie’s business agent, and tional consciousness to political and social consciousness. . . .
it will play its part without any complexes in a most dignified The battle-line against hunger, against ignorance, against pov-
manner. But this same lucrative role, this cheap-jack’s func- erty and against unawareness ought to be ever present in the
tion, this meanness of outlook and this absence of all ambition muscles and the intelligences of men and women. . . . There
symbolize the incapability of the national middle class to fulfill must be an economic program; there must also be a doctrine
its historic role of bourgeoisie. Here, the dynamic, pioneer as- concerning the division of wealth and social relations. . . . It
pect, the characteristics of the inventor and of the discoverer is only when men and women are included on a vast scale in
of new worlds which are found in all national bourgeoisies are enlightened and fruitful work that form and body are given to
lamentably absent. In the colonial countries, the spirit of in- that consciousness. . . . The living expression of the nation is
dulgence is dominant at the core of the bourgeoisie; and this the moving consciousness of the whole of the people; it is the
is because the national bourgeoisie identifies itself with the coherent, enlightened action of men and women. . . . No leader,
Western bourgeoisie, from whom it has learnt its lessons. It however valuable he may be, can substitute himself for the
follows the Western bourgeoisie along its path of negation and popular will; and the national government, before concerning
decadence without ever having emulated it in its first stages itself about international prestige, ought first to give back their
of exploration and invention, stages which are an acquisition dignity to all citizens.
of that Western bourgeoisie whatever the circumstances. . . .
The national bourgeoisie will be greatly helped on its way to- Individuals MATTER
Source: Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington
wards decadence by the Western bourgeoisies, who come to (New York: Grove Press, 1965), 149, 152–154, 203–205.

Queen Arsinoe II: Ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt

Thinking Critically
Why, in Fanon’s view, does the national middle class feel a stronger relationship to the colonizer than it does to others in Coruler, high priestess, and goddess, seized part of the dead Lysimachus’s territories, and he as-
1S
its own country? What do you think Fanon means by saying that the middle class will turn its country into the “brothel of Queen Arsinoe II (316–270 b.c.e.) was sured Arsinoe that he would place her sons back in the line
N
Europe”? What do you think he means by the term “neocolonialism”? What problems must a new nation first address to one of the most powerful royal women in of succession as his adopted heirs. He deceived her, how-
1L
ensure its viability? From this selection, what can you infer about Fanon’s views of those taking power in newly indepen- Egypt’s long dynastic history. Her father ever, and fearing these sons as potential threats to his power,
dent countries? In what ways, if any, does the selection reveal the influence of Marxism on Fanon’s thought? was the Macedonian general Ptol- murdered the two younger boys, while the eldest escaped.
DF emy I, who founded the Ptolemaic Arsinoe fled once again, this time back to Egypt and the pro-
dynasty following the death of Alex- tection of her full brother Ptolemy II (r. 282–246 b.c.e.), who
ander the Great. About 300 b.c.e., was by this time Egypt’s king.
when Arsinoe was fifteen or six- Arsinoe lost no time getting back on her feet and maneu-
Revised Pages
teen years old, her father arranged vering for power. She persuaded Ptolemy II that his wife was
her marriage, an entirely political plotting against him and deserved to be sent into exile. Ptol-
transaction, to Lysimachus, the emy not only complied but also made Arsinoe his new queen.
sixty-one-year-old king who ruled The evidence from surviving texts and images demonstrates
territory on either side of the Bospo- convincingly that, although she lived only for another five or
rus Strait. The couple had three sons six years, she enjoyed equality with her husband-brother as
in rapid succession, but Agathocles, coruler and may have governed more energetically than he
a child from Lysimachus’s previous did. Historians think she may have helped design the strategy
marriage, stood ahead of them in the that led to Egypt’s victory in a war against the Seleucids for
line of royal succession. To improve control of territory in Syria. She may also have supervised a
her sons’ political positions, as well as major expansion of the Egyptian navy. She appears with her
her own, Arsinoe accused Agathocles brother on some coins of the period but alone on others, im-
of plotting to kill his father. Consequently, plying her commanding status.
Lysimachus ordered him executed, a vile In the years leading to her death in 270 b.c.e. at about the
act that triggered violent uprisings. In age of forty-five, Arsinoe became not only priestess of her
281 b.c.e., less than a year after the mur- own cult, a typical practice among Egyptian rulers, but also a
der, the elderly Lysimachus died in battle goddess, worshiped warmly during her own lifetime and for a
against Seleucus, ruler of the Seleucid long time after. A grand shrine was dedicated to her in Alex-
empire of Persia. andria, and towns were named after her in Greece.
When she lost her husband, Arsinoe Historians, both ancient and modern, have often repre-
fled to Macedonia. Once there, she soon sented Arsinoe as conniving and power hungry, though these
accepted a second marriage, this time to qualities were hardly rare among monarchs of the Hellenistic
her own half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos. centuries. She doubtless exercised great political influence
Greeks generally regarded marriage be be- during her brief reign, and she offered a model for ambitious
tween siblings as indecent, but Arsinoe Ptolemaic queens that followed her. For example, Cleopatra VII
and her new spouse took their cue from (r. 51–30 b.c.e.), the last of the Ptolemaic rulers, adopted Arsi-
Egypt, where such royal unions were noe’s crown as her own.
customary. Ptolemy Keraunos had
Thinking Critically
Arsinoe II strikes a characteristically What political advantages might Arsinoe have gained by
Egyptian pose, but she sports a Greek encouraging her subjects to worship her as a deity while she
hairstyle. shared the throne with her brother?

