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 ANATOMY
PHYSIOLOGY
The Unity of Form and Function
Ninth Edition

KENNETH S. SALADIN
Distinguished Professor of Biology, Emeritus
Georgia College

Digital Authors
CHRISTINA A. GAN
Highline College

HEATHER N. CUSHMAN
Tacoma Community College

sal56006_fm_i-xxii.indd 1 11/26/19 7:07 PM

 THE EVOLUTION OF A
STORYTELLER

Ken Saladin’s first step into authoring was a 318-page paper on the ecology
of hydras written for his tenth-grade biology class. With his “first book,”
featuring 53 original India ink drawings and photomicrographs, a true story-
teller was born.

When I first became a textbook writer, I found myself bringing the same
enjoyment of writing and illustrating to this book that I first discovered
when I was 15.
 —Ken Saladin

Courtesy of Ken
Saladin

Ken’s “first book,” Hydra One of Ken’s drawings

Ecology, 1965 from Hydra Ecology
Courtesy of Ken Saladin Courtesy of Ken Saladin
Ken in 1964

Ken began working on his first

book for McGraw-Hill in 1993, and in
1997 the first edition of The Unity of
Form and Function was published. In
2020, the story continues with the
ninth edition of Ken’s best-selling
A&P textbook.

The first edition (1997)

The story continues (2020)

viii

sal56006_fm_i-xxii.indd 8 11/26/19 7:08 PM

 PREFACE

Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function tells a story comprised of many layers, including core science, clinical applica-
tions, the history of medicine, and the evolution of the human body. Saladin combines this humanistic perspective on anatomy and physi-
ology with vibrant photos and art to convey the beauty and excitement of the subject to beginning students.
To help students manage the tremendous amount of information in this introductory course, the narrative is broken into short seg-
ments, each framed by expected learning outcomes and self-testing review questions. This presentation strategy works as a whole to create
a more efficient and effective way for students to learn A&P.

Writing Style and Level

Saladin’s text is written using plain language for A&P students who may be taking this course early in their curricula. Careful attention
has been given to word selection and paragraph structure to maintain the appropriate writing level for all students.

CHANGES TO THE NINTH EDITION

New Science
This edition draws on recent literature and scientific conferences attended by the author to update many topics, including but not limited
to molecular, vascular, and brain imaging techniques; peroxisome and mitochondrial behavior; the DNA damage response; gene regula-
tion; epigenetics; the tissue interstitium; regenerative medicine; osteoporosis; prosthetic joints; fibromyalgia; sleep physiology; trigeminal
neuralgia; pain physiology; endocrine functions of osseous and adipose tissue; diabetes mellitus; cord blood transplants; thrombopoiesis;
AIDS; prostate diseases; breast cancer; aging; life expectancy; and assisted reproductive technology.
New Deeper Insight sidebar essays have been added on cardiac tamponade; biopsy; stem-cell therapy; regenerative medicine; osteo-
malacia and rickets; vertebral disc herniation; rotator cuff injury; carpal tunnel syndrome; shinsplints; calcaneal tendon rupture; plantar
fasciitis; brain connectomics and diffusion tensor imaging; lumbar puncture; stroke; blindness; alcoholic ascites; diverticulosis and diver-
ticulitis; colorectal cancer; and cleft lip and palate.
While new science has been added, keeping up with such growth also means pruning back topics discredited by newer literature. For
this edition, these include adult cerebral neurogenesis; endorphins and runner’s high; human pheromones; pineal tumors and precocial
puberty; prophylactic use of low-dose aspirin; myocardial regeneration; female ejaculation; and the free-radical DNA damage theory of
senescence.
In consideration of user and reviewer suggestions to reduce detail in a few areas, this edition has more concise discussions of some
topics: chromatin coiling; apoptosis; skin grafting; the hair cycle; calcium and phosphate homeostasis; and spinal cord tracts.

New Art and Photography

This edition features new drawings of epidermal histology, flat bone structure, lever mechanics, Parkinson disease, lumbar puncture, hand
innervation, Bell palsy, the vagus nerve, olfactory pathways, erythropoiesis, cardiac innervation, regulation of cardiac output, air embo-
lism, colonic histology, lipoprotein structure, cleft lip and palate, and senescent muscle atrophy.
New photos in this edition include digital subtraction angiography, molecular-scale cryo-EM imaging, diabetic gangrene, embryonic
stem cells, albinism, jaundice, osteocyte SEM, rickets, muscle fiber histochemistry, diffusion tensor imaging of the brain connectome,
shingles, cataracts, glaucoma, forelimb veins used for phlebotomy, kidney stones, gallstones, hepatic cirrhosis, MRI of obesity, and intra-
cytoplasmic sperm injection.

Organizational Changes
For improved readability, narrative descriptions of some systems are moved from tables into chapter text; selected illustrations are moved
outside of the tables; and tables are distilled to more concise summaries. These include the skeletal muscles (chapter 10), spinal nerve
plexuses (chapter 13), cranial nerves (chapter 14), and blood vessels (chapter 20). A detailed list of changes by chapter follows.

ix

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 Detailed List of Changes
Chapter 1, Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology, now includes digital subtraction angiography among the common clinical imag-
ing techniques.
Atlas A, General Orientation to Human Anatomy, has an added Deeper Insight A.1 on cardiac tamponade in relation to body cavities
and membranes.
Chapter 2, The Chemistry of Life, has added the Nobel-winning new technique of cryo-electron microscopic imaging of biological
structure at the atomic level.
Chapter 3, Cellular Form and Function, has enhanced discussions of limitations on cell size, the origin of peroxisomes, mitochondrial
fusion and fission, and clinical mitochondrial transfer and three-parent babies.
Chapter 4, Genes and Cellular Function, updates protein processing by the Golgi complex, epigenetics, the DNA damage response, and
the role of the nuclear lamina in gene silencing.
Chapter 5, The Human Tissues, has a new perspective on the tissue interstitium, updates on stem-cell therapy and regenerative medicine,
and a new Deeper Insight on biopsy methods.
Chapter 6, The Integumentary System, has a new drawing of epidermal histology, new discussion of the evolutionary genetics of apo-
crine glands, an update on skin-grafting technology, and a simpler description of the hair growth cycle.
Chapter 7, Bone Tissue, gives a less detailed overview of calcium and phosphate homeostasis, adds a Deeper Insight on osteomalacia
and rickets, and updates the pathology and treatment of osteoporosis.
Chapter 8, The Skeletal System, conforms the description of normal and pathological spinal curvatures to orthopedic terminology and
has a new Deeper Insight on herniated discs.
Chapter 9, Joints, improves the discussion of joint biomechanics and updates the discussions of temporomandibular joint dysfunction
and engineering of prosthetic joints.
Chapter 10, The Muscular System, pulls illustrations and narrative descriptions from the muscle tables, converts the narrative to easier-
to-read normal text, and condenses the tables to more concise summaries. It updates inguinal hernias and adds new Deeper Insights on
rotator cuff injury, shinsplints, calcaneal tendon rupture, and plantar fasciitis.
Chapter 11, Muscular Tissue, adds a photo of the histochemistry of fast glycolytic and slow oxidative muscle fiber types and updates
the discussion of fibromyalgia.
Chapter 12, Nervous Tissue, includes updates on astrocyte functions, beta-endorphin and enkephalin, mutations affecting neurotransmit-
ter reuptake and neurological disorders, and the implication of lipofuscin in some diseases. It introduces the frontier neuroscience of brain
connectomics and the use of diffusion tensor imaging to visualize the connectome. There is now an illustration of the midbrain histological
change and body posture characteristic of Parkinson disease.
Chapter 13, The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Somatic Reflexes, adds a new Deeper Insight and illustration of lumbar puncture,
reduces detail on spinal cord tracts, reformats the tables of spinal nerve plexuses, illustrates regional innervation of the hand by the major
forearm nerves, and adds a photo of a shingles lesion.
Chapter 14, The Brain and Cranial Nerves, now adopts the concept of brainstem as excluding the diencephalon. It adds Deeper Insights
on stroke and diffusion tensor imaging, and updates the Deeper Insight on trigeminal neuralgia and Bell palsy, adding an illustration of
the latter. It updates sleep physiology and the functions of the midbrain colliculi and pretectal nuclei. It corrects a common misconception
about the subdural space. The discussion and table of cranial nerves are reorganized.
Chapter 16, Sense Organs, has an updated discussion of pain physiology and includes phantom limb pain. It updates the genetics and
functions of some taste sensations and flawed assumptions about human olfactory sensitivity. It deletes discredited or dubious views of
endorphins and runner’s high and human pheromones. It enhances the figure of olfactory projection pathways; adds the dorsal and ventral
streams of visual processing pathways; adds photos of cataracts and glaucoma; adds macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy to the
Deeper Insight on blindness; and has better insights into the functions of the cornea, choroid, and vitreous body.
Chapter 17, The Endocrine System, updates the histology and cytology of the thyroid gland and pancreatic islets and the effects of mela-
tonin; adds new information on hormones of osseous and adipose origin; updates the enteroendocrine system; and adds effects of
lipocalin 2 on insulin action. It deletes the now-questionable idea about pineal tumors and precocial puberty. It updates the pathologies
of Addison disease and myxedema, and the genetic, immunological, and treatment aspects of diabetes mellitus.

sal56006_fm_i-xxii.indd 10 11/26/19 7:08 PM

 Chapter 18, The Circulatory System: Blood, now explains how blood is fractionated to obtain plasma and then serum, and the uses of
blood serum. It has an enhanced explanation of the functional significance of the discoidal shape of erythrocytes, and includes cell pro-
liferation in the illustration of erythropoiesis. It reports updated clinical research on the number of known blood groups and RBC antigens,
cord blood transplants, other methods of bone marrow replacement, and pharmaceutical anticoagulants. It adds the surprising new discov-
ery of abundant platelet production by megakaryocytes in the lungs and megakaryocyte migration between the lungs and bone marrow.
Chapter 19, The Circulatory System: Heart, is reorganized at section 19.1 to place figures closer to their references. Cardiac innervation
is moved to section 19.6 on regulation of cardiac output, with a new illustration. The electrocardiogram is described with more detailed
attention to interpretation of each wave, segment, and interval, with an added table. The section on cardiac arrhythmias includes a fuller
explanation of atrial fibrillation.
Chapter 20, The Circulatory System: Blood Vessels and Circulation, has improved discussions of the vasa vasorum and metarterioles;
describes the measurement of blood pressure in more depth; adds photos of edema, circulatory shock, and upper limb veins most often
used for phlebotomy; and has a new drawing of air embolism. It discusses the difficulty of pancreatic surgery in light of the complex, deli-
cate branches of the celiac trunk. The Deeper Insight on ascites is rewritten to relate it to alcoholism. The tables of blood vessels and
routes of flow are now converted to normal, easier-to-read text.
Chapter 21, The Lymphatic and Immune Systems, updates bone marrow histology; the sources of macrophages; T cell diversity;
asthma and AIDS mortality; and the obstacles to treating AIDS in pandemic countries. It adds the risk in splenectomy and the role of ATP
and ADP as inflammatory chemoattractants.
Chapter 22, The Respiratory System, enhances descriptions of the nasal epithelium; the cricothyroid ligament in relation to emergency
tracheotomy; the Deeper Insight on tracheotomy; cor pulmonale; and squamous cell carcinoma. It adds a mutational cause of Ondine’s
curse; discovery of pulmonary platelet production; and the potential of electronic cigarettes and legalization of recreational marijuana as
emerging risk factors for lung cancer.
Chapter 23, The Urinary System, adds to the function of glomerular mesangial cells and has an improved Deeper Insight on kidney
stones, with a new photo.
Chapter 24, Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid–Base Balance, has further information on sodium and the effects of hypernatremia, and has
added a new table summarizing the major electrolyte imbalances.
Chapter 25, The Digestive System, includes additions on the immune role of the omenta; dental proprioception; aspirin and peptic ulcer;
the cell-signaling function of the intestinal mucous coat; anatomical variability of the colon and a new drawing of its histology; an updated
Deeper Insight on gallstones, with a photo; a new Deeper Insight on diverticulosis and diverticulitis; a new Deeper Insight on colorectal
cancer; and an improved description of intestinal lymphatic nodules.
Chapter 26, Nutrition and Metabolism, includes new MRI images of a morbidly obese individual compared to one of normal BMI; a
new drawing of lipoprotein structure and chart of composition of the lipoprotein classes; new information on the effects of leptin on sym-
pathetic nerve fibers and lipolysis; and a new photo of hepatic cirrhosis.
Chapter 27, The Male Reproductive System, has a new table and discussion of the composition of semen and function of the bulboure-
thral preejaculatory fluid, and updates on benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer. It adds discussion of zinc deficiency as a cause
of infertility, hypothalamic maturation and GnRH in relation to the onset of puberty, and andropause in relation to declining androgen
secretion.
Chapter 28, The Female Reproductive System, has improvements in hymen anatomy and the figure of ovarian structure; a new perspec-
tive on morning sickness as a possible factor mitigating birth defects; and updates on contraception and on breast cancer genes, risk fac-
tors, and mortality.
Chapter 29, Human Development and Aging, adds the role of the sperm centrosome in fertilization; chromosomal defects as a leading
cause of first-trimester miscarriages; and the formation of monozygotic twins. It adds a new Deeper Insight and illustration of cleft lip
and palate. It updates the telomere theory of senescence but deletes the now-doubtful theory of DNA damage by endogenous free radicals.
It adds a new, MRI-based drawing of muscle atrophy in old age and a discussion of pineal gland senescence as a factor in the insomnia
experienced by some older people. It updates statistics on human life expectancy and the major causes of death. The final Deeper Insight
is retitled Assisted Reproductive Technology and has a new photo of intracytoplasmic sperm injection.
Appendix D, The Genetic Code and Amino Acids, now adds a table of the 20 amino acids and their symbols, and the structural formulae
of the amino acids.

