THE CELL - It’s structure & Functions:-

1. Write a short note on Discovery of the cell

= Robert Hooke was the first scientist who discovered dead cells in a bark of cork
In 1665,through his self - designed microscope he observed honey comb like structure consisting of little
compartments
2. Why outermost layer of skin consists of dead cells?
= The outermost layer of skin consist of dead cells.
This layer shed periodically as to protect skin from environmental trauma.
3. Differentiate cell on the basis of cell number
CELL NUMBER

Unicellular Multicellular
organism organism
Single cell Multiple cell
For eg. Amoeba For eg.Humans

4. Why the shape of cell is different in even same organism?

All the cells have common features, however they can appear different in different parts of the organism, justify
= This is due to their location & function in the tissues
They may be oval,spherical,cubical etc.
For eg - Nerve cell has to transmit impulses to organs located in different parts of body that’s why nerve cells are
long fibre like structure.
5. Why there is a difference in the size of cell?
= there is a difference between the cell size like Mycoplasma,PPLO{ pleuro-pneumonia like organisms} 0.01 micron
as smallest cell
The largest cell is ostrich cell nearly 170 mm diameter

CROSSECTION OF HEN’S EGG :-

6. What is life span of RBC’S

= The life span of RBC’s is 120 days
7. Geeta scrapped the inner side of her cheek with tooth pick and got a frothy material on the tooth pick and
mounted it on a slide. She observed the slide under the microscope.
a) Name the type of the cell she saw.
= She saw a cheek cell
b) Draw a labelled diagram of the cell she saw

Parts of cell Plant cell Animal cell

Cell wall Present Absent
Provide shape.rigity and support Doesn’t Provide shape.rigity and support
Chloroplast Present Absent
Provide pigments to the fruits , Doesn’t provide colour pigments
flower etc.
Shape Fixed due to cell wall Irregular
Plastid Present thus provide pigment Absent thus doesn’t provide pigments
Parts of Cell Definition Function
Cell Membrane All living organisms are bound The cell membrane regulates the transport of materials entering
by a membrane called plasma and exiting the cell.
membrane.it surround
cytoplasm
Cell wall An additional covering Provides rigidity , shape & support to the cell and provide
protecting the cell from protection from environmental trauma
external environment
Cytoplasm A portion of protoplasm lying Act as a grund substance , It is made up of
inner to the cell membrane carbohydrates,fats,vitamins& minerals along with a large
but outer to the nucleaur propotion of water {composition of cytolpasm?}
membrane What provides the unique living nature to protoplasm?
Nucleus Nucleus is the brain of cell contains the genetic material
which control the cellular
processes.
Chromosomes A chromosome is a DNA Chromosomes' primary role is to transport genetic material from
molecule that comes under one generation to the next. Chromosomes serve a critical part in
genetic material of an the growth, reproduction, repair, and regeneration processes
organism. The chromosome is Chromosomes carry DNA in cells
present in the nucleus of each
cell, and it is packaged into
thread-like structures.
CELL ORGANELLES
Plastid Plastid is a cell organelle There are 3 types of plastid
present in plants ,algae which * CHROMOLPAST- a type of plastid which cotains colour pigment
provide pigment to the plants except green to provide colours to fruits,vegetables etc.
etc. * CHLOROPLAST - a type of plastid which contain green pigment
to provide colour to leaves etc.
* LEUCOPLAST - a type of plastid which is colourless and is
present to store starch , oil & proteins
Mitochondria Mitochondria is a cell Performs cellular respiration and provides energy to the cell to
organelle which are perform physiological activities
responsible for cellular
respiration
Endoplasmic A network of membrane ER is of 2 types
reticulum responsible for transporting of RER - rough appearance
materials to different parts of Presence of ribosomes
cell Synthesis of proteins
SER- smooth appearance
Presence of ribosmoe
Synthesis of fats
Ribosmoes A tiny granule present on the With the help of ribosomes synthesis of proteins takes place in
RER and is made up of RNA RER
{ Ribonucleic acid }
Provide enzymes
Golgi bodies Are of sac like structure Responsible for processing & packaging of materials produce by
the cells
Vacuole Empty space in cytoplasm Store excess of water and waste products for eg Amoeba
Cilia Small extension on the cell Cilia are hair like structure
membrane responsible fro cilia helps to move substances across the free cell surface.
locomotion and collection of For eg - paramoecium
food
flagella Small extension on the cell Flagella is a tail like structure
membrane responsible fro flagella function is to assist the cell in movement
locomotion and collection of For eg Euglena
food
8. Rohan has a small lawn in his house,having a number of flowers. He is amazed at the
beautiful colours and asks his teacher ‘ what makes the flowers so colourful?’
= The reason behind the colour of flowers is plastids called chromoplast as plastids are cell organelles which provide
colours pigments to the parts of plant
9. While observing onion peel cells, what is the dark structure in the centre of the cells found
to be? Mention two of its functions.{nucleus}
10. Why multicellular organisms like humans and elephants cannot grow as a single large cell
and perform all functions through it?
= It is because the body has to perform many functons which is not possible under the control of one cell so the
multiple cells performs different functions without being hassle
Give reasons for the following.
11. Tomatoes are red in colour. {due to the plastids called chromoplast}
12. Plant cells contain large vacuoles.{to store water,fats& strch etc.}
13. Cells remained undiscovered for a long, long time.{due to uninvention of microscope as microorganism can
only be seen under it }
14. More mitochondria are found in cells which are physiologically more active. {as it syntheis energy to perform
different activities of cell}
a) Nucleus: Cell:: Brain: Body
b) Cell membrane : Cell :: Skin : Body
15. Is the shape and size of a cell dependent on the size of an organism, discuss
= No the shape of size of a cell doesn’t matter on size of organism as cell shape depends on location & function not
on the size of on organism
ELECTRIC CURRENT & IT’S CHEMICAL EFFECTS :-