families that lived there adopted an elegant part-Greek, Public life in Hellenistic cities was as patriarchal, that is,
part-Egyptian lifestyle. The city also attracted a large, multi- as dominated by males, as it generally was in urban societies
ethnic merchant population that made money supplying throughout Afroeurasia. We have some evidence, however,
Individuals Matter spotlights women and men— luxuries to the ruling class. The Hellenistic elite liked to
think of the city as a kind of outpost of the Greek Aegean,
that in the bustling, impersonal climate of the larger cities,
upper-class women had somewhat wider scope to pursue
some public figures, others “ordinary” people— 1S
N
not really in Egypt but merely next to it. Actually, native
Egyptians made up the great majority of the population.
private interests than they had in fifth-century b.c.e. Ath-
ens, where a tight guard of male relatives kept them close
whose life or deeds capture an aspect of the period. 1L

These biographies remind readers of the importance DF 178 Chapter 6 | Empire Building and Cultural Exchange from India to the Mediterranean

of individuals as agents of change in world history.

Revised Pages

xxiv
Other documents randomly have
different content
 CHAPTER XXXIII
A LONG JOURNEY
“Reverend Mother, there is a woman at the gate with an Indian lad
and a big dog. She is asking to speak with one ‘Mercèdes
Montcalm,’” said old Michel, the gardener and doorkeeper of the
convent.
“It is late, Michel; we cannot let strangers in at this hour. Tell her
she must return to-morrow,” said the Reverend Mother of the
Ursulines.
“I told her as much,” said Michel; “but she bade me say she had
travelled from the far west, that she was very weary, and knew not
where to go. She gave me this,” and he handed her a slip of paper.
“I am Loïs Langlade, Charles Langlade’s sister, and am come to
fetch the child my brother gave in charge to Mercèdes Montcalm.”
“Poor thing!” said the Mother; “she does not know. This will grieve
our new sister, Marie Mercèdes; but you must bring the stranger in,
Michel. Charles Langlade’s sister cannot remain in the streets.”
“And the Indian and the dog?” said Michel.
“Keep them at the lodge,” said the Reverend Mother. The man
went out. The Mother rang a small bell beside her, which was
answered by a serving sister.
“Go to Sister Marie Mercèdes’ cell, and tell her to come here
without delay,” she said. As the sister went out, a tall figure wrapped
in a thick cloak with a hood drawn over her head entered, and with
her a large wolf-hound, which she held by its collar.
“It was no use, Reverend Mother; he would have torn me to
pieces rather than leave her,” said Michel.
“He knows I have only him to protect me,” said a gentle voice.
“Indeed, he is quite harmless as long as no one lays hands on me.
Lie down, Bob,” and, obedient to her word, the animal stretched
himself at her feet.
 “My child,” said the Reverend Mother, “you have asked to see
Mercèdes Montcalm. She bade adieu to the world this morning; she
is dead to all things earthly.”
“Dead,” repeated Loïs slowly; “it seems to me that every one is
dead.”
“Dead to the world, I said,” continued the Superior. “There is no
Mercèdes Montcalm, only Sister Marie Mercèdes. What do you want
with her, my child? You look very weary; sit down,” and she pointed
to a chair.
“I have come many hundred miles,” said Loïs, “in search of my