xi

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Valerie Kramer, Marketing Manager;
Donna Nemmers, Senior Product Devel-
Kyle P. Harris
Temple University
Peer review is a critical part of the scientific oper; Vicki Krug, Senior Content Project Karen L. Kandl
process, and very important to ensure the Manager; Lori Hancock, Lead Content Western Carolina University
content in this book continues to meet the Licensing Specialist; Brent dela Cruz, Stephen A. Kash
needs of the instructors and students who Senior Content Project Manager; Egzon Oklahoma City Community College
use it. We are grateful for the people who Shaqiri, Designer; and Jeanne Patterson, Stephanie Matlock
agree to participate in this process and thank freelance copy editor. Their efforts have Colorado Mesa University
them for their time, talents, and feedback. yielded another great edition of the text Deborah T. Palatinus
The reviewers of this text (listed here) have and its companion media suite of Connect Roane State Community College
contributed significant comments that help products. Jeffrey Alan Pence
us refine and update the print and digital Excelsior College
components of this program.
Timothy A. Ballard Carla Perry
Christina Gan and Heather Cushman University of North Carolina—Wilmington Community College of Philadelphia
have updated the question bank and test
Barry N. Bates Franz Sainvil
bank to closely correlate with the intricate
Atlanta Technical College Broward College–Central Campus
changes made in this ninth edition and
Christopher I. Brandon Jr. Brian Stout
have greatly increased the educational
Georgia Gwinnett College Northwest Vista College
value of these books through their work to
create self-assessment tools and align Nickolas A. Butkevich Andrew Van Nguyen
Schoolcraft College The City University of New York–
McGraw-Hill’s Connect resources with
the textbook. This has contributed signifi- John W. Campbell Queensborough Community College
cantly to student and instructor satisfac- Oklahoma City Community College Kimberly Vietti
tion with our overall package of learning Jennifer Cochran Biederman Illinois Central College
media and to the students’ success as they Winona State University Beth L. Williams
master A&P en route to their career Mary B. Colon Wallace State Community College
aspirations. Seminole State College of Florida Delon Washo-Krupps
I would also like to extend apprecia- Abdeslem El Idrissi Arizona State University
tion to members of the Life Sciences Book College of Staten Island, City University Samia Williams
Team at McGraw-Hill Education who have of New York Santa Fe College
worked with me on this project, including Bagie George
Matthew Garcia, Senior Portfolio Manager; Georgia Gwinnett College

xii

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 THE STORY OF
FORM AND FUNCTION

INNOVATIVE CHAPTER SEQUENCING

Some chapters and topics are presented in a sequence that is more instructive than the conventional order.

Early Presentation of Heredity Urinary System Presented Close to Circulatory

Fundamental principles of heredity are presented in the and Respiratory Systems
last few pages of chapter 4 rather than at the back of Most textbooks place this system near the end of the book because of
the book to better integrate molecular and Mendelian its anatomical and developmental relationships with the reproductive
genetics. This organization also prepares students system. However, its physiological ties to the circulatory and respiratory
to learn about such genetic traits and conditions as systems are much more important. Except for a necessary digression
cystic fibrosis, color blindness, blood types, hemophilia, on lymphatics and immunity, the circulatory system is followed almost
cancer genes, and sickle-cell disease by first teaching immediately with the respiratory and urinary systems, which regulate
them about dominant and recessive alleles, genotype blood composition and whose functional mechanisms rely on recently
and phenotype, and sex linkage. covered principles of blood flow and capillary exchange.

BRIEF CONTENTS

About the Authors iv

PART FOUR
CIRCULATION AND DEFENSE 655
PART ONE 18 The Circulatory System: Blood 655
ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY 1 19 The Circulatory System: Heart 689
1 Major Themes of Anatomy and 20 The Circulatory System: Blood Vessels and
Muscle Anatomy and Physiology 1 Circulation 724
Physiology Follow Skeleton ATLAS A General Orientation to Human 21 The Lymphatic and Immune Systems 782
Anatomy 27
and Joints 2 The Chemistry of Life 40 PART FIVE
3 Cellular Form and Function 74
The functional morphology of 4 Genes and Cellular Function 109
INTAKE AND OUTPUT 825
22 The Respiratory System 825
the skeleton, joints, and muscles 5 The Human Tissues 137
23 The Urinary System 866
is treated in three consecutive 24 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid–Base
PART TWO Balance 901
chapters, 8 through 10, so SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT 174 25 The Digestive System 925
when students learn muscle 6 The Integumentary System 174 26 Nutrition and Metabolism 974
attachments, these come only 7 Bone Tissue 198
8 The Skeletal System 223 PART SIX
two chapters after the names of 9 Joints 267 REPRODUCTION AND THE LIFE CYCLE 1007
the relevant bone features. When 10 The Muscular System 299
27 The Male Reproductive System 1007
ATLAS B Regional and Surface
they learn muscle actions, it is in Anatomy 362 28 The Female Reproductive System 1037
29 Human Development and Aging 1075
the first chapter after learning the 11 Muscular Tissue 384

terms for the joint movements. APPENDIX A: Answer Keys A-1

PART THREE APPENDIX B: Symbols, Weights, and Measures A-14
This order brings another INTERNAL COORDINATION AND CONTROL 420 APPENDIX C: Periodic Table of the Elements A-16
advantage: The physiology of 12 Nervous Tissue 420 APPENDIX D: The Genetic Code and Amino Acids A-17

13 The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and APPENDIX E: Medical Word Roots and Affixes A-19
muscle and nerve cells is treated Somatic Reflexes 459
in two consecutive chapters (11 14 The Brain and Cranial Nerves 492
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
and 12), which are thus closely 15 The Autonomic Nervous System and
Visceral Reflexes 542
integrated in their treatment of 16 Sense Organs 563
synapses, neurotransmitters, and 17 The Endocrine System 612

membrane electrophysiology. iii

xiii

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 THE STORY OF
FORM AND FUNCTION
LEARNING TOOLS
Engaging Chapter Layouts
∙∙ Chapters are structured around the way students learn.

CHAPTER
∙∙ Frequent subheadings and expected learning outcomes help
students plan their study time and review strategies.

BONE TISSUE
Deeper Insights highlight areas of interest
and career relevance for students.

Chapter Outlines provide quick previews

of the content.
A bone cell (osteocyte) surrounded by calcified bone matrix
Eye of Science/Science Source

CHA P T ER O U T L IN E 7.4 Physiology of Osseous Tissue D E E P E R I NS I G H TS

7.4a Mineral Deposition and Resorption
7.1 Tissues and Organs of the Skeletal 7.1 Medical History: Bone Contamination
7.4b Calcium Homeostasis
CHAPTER 3 Cellular Form and Function 75 System 7.2 Clinical Application: Achondroplastic
7.4c Phosphate Homeostasis
7.1a Functions of the Skeleton 7.4d Other Factors Affecting Bone Dwarfism
7.1b Bones and Osseous Tissue 7.3 Clinical Application: Rickets and
Schwann and other biologists originally believed that cells 7.5 Bone Disorders
BRUSHING UP 7.1c General Features of Bones Osteomalacia
came from nonliving body fluid that somehow congealed and 7.5a Fractures and Their Repair
acquired a membrane and nucleus. This idea of spontaneous 7.2 Histology of Osseous Tissue 7.4 Clinical Application: Osteoporosis
● The transport of matter through cell membranes follows the 7.5b Other Bone Disorders
principles of flow down gradients (see section 1.6e). generation—that living things arise from nonliving matter—was 7.2a Bone Cells
Connective Issues
7.2b The Matrix
● To adequately understand the structure of the cell surface, it rooted in the scientific thought of the times. For centuries, it Study Guide
7.2c Compact Bone
is essential that you understand glycolipids and glycoproteins, seemed to be simple common sense that decaying meat turned 7.2d Spongy Bone
as well as phospholipids and their amphipathic nature (see into maggots, stored grain into rodents, and mud into frogs. 7.2e Bone Marrow
sections 2.4c and 2.4d). Schwann and his contemporaries merely extended this idea to
7.3 Bone Development
● The proteins of cell membranes have a great variety of cells. The idea of spontaneous generation wasn’t discredited until
7.3a Intramembranous Ossification
functions. To understand those depends on an acquaintance some classic experiments by French microbiologist Louis Pasteur
7.3b Endochondral Ossification
with the functions of proteins in general and how protein in 1859. 7.3c Bone Growth and Remodeling
function depends on tertiary structure (see “Protein Structure” By the end of the nineteenth century, it was established be-
and “Protein Functions” in section 2.4e). yond all reasonable doubt that cells arise only from other cells and Module 5: Skeletal System
every living organism is composed of cells and cell products. The
cell came to be regarded, and still is, as the simplest structural and 198
functional unit of life. There are no smaller subdivisions of a cell

A ll organisms, from the simplest to the most complex, are

composed of cells—whether the single cell of a bacterium
or the trillions of cells that constitute the human body. These
or organism that, in themselves, have all or most of the fundamen-
tal characteristics of life described in section 1.6a. Enzymes and
organelles, for example, are not alive, although the life of a cell
cells are responsible for all structural and functional properties depends on their activity.
of a living organism. A knowledge of cells is therefore indispens- The development of biochemistry from the late nineteenth to
able to any true understanding of the workings of the human the twentieth century made it further apparent that all physiologi-
body, the mechanisms of disease, and the rationale of therapy. cal processes of the body are based on cellular activity and that
Thus, this chapter and the next one introduce the basic cell biol- the cells of all species exhibit remarkable biochemical unity. The

Tiered Assessments Based on

ogy of the human body, and subsequent chapters expand upon various generalizations of these last two paragraphs now constitute
this information as we examine the specialized cellular structure the modern cell theory.
and function of specific organs.