1. Can all liquids conduct electricity?

*Not all liquids can conduct electricity. However, some of them can be regarded as
good conductors of electricity while others as poor conductors of electricity.
*Water containing salts and minerals dissolved in it always conduct electricity. eg:
Water get from taps,hand pumps, wells&pond.
*Distilled water which does not contain any salts cannot conduct electricity.
*Any solution of acids or bases can also conduct electricity.

2. Good Conductors of Electricity:

The materials which allow the current to pass through them are known as good
conductors. Examples are copper, aluminium, etc.
Poor Conductors of Electricity:
The materials which do not allow the current to pass through them easily, are known
as poor conductors. They are also called as insulators. Examples are glass, plastic, etc.

3. Why is it dangerous to touch electrical appliances with wet hands?

Touching electrical appliances with wet hands is dangerous because water is a good conductor of electricity as salt is
present in water so electrolyte conduct electricity and one might get an electric shock.
4. How does electric discharge in lightning occurs if air is a bad conductor? Or Current does not flow in a circuit if
there is a gap between the two wires. Does it indicate that air is a poor conductor of electricity? Does air never
conduct electricity? Explain.
Air is a bad conductor it resists the flow of the charges from the clouds to the ground up until a certain limit.
Beyond this limit the accumulated charge becomes very high and electricity is discharged towards the ground
creating a bright flash we see as lightning.
5. Why do salt, acid ,or caustic soda make the water more conductive to electricity?
Strong acids and salts are strong electrolytes because they completely ionize (dissociate or separate) in solution. The
ions carry the electric charge through the solution thus creating an electric current
Common salt Nacl consist of positively charge sodium and negatively charge chlorine . the water no only breaks
sodium chloride but also Separate these ions
6. How can you say that flow of electricity in liquids is due to movement of ions in them
It is the movement of ions within the solutions which makes distilled water conductive to electricity .they completely
ionize (dissociate or separate) in solution. The ions carry the electric charge through the solution thus creating an
electric current
7. What is electrolyte
A compound that conducts electricity in molten state when an electric current passes through it called as electrolyte
WEAK ELECTROLYTE STRONG ELECTROLYTE
Ionized completely to form free mobile ions in the Ionized partially to form free ions in the solution
solution
For eg. Sodium chloride , pure sulphuric acid , copper For eg. Acetic acid , ammonium hydroxide & tap water
sulphate solution