brother and my brother’s child. He sent me word that he had placed
the boy here with Mercèdes Montcalm.”
“So he did,” answered the Reverend Mother.
At that moment the door opened, and Loïs saw the small, darkly-
clad figure of a young nun enter. The face was very pale; the eyes
had a strained look in them, and were bright as if with fever.
“Come hither, my daughter,” said the Reverend Mother. “I grieve
to have disturbed you at your devotions, but here is one who has
come from afar to fetch Charles Langlade’s little child. Will you tell
her what you know concerning it, so that she may be satisfied?”
“Are you Loïs Langlade?” said Sister Marie, in a low voice.
“Yes,” said Loïs; “tell me, where is the child?”
“Why have you come to me instead of going to your brother? He
would have told you, and spared me the pain. Forgive me, Reverend
Mother; it is still pain,” said Sister Marie, bowing her head.
“My brother!” said Loïs, rising quickly, and with such a ring of joy in
her voice,—“he is alive then, and you have seen him. Oh, tell me
where to find him!” and taking the nun’s hand, she pressed it to her
lips.
Sister Marie shivered slightly; she had not had time yet to forget.
The Reverend Mother answered for her.
“He is alive, my child; but where he lodges we do not know, only
there is one who does. We will enquire to-morrow.”
“To-morrow!” exclaimed Loïs. “Oh, Reverend Mother, I have
waited so many to-morrows! I am not weary; let me go to him to-
night. And the child?”
 “Is at rest; him you cannot find,” said Sister Marie Mercèdes. “But
your brother is in Quebec,” she continued. “Madame Péan, in the
Rue St. Louis, will tell you where to find him. You must go to her to-
night; to-morrow she leaves Quebec.”
“Thank God I am in time,” said Loïs, and bending her head in
token of farewell, she went towards the door. Bob rose and followed
her. But suddenly her strength seemed to fail her, and she
staggered; Sister Marie Mercèdes was beside her.
“Lean on me,” she said gently, and placing her in a chair, she held
some water to her lips. Loïs drank eagerly.
“Are you in want of food?” asked the Reverend Mother.
“We have travelled all day,” said Loïs faintly; and hardly knowing
that she did so, she let her head rest on Sister Marie’s bosom. Once
more the Reverend Mother rang her bell.
“See if there be some hot soup in the kitchen, and send Michel
here,” she said to the serving sister. Then, going up to Loïs, she
added, “We will do what we can for you, my child. What food we
have you are welcome to, and I will send Michel to find out where
your brother lodges. It is snowing fast; you cannot wander to and fro
in the streets of Quebec to-night.”
An hour later, warmed and comforted, Loïs rose to depart. Michel
was to conduct her to the address which Madame Péan had given.
“May I kiss you?” said Loïs, holding the young nun’s hand in hers;
and not doubting what the answer would be, she kissed her in the
old French-Canadian fashion, on both cheeks. “Farewell, Madame,”
she said, turning towards the Reverend Mother.
“God bless thee, my daughter. It grieves my heart to send you
forth on such a night; but you would not rest even if I sought to
detain you, therefore go in peace. Michel will see you safely to your
journey’s end!”
And so once more, with the snow whitening her black cloak and
the Indian lad’s bearskin, and followed by Bob, Loïs went forth.
Surely she was nearing the end!