3 .1 Concepts of Cellular Structure

3.1b Cell Shapes and Sizes
We will shortly examine the structure of a generic cell, but the
Key Learning Outcomes
generalizations we draw shouldn’t blind you to the diversity of
Expected Learning Outcomes cellular form and function in humans. There are about 200 kinds
of cells in the human body, with a variety of shapes, sizes, and
∙∙ Chapters are divided into brief sections,
When you have completed this section, you should be able to
a. discuss the development and modern tenets of the cell
functions.
Descriptions of organ and tissue structure often refer to the
enabling students to set specific goals for
theory;
b. describe cell shapes from their descriptive terms;
shapes of cells by the following terms (fig. 3.1):
• Squamous2 (SKWAY-mus)—a thin, flat, scaly shape, often
short study periods.
c. state the size range of human cells and discuss factors
that limit their size;
with a bulge where the nucleus is, much like the shape of a
fried egg “sunny side up.” Squamous cells line the esopha-
∙∙ Section-ending questions allow students to
d. discuss the way that developments in microscopy have
changed our view of cell structure; and •
gus and form the surface layer (epidermis) of the skin.
Cuboidal3 (cue-BOY-dul)—squarish-looking in frontal
check their understanding before moving on.
e. outline the major components of a cell. sections and about equal in height and width; liver cells are
a good example.
• Columnar—distinctly taller than wide, such as the inner
lining cells of the stomach and intestines.
3.1a Development of the Cell Theory
• Polygonal4—having irregularly angular shapes with four, Each chapter begins with Brushing Up to
Cytology,1 the scientific study of cells, was born in 1663 when five, or more sides.
Robert Hooke observed the empty cell walls of cork and coined
• Stellate5—having multiple pointed processes projecting
emphasize the interrelatedness of concepts, which
the word cellulae (“little cells”) to describe them (see section 1.2).
from the body of a cell, giving it a somewhat starlike shape.
Soon he studied thin slices of fresh wood and saw living cells
“filled with juices”—a fluid later named cytoplasm. Two centuries
The cell bodies of many nerve cells are stellate. is especially useful for adult students returning to
later, Theodor Schwann studied a wide range of animal tissues and
concluded that all animals are made of cells. 2
the classroom, and serves as an aid for instructors
squam = scale; ous = characterized by

1
3
cub = cube; oidal = like, resembling
4
poly = many; gon = angles
5
when teaching chapters out of order.
cyto = cell; logy = study of stell = star; ate = resembling, characterized by

Each major section begins with Expected Learning Outcomes to help

focus the reader’s attention on the larger concepts and make the
course outcome-driven. This also assists instructors in structuring their
courses around expected learning outcomes.

xiv

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 CHAPTER 9 Joints 271

separation between the bones and length of the fibers give these (fig. 9.4a). (The other costal cartilages are joined to the sternum by
joints more mobility than a suture or gomphosis has. An especially synovial joints.)
mobile syndesmosis exists between the shafts of the radius and
ulna, which are joined by a broad fibrous interosseous membrane. Symphyses
This permits such movements as pronation and supination of the
In a symphysis9 (SIM-fih-sis), two bones are joined by fibrocarti-
forearm. A less mobile syndesmosis is the one that binds the distal
Questions in figure legends and Apply What You ends of the tibia and fibula together, side by side (see fig. 9.2c).
lage (fig. 9.4b, c). One example is the pubic symphysis, in which
the right and left pubic bones are joined anteriorly by the carti-
Know items prompt students to think more deeply 9.1c Cartilaginous Joints
laginous interpubic disc. Another is the joint between the bodies
of two vertebrae, united by an intervertebral disc. The surface of

about the implications and applications of what they A cartilaginous joint is also called an amphiarthrosis7 (AM-fee-
ar-THRO-sis). In these joints, two bones are linked by cartilage
each vertebral body is covered with hyaline cartilage. Between the
vertebrae, this cartilage becomes infiltrated with collagen bundles
to form fibrocartilage. Each intervertebral disc permits only slight
have learned. This helps students practice higher (fig. 9.4). The two types of cartilaginous joints are synchondroses
and symphyses. movement between adjacent vertebrae, but the collective effect of
all 23 discs gives the spine considerable flexibility.
order thinking skills throughout the chapter. Synchondroses
A synchondrosis8 (SIN-con-DRO-sis) is a joint in which the ▶ ▶ ▶ A PPLY W HAT YO U K NOW
bones are bound by hyaline cartilage. An example is the temporary The intervertebral joints are symphyses only in the cervi-
joint between the epiphysis and diaphysis of a long bone in a child, cal through the lumbar region. How would you classify
formed by the cartilage of the epiphysial plate. Another is the at- the intervertebral joints of the sacrum and coccyx in a
tachment of the first rib to the sternum by a hyaline costal cartilage middle-aged adult?

7
amphi = on all sides; arthr = joined; osis = condition
8 9
syn = together; chondr = cartilage; osis = condition sym = together; physis = growth

Clavicle Sternum

Rib 1
Intervertebral
Costal disc (fibrocartilage)
cartilage

296 PART TWO Support and Movement

ST U DY
(a) G U I DE
▶ Assess Your Learning Outcomes
(c) extension, hyperexten- Body of vertebra
To test your knowledge, discuss the following 3. Three essential components of a lever 12. The same for flexion,
FIGURE
topics 9.4partner
with a study or in writing,Joints.
Cartilaginous ideally 4. The meaning of mechanical advantage (MA); sion, and lateral flexion of the spine, and
from(a)
memory.
A synchondrosis, represented by how the MA of a lever can be determined right and left rotation of the trunk
from measurements of its effort and resis- 13. The same for elevation, depression, protrac-
9.1 the costal
Joints andcartilage joining rib 1 to the
Their Classification tance arms; and the respective advantages of tion, retraction, and lateral and medial excur-
sternum. (b) The pubic symphysis.
1. The fundamental definition of joint (articu- levers in which the MA is greater than or less sion of the mandible
(c) Intervertebral discs, which join
lation) and why it cannot be defined as a than 1.0 14. The same for dorsiflexion, plantar flexion,
adjacent vertebrae to each other by
point at which one bone moves relative to an 5. Comparison of first-, second-, and third-class inversion, eversion, pronation, and supina-
symphyses. Interpubic disc
adjacent bone levers, and anatomical examples of each tion of the foot
2. ? What is the
Relationships and difference
differences betweenbetween the 6. Variables that determine a joint’s range of (fibrocartilage)
9.3 Anatomy of Selected CHAPTER 9 Joints
Diarthroses 297
the pubic
sciences symphysis
of arthrology, and the
kinesiology, and motion (ROM), and the clinical relevance
Pubic symphysis
interpubic disc?
biomechanics of ROM (b) 1. Features of the jaw (temporomandibular)
3. The typical system for naming most joints 7. Axes of rotation and degrees of freedom in joint including the mandibular condyle,

ST U DY
after the bones they involve; examples of joint movement, and how this relates to the mandibular fossa, synovial cavity, articular
296 PART thisTWO Support and Movement
4. Basic criteria for classifying joints G U I DE classification of joints as monaxial, biaxial,
or multiaxial
disc, and principal ligaments
2. Features of the shoulder (glenohumeral)
5. Characteristics and examples of bony joints 8. Six kinds of synovial joints; how each is joint including the humeral head, glenoid
(synostoses) classified as monaxial, biaxial, or multiaxial; cavity and labrum, five major ligaments
ST U DY 4. Whichofoffibrous
6. Characteristics the following joints cannot be
joints (synar- imperfectionsd. always
in this produces
classification;an MA andless than 1.0. and four 12.bursae,
A fluid-filled
and tendons sac that eases
of the the movement
biceps
The end-of-chapter Study Guide offers several methods throses) and G U I DE
circumducted?
each of their subclasses, with
examples a. carpometacarpal
examples of e. each
9. The concept of
is applied
move
type inonthe
zeroaposition
one
resistance
bodyside of the fulcrum to brachii andoffour
andonhowtheitother side. 3. Features of the elbow;
a tendon
rotatorover
.
cuffa muscles
bone is called a/an
the three joints that

for assessment that are useful to both students and

b. metacarpophalangeal
7. Characteristics of cartilaginous joints (am- relates 8.
to the description of joint function
Which of the following joints has anterior occur 13. here;Athe olecranon bursa and
joint allows onefour
bone to swivel on
phiarthroses)c. glenohumeral
and each of their subclasses, 10. Examples and of each of thecruciate
following limb major ligaments
posterior ligaments? another.
▶ Assess Your Learning Outcomes
with examplesd. coxal movements, a. including
the shoulder an ability to 4. Features of the hip (coxal) joint including
instructors. 9.2 Synovial Joints
e. interphalangeal describe orb.demonstrate
the elbow them: flexion,
14. is the science
the femoral head, fovea capitis, acetabulum of movement.
To test your knowledge, 5. discuss the following terms3.denotes
Whichtheoffollowing gen-extension,
Three aessential c.hyperextension,
components hipa lever abduction, 12. The same for
the of and labrum,
flexion,
15. The and fivebetween
extension,
joint principal
hyperexten- ligaments
a tooth and the mandible
1. Thepartner
topics with a study definition
or in
eral and anatomical
writing,
condition ideally
that featuresthe
includes of
4. other four? adduction,
aThe meaning d.hyperabduction,
of mechanical theadvantage
knee hyperadduction,
(MA); sion, and5.lateral
Features ofis the
flexion kneea/an
of the
called (tibiofemoral
spine, and . and
from memory. synovial joint (diarthrosis), examples of this
a. gout how the MAcircumduction,
of a levere.canthe medial
be determined
ankle rotation, and lateralright and left patellofemoral
rotation of thejoints),trunk including the menisci,
type, and why this type is of greatest interest rotation cruciate16.andIn aother ligaments, suture, andthe articulating
four major bones
b. arthritis from measurements of its effort and resis- 13. The same for elevation, depression, protrac-
Assess Your Learning Outcomes provides students 9.1 Joints andfor Their
2. General
1. The fundamental
Classification
kinesiology
c. rheumatism
anatomy
definition ofofjoint
tendons,
d. osteoarthritis (articu-
11. The
tance arms;
ligaments, levers in which flexion,
9.respective
same
and the
the MA
To
for bend
andisradial
greater
backward
supination,
advantages
offlexion
the
atofthe waist
pronation,
thanvertebral
ofless
or
ulnarinvolves
column. sion of the
the forearm
bursae
tion, retraction,
have interlocking
andaround
lateralthe
Features oflike
6. mandible
andpatella
theaankle
medial excur-
dovetail
wavy margins, somewhat
joint in carpentry.
(talocrural) joint,
lation) and bursae, ande. tendon sheaths, aand their contri- than 1.0 and hand, a. androtation
opposition, reposition, abduc- including thekicking
malleoli, calcanealwhattendon,
typeand
a study outline for review, and addresses the needs of point at which
why it cannot
butions to joint
one bone
be defined
rheumatoid
function
moves
as
arthritis
relative to an
6. In the adult, the ischium and pubis
5. Comparisontion, of first-, b. hyperextension
and adduction
second-,
are and anatomicalc.examples
of the
and
dorsiflexion
thumb
third-class
14. The same for dorsiflexion,
17. In
major ligaments
inversion, eversion, pronation,
plantar
does the knee
flexion,
a football,
and supina-
joint exhibit?
of action

adjacent bone levers, of each tion of the foot

instructors whose colleges require outcome-oriented united
sciences of arthrology,a.kinesiology,
by
2. Relationships and differences between the
a synchondrosis.and motion (ROM), and the
d. abduction
6. Variables that determine a joint’s range of
e. clinical
flexionrelevance 9.3 Anatomy of Selected
18. The angle through which a joint can move is
called its
Diarthroses .