8. What is non - electrolyte ?

A non electrolyte doesn’t provide ions in the solution therefore current doesn’t
flow through such solutions
For eg. Distilled water,alcohol,carbon disulphide and carbon tetrachloride
9. What is voltaic cell and write a short note on conversion of chemical energy
into electrical energy ? {Electrode}
{Electrode}
A voltaic cell practical was given by Alessandro volta in 1790
CHEMICAL ENEERGY INTO ELECTRIC ENERGY

{H2So4 -> 2H+ + So4 2-}

CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELCTRIC CURRENT :- (Michael Faraday)
10. What do Michael Faraday observe ?
He was a well known physicist and he began his experiments of passage of electricity
through liquids in 1834
He observed some interesting chemical changes through the solution when an electric
current passes he called this as chemical effects of electric current
Faraday called this phenomenon of passage of electricity through liquids as Electrolysis
WILLIAM NICHOLSON
(hydrogen) (Oxygen)

Anode Cathode
Factors affecting chemical reactions in a solution:
Nature of the Electrodes: Different electrode materials can cause different reactions. For instance, a copper
electrode might release copper ions, whereas a graphite electrode will not release any ions. This difference in
behavior can impact the type and rate of reaction.
Nature and Concentration of the Solution: The type of solution (acidic, basic, or neutral) and its concentration
determine the ions available for the reaction. A high concentration often increases the reaction rate and can result in
faster deposition or bubble formation.

Prominent Effects of Chemical Reactions:

Metal Deposition on Electrodes: When metal ions in the solution gain electrons, they form a solid metal layer on the
electrode. This is often seen in electroplating.
Formation of Gaseous Bubbles: Some reactions produce gases, like hydrogen or oxygen, which appear as bubbles
near the electrodes. This is common in water electrolysis.
Color Change of the Solution: The solution may change color as different ions dissolve or react. For example, adding
copper ions might turn the solution blue, indicating chemical changes.
APPLICATION OF ELCTROLYSIS
1. Extracting metals from their ores
Pure metals are extracted from metal ores with the process of electrolysis. Electricity is passed through the metal
ores and they get broken down into an ionic lattice and thus the metal is obtained separately. For example, metals
like aluminium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and calcium are obtained from their ores in this way.
2. Purification of metals
The method of electrolysis is also used to purify a metal by separating it from the impurities.
The impure metal is used as an anode which first dissolves in the electrolyte solution and
then deposits on the cathode in the pure form. The impurities of the metal remain in the
electrolyte solution only. Metals like aluminium, zinc and copper are purified in this way.

3.How electrolysis is used for compound production?

Electrolysis is the process of using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.
2H2O→2H2+O2
This process is commonly used to produce hydrogen gas, which can be used as a clean fuel, and oxygen gas, which
has various industrial applications.

CuSo4 -> Cu2+ + So4 2-

Cathode Selection: The object to be electroplated (such as a metal item) is placed as the cathode in the electrolytic
cell. When electric current passes through, metal ions from the electrolyte are reduced and deposited onto the
cathode, coating it with the desired metal.

Anode Material: The anode is made of the pure metal that you want to plate onto the object. During electroplating,
the metal from the anode dissolves into the solution, replenishing the metal ions that are being deposited on the
cathode.

Electrolyte: The electrolyte is a solution containing a soluble salt of the metal to be plated. This solution conducts
electricity and allows metal ions to move from the anode to the cathode, where they get deposited onto the object.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF ELECTROLYSIS :-

To improve/alter their appearance: the shining handles of bicycles and bath taps which are otherwise made of iron.
This is done by electroplating them with chromium or nickel. Similarly, articles of base metals are often coated with
precious metals to make them look more attractive.