“Roger, do you not hear some one knocking at the outer door? I
could almost think I heard old Bob bark. There it is again.” And truly
a dog’s sharp imperative bark rose loud and clear on the still night
air.
Without answering, Roger rose, left the room, and opened the
front door, which led out into the street. He was almost thrown
backwards by the sudden rush of the big wolf-hound, which sprang
upon him with a bark of recognition, and then bounded past. He was
followed by two figures, and then the door was quickly pushed back
to keep out the snow which came drifting in.
“Roger!” and Loïs, throwing back her hood, stood before him.
“Oh, Loïs, my darling!”
In the unexpected joy of that moment, the strong man’s pride gave
way; the love which had been so long kept in check rose all
powerful, and without uttering a word more, he gathered her in his
arms and held her in a passionate embrace.
“Who is it? What has happened?” said Charles, coming out, the
dog leaping round him.
“Look!” said Roger proudly, his voice trembling with emotion, as,
still encircling Loïs with his arm, he almost carried her into the sitting-
room, and, placing her in the armchair Charles had vacated, began
loosening her cloak.
In that second of time the man’s face had utterly changed. His
youth seemed to have come back to him; the smile on his lips, the
light in his eye, shone down upon Loïs until she could hardly bear it,
and, closing her eyes, the tears rolled down her face. It was more
than she had dared hope for. Together! she had found them together,
and it was as if all her strength forsook her with the accomplished
task. She who had been so brave broke down now; she had no
longer any need for strength. The touch of his hand, the few
caressing words which escaped him, told her that from henceforth
the burden of life was lifted from her shoulders, that the great
harmony of perfect love for which she had so patiently waited was
hers at last.
“Oh, Roger!” she repeated, and her arms were round his neck, her
head upon his shoulder, and, as if the floodgates of her soul had
opened, her sobs filled the room. Truly the clouds had broken at last,
and even as she wept she saw the rift and the blue sky shining forth,
and she knew that the light of a new day was dawning for her and for
Roger.
“Well, Loïs, have you no word for me?” said Charles reproachfully.
She sprang up, exclaiming,—
“My dear brother, forgive me. I came to find you and take you
home.”
“And instead of one you have found two,” said Charles, kissing
her. “My brave sister, you deserve to be rewarded after such a quest.
We will all go home together. Surely if you came through the snow
alone with Jim, we can return the same way. What do you say,
Roger?”
“As soon as your strength permits it we will go,” answered Roger.
“I saw that Madame who came here yesterday again this morning,
and she promised to send me the passes necessary for us to get
through that part of the country still held by the French; once we
receive them we can start—at least, as soon as you feel strong
enough.”
“Then we shall not be here much longer,” said Charles. “The sight
of Loïs seems to have given me back my strength. We must be
home for Christmas. Jim, good Jim,” he said, patting the Indian boy’s
head, as he crouched before the fire.
“I called him Jim when he was quite a little chap,” said Charles.
“He has run my commissions ever since he was able to run at all.
You’ll stay with us always now, Jim? After this last exploit of bringing
Loïs up to Quebec we can’t part with you.”
“Jim never leave you, Nosa,”[8] answered the lad, raising his eyes,
full of a dog-like devotion, to Charles’ face.
[Footnote 8: Father—Master.]
“That is well. We will all go home together.”
For the first time in her life Loïs knew what it was to be made
much of, to be cared for and thought for; she who had always cared
for others. They remained a week in Quebec, during which time
Charles regained his strength with marvellous rapidity. It seemed
almost as if Loïs had brought the breath of life with her from the old
home. During that week Loïs visited the battle-field on the Plains of
Abraham, and all the spots which from henceforth would be
landmarks in the history of Quebec. Roger was, moreover, busy
making preparations for the homeward journey; sleighs were bought,
strong horses to draw them, furs to wrap themselves in, and a
goodly store of provisions for the journey. They were not going
alone; besides his two faithful servants, a company of Roger’s
Rangers volunteered to accompany them; so that when they started
from Quebec they mustered about a score of souls. Loïs was like a
queen amongst them. General Levis had sent them free passes
through the French lines, so that no difficulties arose to impede their
rapid progress.
The land was icebound, the cold intense, but the weather brilliant.
Down the great St. Lawrence they went; across country, as only men
born in the land and knowing every inch of the ground they traversed
could have done. Home, home, was the watchword, before which
every hardship seemed of no account.