▶ Testing Your Recall

b. a diarthrosis. 19.(temporomandibular)
The menisci of theinknee are functionally
syllabi and assessment of student achievement of the biomechanics
3. The typical system forc.naming a synostosis.
d. external
most joints
an amphiarthrosis.
of ROM 10. The rotator cuff includes the 1.
7. Axes of rotation and degrees of freedom
of the following in
muscles
Features
tendons of the jaw
of all Answers
similar tocondyle,
except joint including the mandibular the
Appendix A
of the temporoman-
after the 1.
bones they and
Internal involve; examples
rotationof of the joint movement,
2. Which andof how thissubscapularis.
the the
a. relatesisto
following thetheleast mov- mandibular of dibular
fossa, synovial
3. Which joint.articular
cavity,
the following movements are
expected learning outcomes. this
4. Basic criteriaa. for
e.
classifying
pivot
a symphysis.
humerus is made possible by a
joints
7. In a second-class
classification
joint.
lever, the effortor multiaxial
of jointsb.as the
able?
a. a diarthrosis
monaxial,
c. the infraspinatus.
biaxial,
supraspinatus. disc, and principal
2. Features of a.
unique20. ligaments
to
shoulder
thethe
At
the dorsiflexion
ulate
foot?ankle, both the tibia and fibula artic-
(glenohumeral)
and inversion
with what tarsal bone?
5. Characteristics and examples
b. condylar of bony
a. is applied to joints
the end opposite 8. Sixthekinds ofb.synovial joints;
a synostosis
d. the how
biceps each is
brachii. joint including the humeral
b. elevation andhead, glenoid
depression
(synostoses)c. ball-and-socket fulcrum. classified asc.monaxial, e.biaxial,
a symphysis the teres or multiaxial;
minor. cavity and labrum, five major ligaments
c. circumduction and rotation
6. Characteristics of fibrous
d. saddle b. isjoints
applied(synar-
to the fulcrum itself. imperfectionsd. ina synovial
this classification;
joint and and four bursae, and tendons
d. abduction and of the biceps
adduction
11. The lubricant of a diarthrosis is called
End-of-chapter questions build on all levels of throses) ande.each
examples
of their subclasses, with
hinge c. is applied between the fulcrum and
resistance.
examples of each type in the
e. a condylar joint
.
body
9. The concept of zero position and how it
brachii and four rotator cuff muscles
e. opposition and reposition
3. Features of the elbow; the three joints that
7. Characteristics of cartilaginous joints (am- relates to the description of joint function occur here; the olecranon bursa and four
Bloom’s Taxonomy in sections to phiarthroses) and each of their subclasses,
with examples
10. Examples of each of the following limb
movements, including an ability to
major ligaments
4. Features of the hip (coxal) joint including
▶ Building Your Medical Vocabulary Answers in Appendix A
1. test simple recall and analytical thought; 9.2 Synovial Joints
describe or demonstrate them: flexion,
extension, hyperextension, abduction,
the femoral head, fovea capitis, acetabulum
and labrum, and five principal ligaments
State a meaning
1. The definition and anatomical features of a of each word element, and give 3. -ate
adduction, hyperabduction, hyperadduction, 5. Features of the knee 7. (tibiofemoral
kinesio- and
2. build medical vocabulary; and a medical term
synovial joint (diarthrosis),
type, and why this slight
typevariation
from this
examples chapter thatcircumduction,
of this
of it. interest
is of greatest
uses it or a
rotation
medial rotation, and lateral
4. cruci- patellofemoral joints),8. men- including the menisci,
cruciate and other ligaments, and four major
5. cruro- 9. supin-
3. apply the basic knowledge to new clinical for kinesiology 1. ab-
2. General anatomy of tendons, ligaments,
11. The same for supination,
flexion, and radial 6. flexion
-duc
pronation, ulnar
of the forearm 6.
bursae around the patella
Features of the ankle (talocrural)
10. -trac joint,
bursae, and tendon2.sheaths,
arthro-and their contri- and hand, and opposition, reposition, abduc- including the malleoli, calcaneal tendon, and
problems and other situations. butions to joint function tion, and adduction of the thumb major ligaments

▶ What’s Wrong with These Statements? Answers in Appendix A

▶ Testing Briefly
Yourexplain
Recall 4. Menisci occur in the elbow and knee joints. Answers in Appendix
8. The knuckles A
are amphiarthroses.
What’s Wrong with These Statements? questions
why each of the following state-
ments is false, or reword it to make it true.
5. Reaching behind you to take something out 9. Synovial fluid is secreted by the bursae.
1. Internal and external rotation of the 2. Which of the following is the least mov- 3. Which of the following movements are
1. More people get rheumatoid arthritis than of your hip pocket involves flexion of the
further address Bloom’s Taxonomy by asking humerus is made possible by a
a. pivot
osteoarthritis.
joint. able?
a. a diarthrosis
shoulder.
10. Like most ligaments, the periodontal liga-
unique to the foot?
ments attach one bone (the tooth) to another
a. dorsiflexion and inversion
b. condylar 2. A doctor who treats arthritis is called a
b. a synostosis 6. The cruciate ligaments are in theb.feet. (the mandible or maxilla).
elevation and depression
the student to explain why the false statements c. ball-and-socket kinesiologist.
d. saddle
c. a symphysis c. circumduction and rotation
7. The femur is held tightly in the acetabulum
d. a synovial joint d. abduction and adduction
3. Synovial joints are also known as mainly by the round ligament.
are untrue. e. hinge
298 e. a condylar joint
synarthroses. PART TWO Support and Movement
e. opposition and reposition

STUDY
Testing Your Comprehension questions address GUIDE
Bloom’s Taxonomy in going beyond recall to
▶ Testing Your Comprehension
application of ideas. 1. All second-class levers produce a mechani- the first interphalangeal joint of the index arm. Imagine a person holding a weight
cal advantage greater than 1.0 and all third- finger. (Do not bend the fingers of a wired in the hand and abducting the arm. On a
class levers produce a mechanical advantage laboratory skeletal hand, because they can laboratory skeleton, identify the fulcrum;
less than 1.0. Explain why. break off.) measure the effort arm and resistance arm;
determine the mechanical advantage of
2. For each of the following joint movements, 3. In order of occurrence, list the joint actions
this movement; and determine which of
state what bone the axis of rotation passes (flexion, pronation, etc.) and the joints
the three lever types the upper limb acts as
through and which of the three anatomical where they would occur as you (a) sit
when performing this movement.
planes contains the axis of rotation. You down at a table, (b) reach out and pick
may find it helpful to produce some of up an apple, (c) take a bite, and (d) chew 5. List the six types of synovial joints, and for
these actions on an articulated laboratory it. Assume that you start in anatomical each one, if possible, identify a joint in the
skeleton so you can more easily visualize position. upper limb and a joint in the lower limb that
the axis of rotation. (a) Plantar flexion; fall into each category. Which of these six
4. The deltoid muscle inserts on the deltoid
(b) flexion of the hip; (c) adbuction of the joints has/have no examples in the lower
tuberosity of the humerus and abducts the
thigh; (d) flexion of the knee; (e) flexion of limb?
xv

sal56006_fm_i-xxii.indd 15 11/26/19 7:08 PM

 THE STORY OF
FORM AND FUNCTION
Medullary cords

ARTWORK THAT INSPIRES Stroma:

Capsule
Medullary sinus

LEARNING
Reticular tissue
Macrophage
Trabecula

Trabecula

The incredible art program in this textbook sets the standard Lymphocytes

in A&P. The stunning portfolio of art and photos was created Cortex: Reticular fibers
Subcapsular sinus
with the aid of art focus groups and with feedback from Lymphatic nodule Artery
and vein
Venule
Germinal center
hundreds of accuracy reviews. Cortical sinuses
(b)

Medulla:
Medullary sinus Efferent
lymphatic Lymphocytes
Medullary cord
vessel

Reticular fibers

Vivid Illustrations Afferent lymphatic

vessels

Rich textures and shading and bold,

bright colors bring structures to life.
(a) (c) 10 μm

Francis Leroy, Biocosmos/Science Source

Frontal sinus
Cribriform plate
Nasal conchae: Auditory tube
Superior
Middle Sites of respiratory control nuclei:
Inferior Pons
Medulla oblongata
Meatuses
Nasopharynx
Hard palate Uvula
Oropharynx
Tongue
Laryngopharynx
Larynx:
Epiglottis
Vestibular fold
Vocal cord

Trachea
Vertebral column
Cadaver dissections are paired with
Esophagus
carefully drawn illustrations to show
(a) intricate human detail.
Rebecca Gray/McGraw-Hill Education

Meatuses:
Frontal Superior
sinus Middle
Nasal conchae: Inferior
Superior Sphenoidal sinus
Middle Posterior nasal
aperture
Inferior Pharyngeal
Vestibule tonsil
Guard hairs Auditory Nasal septum:
tube
Naris (nostril) Perpendicular plate
Hard palate Soft palate
Upper lip Uvula Septal cartilage

Palatine tonsil Vomer

Tongue
Lower lip Lingual tonsil
Pharynx:
Mandible Epiglottis Nasopharynx

Oropharynx

Vestibular fold Laryngopharynx

Vocal cord
Larynx
Trachea
Esophagus
(b) (c)

xvi

sal56006_fm_i-xxii.indd 16 11/26/19 7:08 PM

Visit https://ebooksecure.com
now to explore a rich
collection of ebook and enjoy
exciting offers!
 Palmaris longus tendon (cut) Flexor digitorum superficialis
tendon
Orientation Tools Flexor carpi radialis tendon Flexor digitorum profundus
tendon
Saladin art integrates Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon
Flexor pollicis longus tendon
tools to help students Ulnar artery
quickly orient themselves Palmar carpal ligament (cut)
Ulnar nerve
within a figure and make
Radial artery
connections between ideas. Flexor retinaculum covering
carpal tunnel
Median nerve
Bursa

Trapezium Superficial palmar

arterial arch

(a) Anterior view

Palmaris longus
tendon Median nerve
Thenar muscles Ulnar artery
Flexor digitorum Flexor retinaculum
superficialis tendons
Carpal tunnel
Trapezium
Flexor digitorum Hypothenar muscles
profundus tendons
Ulnar bursa
Radial artery
Anterior Hamate
Trapezoid
Capitate
Lateral Medial
Scaphoid Extensor tendons

Posterior
(b) Cross section

Process Figures
Conducive to Learning Saladin breaks complicated physiological
∙∙ Easy-to-understand process figures processes into numbered steps for a
∙∙ Tools for students to easily orient themselves manageable introduction to difficult
concepts.

10
1 Blood enters right atrium from superior
and inferior venae cavae.

Aorta 2 Blood in right atrium flows through right

Left pulmonary AV valve into right ventricle.
11 artery
3 Contraction of right ventricle forces
5 5 pulmonary valve open.

9 4 Blood flows through pulmonary valve

Pulmonary trunk
Superior into pulmonary trunk.
vena cava
4 6 Left pulmonary 5 Blood is distributed by right and left
veins
Right 6 pulmonary arteries to the lungs, where it
pulmonary unloads CO2 and loads O2.
veins Left atrium
1
Aortic valve 6 Blood returns from lungs via pulmonary
7 veins to left atrium.
3 Left AV valve
7 Blood in left atrium flows through left AV
Right
8 valve into left ventricle.
atrium
Left ventricle 8 Contraction of left ventricle (simultaneous with
2
Right AV step 3) forces aortic valve open.
valve
9 Blood flows through aortic valve into
Right
ventricle ascending aorta.

Inferior 10 Blood in aorta is distributed to every organ in

vena cava 11 the body, where it unloads O2 and loads CO2.