To provide a protective/strengthening coating: a chromium plating on bath taps, car bumpers, bicycle handles,
towel rails, kitchen gas burners, wheel rims and so on. The chromium deposit not only provides a shiny appearance
but also helps to avoid corrosion and effects of 'wear and tear' and scratches. Some coatings also help to increase
the strength of the base metal.

To minimise the cost: the metals, like gold, silver, platinum, nickel and chromium are very expensive. It would not be
(generally) economical to make the whole object out of these metals. So the object/article is made from a less
expensive metal and only a thin coating of the expensive metal is deposited over it. For example, artificial jewellery s
often made by electroplating gold or silver on less expensive metals.

It protects the metals from being corroded.

It prevents the rusting of metals.
It makes cheap and dull metals shiny and attractive.
It can make more reactive metals like iron less reactive.
Chromium coating on metals give lustre to objects.
4.Why we coat tin onto iron to store our food
Tin is less reactive than iron so the food inside the can will not react with iron.
5. When was phenomenon of electricity from magnetism .
The phenomenon, through which electrical energy could be converted into magnetic energy, is known as electro-
magnetic induction.
In 1831 Michael Faraday & Josheph henry showed us that electricity can be made by the magnetic effect as shown

Solenoid

Whenever there is a relative motion between a magnet and a coil, that is part of an electric circuit, a current flows
through the coil.
The flow of current stops as soon as the magnet and the coil are at rest with respect to each other.
The faster is the relative motion, between the magnet and the coil, the more is the current that flows through the
coil.
The direction of current, obtained by moving the magnet away from the coil, is opposite to its direction when the
magnet is moved towards the coil. The phenomenon of electro-magnetic induction forms the underlying principle of
all modern day generators and transformers.
The generators help us to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. This is phenomenon of electro-magnetic
induction.
Faraday discoveries :-
Faraday discovered a method of liquifying chlorine and benzene.
 He also discovered the phenomenon of electro-magnetic induction, magneto-optical effect and diamagnetism. He
formulated the laws of electrolysis
in 1857. It is his discovery, of the phenomenon of electro-magnetic induction,
6. Which metal is plated on handle bars of cycles and rim of wheels?
Chromium
7. Which part of an atom is responsible for flow of current?
Electron
8. Why is a layer of zinc coated over iron?
To prevent iron from corrosion and rust.
9. What happens when electric current is passed through the copper sulphate solution?
When electric current is passed through the copper sulphate solution, copper sulphate dissociates into copper and
sulphate. The free copper gets drawn to the electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery and gets
deposited on it.
10. Why is chromium used for electroplating? Why the objects have chromium plating are not made of chromium
itself?
Chromium has a shiny look. It does not get corroded and it resists scratches. Chromium is however expensive and it
may not be economical to make the whole object out of it. So the object is made from a cheaper metal and only a
coating of chromium is done over it.
11. Do distilled water conduct electricity? What will happen if we add sugar to it and then salt to it? Explain.
No, distilled water do not conduct electricity. If we add sugar to distilled water, then also it will not conduct
electricity because sugar do not dissociates into ions. But on adding salt, it will conduct electricity because aqueous
salt solution is a good conductor of electricity.
12. Suppose you want to deposit silver on an iron spoon using silver nitrate as electrolyte. Which terminal of the
battery you should connect the spoon? What material should the other electrode be made of?
Silver ion is positively charge, so the spoon must be connected to negative terminal to deposit silver on it. The other
electrode should be made of silver.
13. Why potato turns green on passing current? Around which terminal greenish patch is observed?
Answer:
Potato turns green due to chemical effect of current. Around positive terminal greenish patch in potato is observed
14. Yakub made an circuit as shown in the figure. He observed that the bulb did not glow but on bringing a
compass needle near it shows deflection.
He was quite confused that if current is flowing through the circuit then why the bulb is not glowing. Meanwhile
his friend Sourav arrived and suggested him to add one more cell in the circuit. The bulb, then started glowing.
(a) Define a circuit.
(b) What does the deflection of a compass needle shows?
(c) Why the bulb did not glow in the first case but glow in the second case?
Answer:
(a) Circuit is a closed path through which an electric current flows.
(b) Deflection of compass needle shows that the current is flowing in the circuit. It is magnetic effect of current.
(c) The current flowing through the circuit in first case was too low to make the bulb glow but on adding a cell in the
second case makes the bulb glow.
15.While demonstrating an experiment to show whether the given liquid conduct electricity or not to class VIII
students, teacher reminded everybody that one should not conduct experiment with the electric supply from the
mains or a generator or an inverter. They should use electric cells for the activity.
(a) Do liquids conduct electricity?
(b) Why we should not use electric source from mains generator or an inverter?
(c) What values do we get from this?
Answer:
(a) Yes, liquids which are solutions of acids, bases and salts conduct electricity. Other liquids such as oil, alcohol,
sugar solution and pure water do not conduct electricity.
(b) Current flowing from mains, generator or an inverter is very large. So to avoid the chances of electrocution and
short-circuit we must use cells for experiments.
(c) We get awareness of not using main electric supply and precaution to be followed while doing experiment.
Combustion :-
The chemical process in which a substance burns in air or oxygen with the release of heat & light energy is called
combustion
A substance which catches fire easily in the presence of air & oxygen and produce heat & light energy is combustible
substances.