“Father Nat! mother! here they are coming up the hill!” and Susie
dashed into the kitchen.
No need to say who were coming.
“Oh, my lads, my lads!” cried Father Nat, and bareheaded as he
was, he strode out through the garden into the high road, and stood
with his arms stretched out to welcome the children home.

From far and near, from villages and lonely farmhouses, in

sleighs, on foot, by land in the most primitive conveyances, skating
along the icebound lakes and rivers, the people came flocking to
Marshwood to celebrate Roger the Ranger’s and Loïs Langlade’s
wedding-day.
Never in the memory of man had such a Christmas Eve been
witnessed. Brightly the sun shone on the glistening snow, as the
bride in her sleigh, decorated with holly and evergreens, with white
bearskins wrapping her round, was driven by Father Nat himself
down to the village church, amid the shouts and joy-wishes of the
crowd lining the hill-side and the long village street. Roger’s Rangers
had mustered in full force to do their Captain honour, and very gay
they looked in their red shirts and tan gaiters as they filed into the
church after the bridal party.
 There were few dry eyes in that assembly as the old minister rose
to address them, and in simple, strong words reminded them of the
dark days and the sorrows through which they had all passed. He
spoke of the noble examples which had been set to them by men
such as Wolfe and Howe, and others whose nameless graves were
not without due honour. “And surely,” he added in conclusion, “we
New Englanders are more than ever bound to bring up our children
in the true faith, free men, lovers of that liberty for which so many
have bled, remembering always that the lives of great men are
landmarks, pointing those that come after to like deeds of high
honour, not of idle acquiescence in the past, but to be up and doing,
regenerating the earth by love, peace, and goodwill, even as the
Christ, whose birthday we shall celebrate to-morrow, brought peace
and goodwill to man.”
The merry-making lasted a whole week, and many of those who
had come from afar lingered still longer. Amongst the number were
William Parkmann and his young wife, and with them they had
brought a sister of the former, Elizabeth Parkmann, who took so
kindly to the homely life of the Marshes, and more especially to the
master of Alpha Marsh, that Father Nat, radiant with joy, said to John
Cleveland, as they sat together in the chimney corner, “We shall see
Marcus in the pulpit yet, and Charles and Roger reigning in my
stead.”
“Amen, so be it!” answered the minister.
 CHAPTER XXXIV
CONCLUSION
Six days after the battle on the Plains of Abraham, General Levis
appeared before Quebec, to find that the fortress had capitulated.
His indignation knew no bounds. He had been educated in General
Montcalm’s school, and would not recognise that France was
defeated. With a handful of about three thousand men, the remnant
of the French army, he retired at first to Jacques Cartier, and
afterwards to Montreal, and coolly decided that he would continue
the war and re-conquer Quebec. Of such stuff heroes are made.
They do not know when they are vanquished!
In the month of April 1760, two French ships, the Atalanta and
Pomona, having on board ammunition and the necessary siege
materials, slowly descended the St. Lawrence, profiting by a narrow
channel which a sudden thaw had opened out right through the
middle of the river. The troops, consisting of three thousand regulars
and two thousand Canadians and savages, marched with great
difficulty through the half-melted snow, until one morning they
reached that very Plain of Abraham where Wolfe and Montcalm had
fought their mortal duel.
General Murray, Governor of Quebec, immediately ordered a
sortie, and offered battle to the little French army. He had at his
command four or five thousand men and twenty-two pieces of
artillery.
It was the 28th of April, 1760.
The assault of the French was terrific, the very impetus of despair.
The Canadians charged, having fastened knives into the ends of
their guns to supply the want of bayonets. The English artillery
mowed down their ranks, but still they advanced with drums beating
furiously to the charge. To repair their defeat, to die or to conquer,