11 Blood returns to right atrium via venae cavae.

xvii

sal56006_fm_i-xxii.indd 17 11/26/19 7:08 PM

 ®

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 McGraw-Hill Connect® empowers students to learn and succeed in the
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 LETTER TO
STUDENTS

W
hen I was a young boy, I became interested in what I pedagogy—the art of teaching. I’ve designed my chapters to make
then called “nature study” for two reasons. One was the them easier for you to study and to give you abundant opportunity
sheer beauty of nature. I reveled in children’s books to check whether you’ve understood what you read—to test your-
with abundant, colorful drawings and photographs of animals, self (as I advise my own students) before the instructor tests you.
plants, minerals, and gems. It was this esthetic appreciation of Each chapter is broken down into short, digestible bits with a
nature that made me want to learn more about it and made me hap- set of Expected Learning Outcomes at the beginning of each sec-
pily surprised to discover I could make a career of it. At a slightly tion, and self-testing questions (Before You Go On) just a few
later age, another thing that drew me still deeper into biology was pages later. Even if you have just 30 minutes to read during a lunch
to discover writers who had a way with words—who could capti- break or a bus ride, you can easily read or review one of these brief
vate my imagination and curiosity with their elegant prose. Once I sections. There are also numerous self-testing questions in a Study
was old enough to hold part-time jobs, I began buying zoology and Guide at the end of each chapter, in some of the figure legends, and
anatomy books that mesmerized me with their gracefulness of the occasional Apply What You Know questions dispersed
writing and fascinating art and photography. I wanted to write and throughout each chapter. The questions cover a broad range of
draw like that myself, and I began teaching myself by learning cognitive skills, from simple recall of a term to your ability to
from “the masters.” I spent many late nights in my room peering evaluate, analyze, and apply what you’ve learned to new clinical
into my microscope and jars of pond water, typing page after page situations or other problems. In this era of digital publishing, how-
of manuscript, and trying pen and ink as an art medium. My “first ever, learning aids go far beyond what I write into the book itself.
book” was a 318-page paper on some little pond animals called SmartBook®, available on smartphones and tablets, includes all of
hydras, with 53 India ink illustrations that I wrote for my tenth- the book’s contents plus adaptive technology that can give you
grade biology class when I was 16 (see page viii). personalized instruction, target the unique gaps in your knowledge,
Fast-forward about 30 years, to when I became a textbook and guide you in comprehension and retention of the subject
writer, and I found myself bringing that same enjoyment of writing matter.
and illustrating to the first edition of this book you are now hold- I hope you enjoy your study of this book, but I know there are
ing. Why? Not only for its intrinsic creative satisfaction, but always ways to make it even better. Indeed, what quality you may
because I’m guessing that you’re like I was—you can appreciate a find in this edition owes a great deal to feedback I’ve received from
book that does more than simply give you the information you students all over the world. If you find any typos or other errors, if
need. You appreciate, I trust, a writer who makes it enjoyable for you have any suggestions for improvement, if I can clarify a con-
you through his scientific, storytelling prose and his concept of the cept for you, or even if you just want to comment on something
way things should be illustrated to spark interest and facilitate you really like about the book, I hope you’ll feel free to write to
understanding. me. I correspond quite a lot with students and would enjoy hearing
I know from my own students, however, that you need more from you.
than captivating illustrations and enjoyable reading. Let’s face it—
A&P is a complex subject and it may seem a formidable task to Ken Saladin
acquire even a basic knowledge of the human body. It was difficult Georgia College
even for me to learn (and the learning never ends). So in addition Milledgeville, GA 31061 (USA)
to simply writing this book, I’ve given a lot of thought to its [email protected]

xxi

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sal56006_fm_i-xxii.indd 22 11/26/19 7:08 PM
 PART ON E : OR GAN IZ AT IO N O F TH E BO DY

1
CHAPTER
MAJOR THEMES
OF ANATOMY
AND PHYSIOLOGY

A colorized MRI scan of the human body

©Science Photo Library/Getty Images

C HA P T E R OU T LIN E 1.5 Human Structure DEEPER I NS I GHTS

1.5a The Hierarchy of Complexity
1.1 The Scope of Anatomy and Physiology 1.1 Evolutionary Medicine: Vestiges of
1.5b Anatomical Variation
1.1a Anatomy—The Study of Form Human Evolution
1.1b Physiology—The Study of Function 1.6 Human Function 1.2 Clinical Application: Situs Inversus and
1.6a Characteristics of Life Other Unusual Anatomy
1.2 The Origins of Biomedical Science
1.6b Physiological Variation 1.3 Medical History: Men in the Oven
1.2a The Greek and Roman Legacy 1.6c Negative Feedback and Homeostasis
1.2b The Birth of Modern Medicine 1.4 Medical History: Obscure Medical Word
1.6d Positive Feedback and Rapid Change
1.2c Living in a Revolution Origins
1.6e Gradients and Flow
1.3 Scientific Method 1.5 Clinical Application: Medical Imaging
1.7 The Language of Medicine
1.3a The Inductive Method 1.7a The History of Anatomical Terminology
1.3b The Hypothetico–Deductive Method 1.7b Analyzing Medical Terms
1.3c Experimental Design 1.7c Plurals, Adjectives, and Possessive
1.3d Peer Review Forms
1.3e Facts, Laws, and Theories 1.7d Pronunciation
1.4 Human Origins and Adaptations 1.7e The Importance of Spelling
1.4a Evolution, Selection, and Adaptation 1.8 Review of Major Themes
1.4b Our Basic Primate Adaptations
Study Guide Module 1: Body Orientation
1.4c Walking Upright
1

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 2    PART ONE Organization of the Body

N o branch of science hits as close to home as the science of

our own bodies. We’re grateful for the dependability of our
hearts; we’re awed by the capabilities of muscles and joints dis-
a clinical diagnosis from surface appearance. Physical examina-
tions also involve touching and listening to the body. Palpation1
means feeling a structure with the hands, such as palpating a swol-
played by Olympic athletes; and we ponder with philosophers the len lymph node or taking a pulse. Auscultation2 (AWS-cul-TAY-
ancient mysteries of mind and emotion. We want to know how our shun) is listening to the natural sounds made by the body, such
body works, and when it malfunctions, we want to know what’s as heart and lung sounds. In percussion, the examiner taps on
happening and what we can do about it. Even the most ancient the body, feels for abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted
writings of civilization include medical documents that attest to sound for signs of abnormalities such as pockets of fluid, air, or
humanity’s timeless drive to know itself. You are embarking on a scar tissue.
subject that is as old as civilization, yet one that grows by thou- But a deeper understanding of the body depends on d ­ issection
sands of scientific publications every week. (dis-SEC-shun)—carefully cutting and separating tissues to reveal
This book is an introduction to human structure and function, their relationships. The very words anatomy3 and dissection4 both
the biology of the human body. It is meant primarily to give you mean “cutting apart”; until the nineteenth century, dissection was
a foundation for advanced study in health care, exercise physi- called “anatomizing.” In many schools of health science, one of
ology, pathology, and other fields related to health and fitness. the first steps in training students is dissection of the cadaver,5
Beyond that purpose, however, it can also provide you with a a dead human body. Many insights into human structure are
deeply satisfying sense of self-understanding. obtained from comparative anatomy—the study of multiple
As rewarding and engrossing as this subject is, the human species in order to examine similarities and differences and ana-
body is highly complex, and understanding it requires us to lyze evolutionary trends. Anatomy students often begin by dis-
comprehend a great deal of detail. The details will be more secting other animals with which we share a common ancestry
manageable if we relate them to a few broad, unifying concepts. and many structural similarities. Many of the reasons for human
The aim of this chapter, therefore, is to introduce such concepts structure become apparent only when we look at the structure of
and put the rest of the book into perspective. We consider the other animals.
historical development of anatomy and physiology, the thought Dissection, of course, is not the method of choice when
processes that led to the knowledge in this book, the meaning studying a living person! It was once common to diagnose dis-
of human life, some central concepts of physiology, and how to orders through exploratory surgery—opening the body and
better understand medical terminology. taking a look inside to see what was wrong and what could be
done about it. Any breach of the body cavities is risky, however,
and most exploratory surgery has now been replaced by ­medical
imaging techniques—methods of viewing the inside of the body
The Scope of Anatomy
1 .1 without surgery, discussed at the end of this chapter (see Deeper
and Physiology Insight 1.5). The branch of medicine concerned with imaging is
called radiology. Structure that can be seen with the naked eye—
Expected Learning Outcomes whether by surface observation, radiology, or dissection—is
When you have completed this section, you should be able to called gross anatomy.
Ultimately, the functions of the body result from its individ-
a. define anatomy and physiology and relate them to ual cells. To see those, we usually take tissue specimens, thinly
each other; slice and stain them, and observe them under the microscope.
b. describe several ways of studying human anatomy; and This approach is called histology6 (microscopic anatomy).
c. define a few subdisciplines of human physiology. ­Histopathology is the microscopic examination of tissues for
signs of disease. Cytology7 is the study of the structure and func-
tion of individual cells. Ultrastructure refers to fine detail, down
Anatomy is the study of structure, and physiology is the study of to the molecular level, revealed by the electron microscope.
function. These approaches are complementary and never entirely
separable. Together, they form the bedrock of the health sciences.
When we study a structure, we want to know, What does it do? 1.1b Physiology—The Study of Function
Physiology thus lends meaning to anatomy; conversely, anatomy is Physiology8 uses the methods of experimental science discussed
what makes physiology possible. This unity of form and function later. It has many subdisciplines such as neurophysiology (physi-
is an important point to bear in mind as you study the body. Many ology of the nervous system), endocrinology (physiology of
examples of it will be apparent throughout the book—some of
them pointed out for you, and others you will notice for yourself. 1
palp = touch, feel; ation = process
2
auscult = listen; ation = process
3
ana = apart; tom = cut
1.1a Anatomy—The Study of Form 4
dis = apart; sect = cut
5
There are several ways to examine the structure of the human from cadere = to fall down or die
6
histo = tissue; logy = study of
body. The simplest is inspection—simply looking at the body’s 7
cyto = cell; logy = study of
appearance, as in performing a physical examination or making 8
physio = nature; logy = study of

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 CHAPTER 1 Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology    3

hormones), and pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease). Partly usually considered to be the Greek physician Hippocrates
because of limitations on experimentation with humans, much (c. 460–c. 375 bce). He and his followers established a code
of what we know about bodily function has been gained through of ethics for physicians, the Hippocratic Oath, which is still
comparative physiology, the study of how different species have recited in modern form by graduating physicians at some medi-
solved problems of life such as water balance, respiration, and re- cal schools. Hippocrates urged physicians to stop attributing
production. Comparative physiology is also the basis for the de- disease to the activities of gods and demons and to seek their
velopment of new drugs and medical procedures. For example, natural causes, which could afford the only rational basis for
a cardiac surgeon may learn animal surgery before practicing on therapy.
humans, and a vaccine cannot be used on human subjects until Aristotle (384–322 bce) was one of the first philosophers to
it has been demonstrated through animal research that it confers write about anatomy and physiology. He believed that diseases and
significant benefits without unacceptable risks. other natural events could have either supernatural causes, which
he called theologi, or natural ones, which he called physici or phys-
BEFORE YOU GO ON iologi. We derive such terms as physician and physiology from the
latter. Until the nineteenth century, physicians were called “doctors
Answer the following questions to test your understanding of
of physic.” In his anatomy book, On the Parts of Animals, Aristotle
the preceding section:
tried to identify unifying themes in nature. Among other points, he
1. What is the difference between anatomy and physiology? argued that complex structures are built from a smaller variety of
How do these two sciences support each other? simple components—a perspective that we will find useful later in
2. Name the method that would be used for each of the fol- this chapter.
lowing: listening to a patient for a heart murmur; studying
the microscopic structure of the liver; microscopically
▶▶▶APPLY WHAT YOU KNOW
examining liver tissue for signs of hepatitis; learning the
When you have completed this chapter, discuss the
blood vessels of a cadaver; and performing a breast
­relevance of Aristotle’s philosophy to our current ­thinking
self-examination.
about human structure.