Here in case I There is sufficient amount of oxygen therefore the candle flame burns smoothly
In case II There is not sufficient amount of oxygen therefore the candle flame burns sooty
In case III There is no supply of amount of oxygen therefore the candle flame burns off
Therefore from above activity we conclude that air is necessary for combustion
Oxygen is important for combustion and known as supporter of combustion.

How does water boils without burning the paper cup?

1.Combustion generates heat, which heats the paper cup and transfers to the water inside.
2.The temperature of the paper cup stays below its ignition point because water absorbs heat from the burning
source
3.The water boils due to the heat, but the paper cup does not burn as it doesn't reach its ignition temperature.

Give some examples to prove that a substance must be heated up to its ignition temperature
1. Ignition tempertaure of white phosphorus is 35 degree celcius . during smmer theroom temperature rises due to
which white phosphorus catches fire on their own {spontaneously}
2. A matchstik can be lighted by striking itstip onto a rough surface . The tip is made up of red phosphorus thus
friction generates heat to light the matchstick.
3. The flame of burning cangle goes off when we blow off it stronly its is because air current lowers the temperature
of buring wax vapours below teir ignition point
The carbon dioxide in ourbreath acts as a fire extinguisher
ELECTRIC CURRENT & IT’S CHEMICAL EFFECTS
Why we should never touch a appliance with wet hands
· Tap water, containing dissolved salts, is a good conductor.
· Electricity can flow more easily through wet skin.
· The more salt in water, the better it conducts electricity.
· Wet hands create a dangerous path for electric current.
· Contact with electricity while wet can lead to serious harm.
· Always ensure your hands are dry to avoid electric shocks.
How does electric discharge in lightning occurs if air is a bad conductor? Or Current does not flow in a circuit if
there is a gap between the two wires. Does it indicate that air is a poor conductor of electricity? Does air never
conduct electricity? Explain.
· Electric discharge in lightning happens when a large amount of charge builds up in the atmosphere, and the air becomes
ionized, allowing electricity to flow through it despite air being a poor conductor, but during lightning, the high voltage can
ionize the air, allowing it to conduct electricity temporarily.
· Current doesn’t flow in a circuit if there’s a gap because the circuit is broken
Why do salt , caustic soda , acid conduct electricity ?
Salt, caustic soda, and acids conduct electricity because they dissolve in water and split into charged particles called ions. These
ions move freely in the solution, allowing electricity to flow through. This process is called dissociation, and the presence of
these mobile ions makes the solution conductive.
· Salt (NaCl) dissociates into sodium (Na⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) ions.
· Caustic soda (NaOH) dissociates into sodium (Na⁺) and hydroxide (OH⁻) ions.
· Acids (like HCl) dissociate into hydrogen (H⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) ions.