that was their sole object, and, thus animated, they threw
themselves on the English with such fury that they forced them to
retreat, and take refuge in Quebec; but not before they had left
twelve hundred dead upon that fatal field. The French themselves
had their brave general, Bourlamaque, severely wounded, and lost
eight hundred men, the whole corps of Grenadiers!
Nothing daunted, General Levis laid siege to Quebec. The cannon
which had been taken from the English served him well, but he
lacked ammunition.
“If only one ship would come from France to our assistance before
the English fleet arrives, Quebec would once more be ours, and the
white lilies of France would float from her ramparts,” exclaimed
General Levis, gazing out to sea, watching with the yearning of his
heroic heart for the succour which would restore his lost prestige.
It was on the evening of the 15th of May when in the distant
horizon sails were visible. Besieged and besiegers alike strained
their eyes to recognise from whence they came. Were they English
or French ships? It is easy to conceive the agonising suspense
which filled every heart. The English historian and eye-witness,
Knox, has graphically described it as follows:—
“We stood gazing for some time up the river in an inexpressible
state of anxiety, until the sails became clearly visible, and we knew
they were the advance ships of the English fleet! It is impossible to
describe the scene which followed. Men and officers leapt on to the
ramparts facing the French army, and, waving their hats, gave vent
for upwards of an hour to hurrahs and shouts of delight. We had
suffered much during the siege, and our deliverance was therefore
doubly welcome.”
The news was greeted in England with almost equal enthusiasm.
“Happy, happy day!” wrote Pitt. “My joy and satisfaction are
beyond all expression.”
But still, though forced to raise the siege, having lost their two
solitary ships, and obliged to retire once more to Montreal, the
remaining handful of French soldiers and Canadians would not yield.
Under the influence of a fixed idea these last defenders of Canada
seemed literally to have gone mad. Three English armies of forty
thousand men surrounded General Levis and his three thousand six
hundred soldiers who had taken refuge in Montreal. Montreal was an
open town, having round it only a low wall, originally intended to
defend it from the attacks of the savages. Of course all idea of
defence was impossible. Vaudreuil consented therefore to capitulate.
But Levis, indignant at a clause in the capitulation in which
General Amherst refused the honours of war to his heroic troops,
would not lay down his sword, and retired with two thousand men to
the Island of St. Helen; and only upon the Governor Vaudreuil’s
formal command did he at last yield, and laid down his arms on
September 8th, 1760, protesting to the last against the treatment of
the French troops, who, he declared, “merited more attention from
Monsieur de Vaudreuil, and more esteem from General Amherst.”
Thus this terrible war, which had caused such a fearful sacrifice of
human life, and such great suffering, was over. The unhappy French
soldiers were sent on board English ships, and, in the midst of one of
the most terrific storms on record, bade adieu to the land they had
fought so bravely to retain for their own. But they left behind them a
reputation which, as time goes on, and events are seen through the
halo of the past, grows in magnitude. England herself glories in
having vanquished such almost unconquerable defenders of the soil;
and their beloved General Montcalm lies in no unhonoured grave. In
raising a monument to their own victorious Hero, the conquerors did
not forget the great vanquished Hero. Side by side they stand in the
fair city of Quebec, telling of noble deeds and spotless fame—“Wolfe
and Montcalm. With courage they faced death. History has united
them in glory, and Posterity has erected this monument to their
memory.” A noble epitaph, for noble men!
ROBERTS & JACKSON, PRINTERS, GRIMSBY.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROGER THE
RANGER: A STORY OF BORDER LIFE AMONG THE INDIANS ***

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