Claudius Galen (129–c. 200), physician to the Roman gladi-

ators, wrote the most influential medical textbook of the ancient
The Origins of
1. 2 era—a book worshipped to excess by medical professors for cen-
Biomedical Science turies to follow. Cadaver dissection was banned in Galen’s time
because of some horrid excesses that preceded him, including
Expected Learning Outcomes public dissection of living slaves and prisoners. Aside from what
When you have completed this section, you should be able to he could learn by treating gladiators’ wounds, Galen was therefore
limited to dissecting pigs, monkeys, and other animals. Because
a. give examples of how modern biomedical science emerged
he was not permitted to dissect cadavers, he had to guess at much
from an era of superstition and authoritarianism; and
of human anatomy and made some incorrect deductions from ani-
b. describe the contributions of some key people who mal dissections. He described the human liver, for example, as
helped to bring about this transformation. having five fingerlike lobes, somewhat like a baseball glove, be-
cause that’s what he had seen in baboons. But Galen saw science
Any science is more enjoyable if we consider not just the cur- as a method of discovery, not a body of fact to be taken on faith.
rent state of knowledge, but how it compares to past under- He warned that even his own books could be wrong and advised
standings of the subject and how our knowledge was gained. Of his followers to trust their own observations more than any book.
all sciences, medicine has one of the most fascinating histories. Unfortunately, his advice was not heeded. For nearly 1,500 years,
Medical science has progressed far more in the last 50 years medical professors dogmatically taught what they read in Aris-
than in the 2,500 years before that, but the field didn’t spring totle and Galen, seldom daring to question the authority of these
up overnight. It is built upon centuries of thought and con- “ancient masters.”
troversy, triumph and defeat. We cannot fully appreciate its
present state without understanding its past—people who had
the curiosity to try new things, the vision to look at human 1.2b The Birth of Modern Medicine
form and function in new ways, and the courage to question In the Middle Ages, the state of medical science varied greatly
authority. from one religious culture to another. Science was severely re-
pressed in the Christian culture of Europe until about the six-
teenth century, although some of the most famous medical
1.2a The Greek and Roman Legacy schools of Europe were founded during this era. Their professors,
As early as 3,000 years ago, physicians in Mesopotamia and however, taught medicine primarily as a dogmatic commentary
Egypt treated patients with herbal drugs, salts, physical ther- on Galen and Aristotle, not as a field of original research. Medi-
apy, and faith healing. The “father of medicine,” however, is eval medical illustrations were crude representations of the body

sal56006_ch01_001-026.indd 3 11/23/19 2:59 PM

Other documents randomly have
different content
 From insinuations he proceeded to open accusations. After
having kept himself secluded for a fortnight, he one day appeared in
the public fold and proclaimed that he had at last discovered the
cause of the drought. After keeping the audience in suspense for a
short time, he suddenly broke forth: “Do you not see,” he asked,
“when the clouds cover us, that Hamilton and Moffat look at them?
Their white faces scare them away, and you cannot expect rain so
long as they are in the country.” This was a home stroke. The people
became impatient, and poured forth their curses against the poor
missionaries as the cause of all their sorrows. The bell which was
rung for public worship, they said, frightened the vapours; the
prayers even came in for a share of the blame. “Don’t you,” said the
chief one day rather fiercely to Mr. Moffat, “bow down in your houses
and pray, and talk to something bad in the ground?”
But to shorten a long story, after exposing the missionaries to
much risk and danger by his insinuations and accusations, the tables
were turned in their favour. The rain-maker now was suspected, his
gross impositions were unveiled, and he was about to pay the
penalty of death,—the well-merited reward for his scandalous
conduct, when Mr. Moffat generously interfered, and through his
presence of mind and humanity succeeded in saving the life of one
who had so often threatened his own, and who would not have
scrupled to take it could he thereby have served his purpose. Death,
however, soon overtook him, for he was eventually murdered
amongst the Bauangketsi nation.
There is scarcely a savage country on the face of the earth but
has its professional rain-makers; Figi has; and these, like other
players of a game of chance, occasionally win in a manner that
seems surprising even to an educated European.
During Mr. Seeman’s stay in Figi, one of the days was rainy,
preventing him from making an excursion. On expressing his regret
to that effect, a man was brought who may be called the clerk of the
weather. He professed to exercise a direct meteorological influence,
and said that, by burning certain leaves and offering prayers only
known to himself, he could make the sun shine or rain come down;
and that he was willing to exercise his influence on Mr. Seeman’s
behalf if paid handsomely. He was told that there was no objection to
giving him a butcher’s knife if he could make fine weather until the
travellers returned to the coast; but if he failed to do so, he must give
something for the disappointment. He was perfectly willing to risk the
chance of getting the knife, but would not hear of a forfeit in case of
failure; however, he left to catch eels. “When returning,” says Mr.
Seeman, “the clouds had dispersed, and the sun was shining
brilliantly, and he did not fail to inform me that he had ‘been and
done it.’ I must farther do him the justice to say, that I did not
experience any bad weather until I fairly reached the coast; and that
no sooner had I set my foot in Navua than rain came down in regular
torrents. This man has probably been a close observer of the
weather, and discovered those delicate local indications of a coming
change with which people in all countries living much in the open air
are familiar; and he very likely does not commence operations until
he is pretty sure of success.”
This was not the only singular ceremony witnessed by the
gentleman just quoted, and who is the most recent of Figian
travellers. While out one day he and his friends met a company of
natives, and were struck with the fact that all the young lads were in
a state of absolute nudity; and, on inquiry, learned that preparations
were being made to celebrate the introduction of Kurudwadua’s
eldest son into manhood; and that until then neither the young
chieftain nor his playmates could assume the scanty clothing
peculiar to the Figians. Suvana, a rebellious town, consisting of
about five hundred people, was destined to be sacrificed on the
occasion. When the preparations for the feast were concluded, the
day for the ceremony appointed, Kurudwadua and his warriors were
to make a rush upon the town and club the inhabitants
indiscriminately. The bodies were to be piled into one heap, and on
the top of all a living slave would lie on his back. The young chief
would then mount the horrid scaffold, and standing upright on the
chest of the slave, and holding in his uplifted hands an immense club
or gun, the priests would invoke their gods, and commit the future
warrior to their especial protection, praying he may kill all the
enemies of the tribe, and never be beaten in battle; a cheer and a
shout from the assembled multitude concluding the prayer. Two
uncles of the boy were then to ascend the human pile, and to invest
him with the malo or girdle of snow white tapa; the multitude again
calling on the deities to make him a great conqueror, and a terror to
all who breathe enmity to Navua. The malo for the occasion would
be, perhaps, two hundred yards long, and six or eight inches wide.
When wound round the body the lad would hardly be perceivable,
and no one but an uncle can divest him of it.
“We proposed,” says Mr. Seeman, “to the chief that we should be
allowed to invest his son with the malo, which he at first refused, but
to which he consented after deliberation with his people. At the
appointed hour the multitude collected in the great strangers’ house
or bure ni sa. The lad stood upright in the midst of the assembly
guiltless of clothing, and holding a gun over his head. The consul
and I approached, and in due form wrapped him up in thirty yards of
Manchester print, the priest and people chanting songs and invoking
the protection of their gods. A short address from the consul
succeeded, stirring the lad to nobler efforts for his tribe than his
ancestors had known, and pointing to the path of fame that
civilization opened to him. The ceremony concluded by drinking
kara, and chanting historical reminiscences of the lad’s ancestors;
and thus we saved the lives of five hundred men. During the whole
of this ceremony the old chief was much affected, and a few tears
might be seen stealing down his cheeks; soon, however, cheering
up, he gave us a full account of the time when he came of age, and
the number of people that were slain to celebrate the occasion.”
To return, however, to the rain-making business. Lucky is it for the
dim-minded heathen that these false priests of his have not the
advantage of studying for their profession either in England or
America; if it were so, heaven only knows the awful extent to which
they would be bamboozled. Rain-makers especially would have a
fine time of it, at least, if they were all as clever as Mr. Petherick,
who, in his “Egypt and the Soudan,” unblushingly narrates how he
“Barnumized” the Africans as a rain-maker.
“The rainy season was now approaching, and still no tidings of my
men, and the natives daily continued to surround my encampment,
and attempted, sometimes by the report of the murder of my men,
and at others by night attacks upon ourselves when in the darkness
we could not see them, to induce us to return to our boats and
abandon our property. This they more strenuously insisted on, as
they were convinced that as long as we remained in the country the
rain would not fall, and both themselves and their cattle would be
reduced to starvation. This idea being seriously entertained, I one
day plainly stated to the chief and several of the principal men the
absurdity of their assertions, and endeavoured to explain that God
alone,—who had created heaven and earth,—could exercise any
power over the elements. The attention with which my discourse was
received induced me to prolong it, but to my discomfiture, at its
close, it was treated as a capital joke, and only convinced them the
more that I endeavoured to conceal from them my own powers.
Finding no relief from their increasing persecutions, I at length was
reduced to a ruse; and after a reference to an antiquated Weekly
Times, I told them that the Supreme Being whose it was to afford
them the so much-required rains, withheld them in consequence of
their inhospitality towards myself; this, although it had the effect of
procuring increased temporary supplies, could not induce them to
furnish me with porters. Endless were the straits and absurdities to
which I had recourse in order to obtain a respite, but the one creating
the greatest amusement to myself and my followers was the
following. A deputation of several hundred men, headed by a
subchief, from their kraals some miles distant, in the most
peremptory manner demanded rain or my immediate departure; the
latter they were determined at whatever sacrifice to enforce. Placing
my men under arms in an enclosure, and with a pair of revolver
pistols at my waist, and a first-rate Dean and Adams’ revolver rifle in
my hand, I went into the midst of them, and seated myself in the
centre of them, opposite to the subchief, a man fully six feet six
inches high, and proportionably well made. I stated that no
intimidation could produce rain, and as to compelling me to withdraw,
I defied them; that if I liked, with one single discharge of my gun, I
could destroy the whole tribe and their cattle in an instant; but that
with regard to rain, I would consult my oracle, and invited them to
appear before me to-morrow, upon which, with as much dignity as I
could command, I withdrew. Various were the feelings of the
savages. Some expressed a wish to comply with my desire, whilst
others showed an inclination to fall upon me. Although I was
convinced that the chief, Tschol, secretly encouraged his men, he in
the present instance made a demonstration in my favour; he
threatened them with a curse unless they dispersed. Some device
now became necessary to obtain a further respite for the desired
rains; and setting my wits to work, I hit upon an expedient which I at
once put in execution. Despatching some men to catch half-a-dozen
large flies, bearing some resemblance to a horse-fly, but much
larger, which infested a temporary shed where my donkey had been
kept; the men, confident in the success of anything I undertook, set
about the task with a will. In the course of the afternoon they were
fortunately obtained, and were consigned to an empty bottle. At the
appointed time my persecutors did not fail to appear, and shaking a
little flower over my flies, I sallied out amongst them, bottle in hand.
Referring to their wants, I treated them to a long harangue, touching
the depredations which I had learnt in conversation with the chief
they had committed upon the cattle of neighbouring tribes, and
assassinations of unoffending men who had fallen into their power;
also to several abstractions of girls from poor unprotected families of
their own tribe, without the payment of the customary dowry in cattle,
and dwelt upon the impossibility of their obtaining rain until restitution
and satisfaction were made. They unanimously denied the charges;
when I told them that it was nothing less than I had expected, but
that I was furnished with the means of satisfying myself of the
veracity of their assertions. The proof would consist in their restoring
to me the flies, which I intended to liberate from the bottle I held. In
the event of their succeeding, they should be rewarded with
abundant rain; but if one fly escaped, it was a sign of their guilt, and
they would be punished with a continuation of drought until
restitution was made; therefore it was in their own power to procure
rain or otherwise. Hundreds of clubs and lances were poised high in
the air, amidst loud shouts of ‘Let them go! let them go! let them go!’
With a prayer for the safety of my flies, I held up the bottle, and
smashing it against the barrel of my rifle, I had the satisfaction of
seeing the flies in the enjoyment of their liberty. Man, woman, and
child gave chase in hot pursuit, and the delight of my men at the
success of the stratagem may be imagined. It was not until after the
sun had set that the crest-fallen stragglers returned, their success
having been limited to the capture of two of the flies, though several
spurious ones, easily detected by the absence of the distinctive flour
badge, were produced. A long consultation ensued, and in the firm
belief of my oracle they determined to adopt measures for the
carrying out of its requirements, but with a threat that if the promised
rain did not follow, I should incur their vengeance. Aware of the
difficulties in store for them from their unwillingness to part with cattle
under any circumstances, I promised myself a long cessation from
their molestations. I was not disappointed.”
Further still into the country, and still no sign of amendment; not
that it should be expected, as in this region—Equatorial Africa—the
Christian crusader never yet penetrated, unless indeed we so regard
Mr. Du Chaillu, who certainly appears to have done his best by
example, at least, to convince the barbarous people among whom
he found himself of the advantages of Christianity. Here is a sample
of one of many Sabbaths spent by the renowned gorilla hunter
amongst the savages here abiding.
“The next day was Sunday, and I remained quietly in my house
reading the Scriptures, and thankful to have a day of rest and
reflection. My hunters could scarcely be prevailed upon not to hunt;
they declared that Sunday might do for white people, but the blacks
had nothing to do with it. Indeed, when customs thus come in
contact, the only answer the negro has to make—and it applies to
everything—is, that the God who made the whites is not the God
who made the blacks.
“Then the king and a good many of his people gathered about me,
and we astonished each other with our talk. I told them that their
fetishes and greegrees were of no use and had no power, and that it
was absurd to expect anything of a mere wooden idol that a man
had made, and could burn up. Also that there was no such a thing as
witchcraft, and that it was very wrong to kill people who were
accused of it; that there was only one God, whom the whites and
blacks must alike love and depend on. All this elicited only grunts of
surprise and incredulity.
 “Then the king took up the conversation, and remarked that we
white men were much favoured by our God, who was so kind as to
send guns and powder from heaven.
“Whereupon the king’s brother remarked that it must be very fine
to have rivers of alougou (rum) flowing through our country all the
year round, and that he would like to live on the banks of such a
river.
“Hereupon I said that we made our own guns, which no one
present seemed to believe; and that there were no rivers of rum,
which seemed a disappointment to several.”
It would appear that our traveller betrayed at least as much
curiosity respecting the singular rites and superstitions of these
Equatorial African heathens as they evinced in the matter of
Christianity.
“One day the women began their peculiar worship of Njambai,
which it seems is their good spirit: and it is remarkable that all the
Bakalai clans and all the females of tribes I have met during my
journeys, worship or venerate a spirit with this same name. Near the
seashore it is pronounced Njembai, but it is evidently the same.
“This worship of the women is a kind of mystery, no men being
admitted to the ceremonies, which are carried on in a house very
carefully closed. This house was covered with dry palm and banana
leaves, and had not even a door open to the street. To make all
close, it was set against two other houses, and the entrance was
through one of these. Quengueza and Mbango warned me not to go
near this place, as not even they were permitted so much as to take
a look. All the women of the village painted their faces and bodies,
beat drums, marched about the town, and from time to time entered
the idol house, where they danced all one night, and made a more
outrageous noise than even the men had made before. They also
presented several antelopes to the goddess, and on the 4th, all but a
few went off into the woods to sing to Njambai.
“I noticed that half-a-dozen remained, and in the course of the
morning entered the Njambai house, where they stayed in great
silence. Now my curiosity, which had been greatly excited to know
what took place in this secret worship, finally overcame me. I
determined to see. Walking several times up and down the street
past the house to allay suspicion, I at last suddenly pushed aside
some of the leaves, and stuck my head through the wall. For a
moment I could distinguish nothing in the darkness. Then I beheld
three perfectly naked old hags sitting on the clay floor, with an
immense bundle of greegrees before them, which they seemed to be
silently adoring.

Du Chaillu’s Peep into a Heathen Temple.

“When they saw me they at once set up a hideous howl of rage,
and rushed out to call their companions from the bush; in a few
minutes these came hurrying in, crying and lamenting, rushing
towards me with gestures of anger, and threatening me for my
offence. I quickly reached my house, and seizing my gun in one
hand and a revolver in the other, told them I would shoot the first one
that came inside my door. The house was surrounded by above
three hundred infuriated women, every one shouting out curses at
me, but the sight of my revolver kept them back. They adjourned
presently for the Njambai house, and from there sent a deputation of
the men, who were to inform me that I must pay for the palaver I had
made.
“This I peremptorily refused to do, telling Quengueza and Mbango
that I was there a stranger, and must be allowed to do as I pleased,
as their rules were nothing to me, who was a white man and did not
believe in their idols. In truth, if I had once paid for such a
trangression as this, there would have been an end of all travelling
for me, as I often broke through their absurd rules without knowing it,
and my only course was to declare myself irresponsible.
“However, the women would not give up, but threatened
vengeance, not only on me, but on all the men of the town; and as I
positively refused to pay anything, it was at last, to my great surprise,
determined by Mbango and his male subjects, that they would make
up from their own possessions such a sacrifice as the women
demanded of me. Accordingly Mbango contributed ten fathoms of
native cloth, and the men came one by one and put their offerings on
the ground; some plates, some knives, some mugs, some beads,
some mats, and various other articles. Mbango came again, and
asked if I too would not contribute something, but I refused. In fact, I
dared not set such a precedent. So when all had given what they
could, the whole amount was taken to the ireful women, to whom
Mbango said that I was his and his men’s guest, and that they could
not ask me to pay in such a matter, therefore they paid the demand
themselves. With this the women were satisfied, and there the
quarrel ended. Of course I could not make any further investigations
into their mysteries. The Njambai feast lasts about two weeks. I
could learn very little about the spirit which they call by this name.
Their own ideas are quite vague. They know only that it protects the
women against their male enemies, avenges their wrongs, and
serves them in various ways, if they please it.”
Before Chaillu left Goumbi a grand effort was made by the people
to ascertain the cause of their king’s sufferings. Quengueza had sent
word to his people to consult Ilogo, a spirit said to live in the moon.
The rites were very curious. To consult Ilogo, the time must be near
full moon. Early in the evening the women of the town assembled in
front of Quengueza’s house and sang songs to and in praise of the
moon. Meantime a woman was seated in the centre of the circle of
singers, who sung with them and looked constantly towards the
moon. She was to be inspired by the spirit and to utter prophecies.
Two women made trial of this post without success. At last came
a third, a little woman, wiry and nervous. When she seated herself,
the singing was redoubled in fury—the excitement of the people had
had time to become intense; the drums beat, the outsiders shouted
madly. Presently the woman who, singing violently, had looked
constantly towards the moon, began to tremble. Her nerves twitched,
her face was contorted, her muscles swelled, and at last her limbs
straightened out, and she lay extended on the ground insensible.
The excitement was now intense and the noise horrible. The
songs to Ilogo were not for a moment discontinued. The words were
little varied, and were to this purport:

“Ilogo, we ask thee,

Tell who has bewitched the king!
Ilogo, we ask thee,
What shall we do to cure the king?
The forests are thine, Ilogo!
The rivers are thine, Ilogo!
The moon is thine.
O moon! O moon! O moon!
Thou art the house of Ilogo.
Shall the king die, O Ilogo?
O Ilogo! O moon! O moon!”

These words were repeated again and again with little variation.
The woman who lay for some time as she had fallen was then
supposed to be able to see things in the world of Ilogo, and was
brought to after half an hour’s insensibility; she looked very much
prostrated. She averred that she had seen Ilogo, that he had told her
Quengueza was not bewitched.
Chaillu heard one day by accident that a man had been
apprehended on a charge of causing the death of one of the chief
men of the village, and went to Dayoko, the king, and asked about it.
He said yes, the man was to be killed; that he was a notorious
wizard, and had done much harm.
Chaillu begged to see this terrible being, and was taken to a
rough hut, within which sat an old, old man, with wool white as snow,
wrinkled face, bowed form, and shrunken limbs. His hands were tied
behind him, and his feet were placed in a rude kind of stocks. This
was the great wizard. Several lazy negroes stood guard over him,
and from time to time insulted him with opprobrious epithets and
blows, to which the poor old wretch submitted in silence. He was
evidently in his dotage.
When asked if he had no friends, no relatives, no son or daughter
or wife to take care of him, he said sadly, “No one.”
Now here was the secret of this persecution. They were tired of
taking care of the helpless old man, who had lived too long, and a
charge of witchcraft by the greegree man was a convenient pretext
for putting him out of the way.
 The Wizard in the Stocks.
Chaillu went, however, to Dayoko, and argued the case with him,
and tried to explain the absurdity of charging a harmless old man
with supernatural powers; told him that God did not permit witches to
exist, and dually made an offer to buy the old wretch, offering to give
some pounds of tobacco, one or two coats, and some looking-
glasses for him, goods which would have bought an able-bodied
slave.
 Dayoko replied that for his part he would be glad to save him, but
that the people must decide; that they were much excited against
him, but that he would, to please Chaillu, try to save his life.
During the night following our travellers heard singing all over the
town all night, and a great uproar. Evidently they were preparing
themselves for the murder. Even these savages cannot kill in cold
blood, but work themselves into a frenzy of excitement first, and then
rush off to do the bloody deed.
Early in the morning the people gathered together with the fetish
man, the rascal who was at the bottom of the murder, in their midst.
His bloodshot eyes glared in savage excitement as he went round
from man to man getting the votes to decide whether the old man
should die.
In his hands he held a bundle of herbs, with which he sprinkled
three times those to whom he spoke. Meantime a man was stationed
on the top of a high tree, whence he shouted from time to time in a
loud voice, “Jocoo! Jocoo!” at the same time shaking the tree
strongly.
Jocoo is devil among the Mbousha, and the business of this man
was to keep away the evil spirit, and to give notice to the fetish-man
of his approach.
At last the sad vote was taken. It was declared that the old man
was a most malignant wizard, that he had already killed a number of
people, that he was minded to kill many more, and that he must die.
No one would tell Chaillu how he was to be killed, and they proposed
to defer the execution till his departure. The whole scene had
considerably agitated Chaillu, and he was willing to be spared the
end. Tired and sick at heart, Chaillu lay down on his bed about noon
to rest and compose his spirits a little. After a while he saw a man
pass his window, almost like a flash, and after him a horde of silent
but infuriated men. They ran towards the river. Then in a little while
was heard a couple of sharp piercing cries, as of a man in great
agony, and then all was still as death. Chaillu got up, guessing the
rascals had killed the poor old man, and turning his steps toward the
river, was met by the crowd returning, every man armed with axe,
knife, cutlass, or spear, and these weapons and their own hands and
arms and bodies all sprinkled with the blood of their victim. In their
frenzy they had tied the poor wizard to a log near the river bank, and
then deliberately hacked him into many pieces. They finished by
splitting open his skull and scattering the brains in the water. Then
they returned; and to see their behaviour, it would have seemed as
though the country had just been delivered from a great curse.
By night the men, whose faces for two days had filled Chaillu with
loathing and horror, so bloodthirsty and malignant were they, were
again as mild as lambs, and as cheerful as though they had never
heard of a witch tragedy.
The following is a fair sample of “witch-test,” as practised in this
region. A Gaboon black trader in the employment of a white
supercargo, died suddenly. His family thinking that the death had
resulted from witchcraft, two of his sisters were authorised to go to
his grave and bring his head away in order that they might test the
fact. This testing is effected in the following manner: An iron pot with
fresh water is placed on the floor; at one side of it is the head of the
dead man, at the other side is seated a fetish doctor. The latter
functionary then puts in his mouth a piece of herb, supposed to
impart divining powers, chews it, and forms a magic circle by spitting
round the pot, the head, and himself. The face of the murderer, after
a few incantations, is supposed to be reflected on the water
contained in the pot. The fetish man then states he sees the
murderer, and orders the head to be again put back to its proper
grave, some days being then given to him for deliberation. In the
mean time he may fix on a man who is rich enough to pay him a
sufficient bribe to be excused of the charge, and if so he confesses
that the fetish has failed.
In the central regions of Eastern Africa all that is sacerdotal is
embodied in individuals called Mganga or Mfumbo. They swarm
throughout the land; are of both sexes: the women, however,
generally confine themselves to the medical part of the profession.
The profession is hereditary; the eldest or the cleverest son begins
his education at an early age, and succeeds to his father’s functions.
There is little mystery, says Burton, in the craft, and the magicians of
Unyamwezi have not refused to initiate some of the Arabs. The
power of the Mganga is great; he is treated as a sultan, whose word
is law, and as a giver of life and death. He is addressed by a kingly
title, and is permitted to wear the chieftain’s badge, made of the base
of a conical shell. He is also known by a number of small greasy and
blackened gourds filled with physic and magic hanging round his
waist, and by a little more of the usual grime, sanctity and dirt being
closely connected in Africa. These men are sent for from village to
village, and receive as spiritual fees sheep and goats, cattle and
provisions. Their persons, however, are not sacred, and for criminal
acts they are punished like other malefactors. The greatest danger to
them is an excess of fame. A celebrated magician rarely, if ever, dies
a natural death; too much is expected from him, and a severe
disappointment leads to consequences more violent than usual.
The African phrase for a man possessed is ana’p’hepo, he has a
devil. The Mganga is expected to heal the patient by expelling the
possession. Like the evil spirit in the days of Saul, the unwelcome
visitant must be charmed away by sweet music; the drums cause
excitement, the violent exercise expels the ghost. The principal
remedies are drumming, dancing, and drinking till the auspicious
moment arrives. The ghost is then enticed from the body of the
possessed into some inanimate article which he will condescend to
inhabit. This, technically called a Keti or stool, may be a certain kind
of bead, two or more bits of wood bound together by a strip of
snake’s skin, a lion’s or a leopard’s claw, and other similar articles
worn round the head, the arm, the wrist, or the ankle. Paper is still
considered great medicine by the Wasukuma and other tribes, who
will barter valuable goods for a little bit: the great desideratum of the
charm in fact appears to be its rarity, or the difficulty of obtaining it.
Hence also the habit of driving nails into and hanging rags upon
trees. The vegetable itself is not worshipped, as some Europeans,
who call it the devil’s tree, have supposed; it is merely the place for
the laying of ghosts, where by appending the keti most acceptable to
the spirit, he will be bound over to keep the peace with man. Several
accidents in the town of Zanzibar have confirmed even the higher
orders in their lurking superstition. Mr. Peters, an English merchant,
annoyed by the slaves, who came in numbers to hammer nails and
to hang iron hoops and rags upon a devil’s tree in his court-yard,
ordered it to be cut down, to the horror of all the black beholders.
Within six months five persons died in that house—Mr. Peters, his
two clerks, his cooper, and his ship’s carpenter. Salim bin Raschid, a
half caste merchant, well known at Zanzibar, avers, and his
companions bear witness to his words, that on one occasion, when
travelling northwards from Unyamzembe, the possession occurred to
himself. During the night two female slaves, his companions, of
whom one was a child, fell without apparent cause into the fits which
denote the approach of a spirit. Simultaneously the master became
as one intoxicated; a dark mass—material, not spiritual—entered the
tent, threw it down, and presently vanished, and Salim bin Raschid
was found in a state of stupor, from which he did not recover till the
morning. The same merchant circumstantially related, and called
witnesses to prove, that a small slave boy, who was produced on the
occasion, had been frequently carried off by possession, even when
confined in a windowless room, with a heavy door carefully bolted
and padlocked. Next morning the victim was not found although the
chamber remained closed. A few days afterwards he was met in the
jungle, wandering absently, like an idiot, and with speech too
incoherent to explain what had happened to him. The Arabs of Iman
who subscribe readily to transformation, deride these tales; those of
African blood, believe them. The transformation belief, still so
common in many countries, and anciently an almost universal
superstition, is, curious to say, unknown amongst these East African
tribes.
The Mganga, Mr. Burton further informs us, is also a soothsayer.
He foretels the success, or failure of commercial undertakings, of
wars, and of kidnapping; he foresees famine and pestilence, and he
suggests the means of averting calamities. He fixes also before the
commencement of any serious affair fortunate conjunctions, without
which, a good issue cannot be expected. He directs, expedites, or
delays the march of a caravan; and in his quality of augur, he
considers the flight of birds, and the cries of beasts like his prototype
of the same class, in ancient Europe, and in modern Asia.
 The principal instrument of the Mganga’s craft is one of the dirty
little buyou, or gourds, which he wears in a bunch round his waist,
and the following is the usual programme when the oracle is to be
consulted. The magician brings his implements in a bag of matting;
his demeanour is serious as the occasion, he is carefully greased,
and his head is adorned with the diminutive antelope horns, fastened
by a thong of leather above the forehead. He sits like a sultan, upon
a dwarf stool in front of the querist, and begins by exhorting the
highest possible offertory. No pay no predict. The Mganga has many
implements of his craft. Some prophesy by the motion of berries
swimming in a cup full of water, which is placed upon a low stool,
surrounded by four tails of the zebra, or the buffalo, lashed to stakes
planted upright in the ground. The Kasanda is a system of folding
triangles, not unlike those upon which plaything soldiers are
mounted. Held in the right hand, it is thrown out, and the direction of
the end points to the safe and auspicious route; this is probably the
rudest appliance of prestidigitation. The shero is a bit of wood, about
the size of a man’s hand, and not unlike a pair of bellows, with a
dwarf handle, a projection like a muzzle, and in a circular centre a
little hollow. This is filled with water, and a grain, or fragment of wood
placed to float, gives an evil omen if it tends towards the sides, and
favourable if it veers towards the handle or the nozzle. The Mganga
generally carries about with him, to announce his approach, a kind of
rattle. This is a hollow gourd of pine-apple, pierced with various
holes prettily carved, and half filled with maize grains, and pebbles;
the handle is a stick passed through its length, and secured by
cross-pins.
The Mganga has many minor duties. In elephant hunts he must
throw the first spear, and endure the blame if the beast escapes. He
marks ivory with spots disposed in lines and other figures, and thus
enables it to reach the coast, without let or hindrance. He loads the
kirangoze, or guide, with charms to defend him from the malice
which is ever directed at a leading man, and sedulously forbids him
to allow precedence even to the Mtongi, the commander and
proprietor of the caravan. He aids his tribe by magical arts, in wars
by catching a bee, reciting over it certain incantations, and loosing it
in the direction of the foe, when the insect will instantly summon an
army of its fellows and disperse a host however numerous. This
belief well illustrates the easy passage of the natural into the
supernatural. The land being full of swarms, and man’s body being
wholly exposed, many a caravan has been dispersed like chaff
before the wind by a bevy of swarming bees. Similarly in South
Africa the magician kicks an ant-hill, and starts wasps which put the
enemy to flight.
Here is an account of a queer dance witnessed in this land of
Mgangas and Mfumbos and fetishes, furnished by the celebrated
explorer Bakie:—“A little before noon Captain Vidal took leave of
King Passol, in order to prosecute his observations. I remained, but
shortly afterwards prepared to leave also. Passol, however, as soon
as he perceived my intention, jumped up, and in a good-humoured
way detaining me by the arm, exclaimed, ‘No go, no go yet; ‘top a
little; bye-bye you look im fetish dance; me mak you too much laugh!’
It appeared that the old man had heard me some time before, on
listening to the distant tattoo of a native drum, express a
determination to the young midshipman who was with me to go
presently to see the dance, with which I had little doubt that it was
accompanied. The noise of the drum, almost drowned by the
singing, whooping, and clamour of a multitude of the natives, was
soon heard approaching. When close to us the procession stopped,
and the dancers, all of whom were men, ranged themselves in
parallel lines from the front of an adjoining house, and commenced
their exhibition. They were specially dressed for the purpose, having
suspended from their hips a complete kilt formed of threads of grass-
cloth, manufactured by the natives of the interior, and likewise an
appendage of the same kind to one or both arms, just above the
elbow. Some had their faces and others their breasts marked with
white balls, given to them by the fetish as a cure or safeguard
against some disease which they either had or dreaded. The
dancing, although not elegant, was free from that wriggling and
contortion of body so common on the east coast. It consisted
principally in alternately advancing and drawing back the feet and
arms, together with a corresponding inclination of the body, and, at
stated times, the simultaneous clapping of hands, and a loud sharp
ejaculation of ‘Heigh!’ Although I have remarked that it was not
elegant, yet it was pleasing, from the regularity with which it was
accompanied. There were two men who did not dance in the line
among the rest, but shuffled around, and at times threaded the
needle among them: one was termed the master fetish, and the
other appeared to be his attendant; neither wore the fancy dress, but
they were both encircled by the usual wrapper round the loins. The
former had on a French glazed hat, held in great request by the
natives, and the other, chewing some root of a red colour, carried a
small ornamented stick, surmounted at the end like a brush with a
bunch of long and handsome feathers. At times one of these men
would stop opposite a particular individual among the dancers, and
entice him by gestures to leave the line and accompany him in his
evolutions, which finally always ended where they began, the
pressed man returning to his former place. For some time I had
observed the master fetish dancing opposite to the house, and with
many gesticulations apparently addressing it in a half threatening
half beseeching tone. Old Passol, who was standing close by me,
suddenly exclaimed, ‘Now you laugh too much; fetish he come!’
“Sure enough, forthwith rushed from the house among the
dancers a most extraordinary figure. It was a man mounted on stilts
at least six feet above the ground, of which from practice he had
acquired so great a command that he certainly was as nimble in his
evolutions as the most active among the dancers. He was
sometimes so quick that one stilt could hardly be seen to touch the
earth before it was relieved by the other. Even when standing still he
often balanced himself so well as not to move either stilt for the
space of two or three minutes. He wore a white mask with a large
red ball on each cheek, the same on his chin, and his eyebrows and
the lower part of his nose were painted with the same colour. Over
his forehead was a sort of vizor of a yellow colour, having across it a
line of small brass bells; it was armed in front by long alligator’s
teeth, and terminated in a confused display of feathers, blades of
grass, and the stiff hairs of elephants and other large animals. From
the top of his head the skin of a monkey hung pendant behind,
having affixed to its tail a wire and a single elephant’s hair with a
large sheep’s bell attached to the end. The skin was of a beautiful
light green, with the head and neck of a rich vermilion. From his
shoulders a fathom of blue dungaree with a striped white border
hung down behind; and his body and legs and arms were completely
enshrouded in a number of folds of the native grass-cloth, through
which he grasped in each hand a quantity of alligator’s teeth, lizard’s
skins, fowl’s bones, feathers, and stiff hairs, reminding me strongly of
the well-known attributes of Obi, the dread of the slave-owners of
Jamaica.
“The fetish never spoke. When standing still he held his arms
erect, and shook and nodded his head with a quick repetition; but
when advancing he extended them to their full length before him. In
the former case he appeared as if pointing to heaven, and
demanding its vengeance on the dancers and the numerous
bystanders around; and in the latter as one who, finding his
exhortations of no avail, was resolved to exterminate, in the might of
his gigantic stature and superior strength, the refractory set. The
master fetish was his constant attendant, always following, doubling,
and facing him, with exhortations uttered at one minute in the most
beseeching tone, accompanied hat in hand by obsequious bows,
and in the next threatening gestures, and violent, passionate
exclamations. The attendant on the master fetish was likewise
constantly at hand, with his stick applied to his mouth, and in one or
two instances when the masquerader approached, he crouched
close under him, and squirted the red juice of the root he was
chewing into his face. For upwards of an hour I watched the dance,
yet the fetish appeared untired; and I afterwards heard that the same
ceremony was performed every day, and sometimes lasted three or
four hours. I at first thought that it was merely got up for our
amusement, but was soon undeceived; and when, under the first
impression, I inquired of a bystander what man it was who performed
the character, he answered, with a mixture of pique at the question
and astonishment of my ignorance, ‘He no man; no man do same as
him; he be de diable! he be de debil!’ Still I was a little sceptic as to
their really holding this belief themselves, though they insisted on the
fact as they represented it to me; and therefore, after I had received
the same answer from all, I used to add in a careless way to try their
sincerity, ‘In what house does he dwell?’ ‘What! fetish! I tell you he
de debil; he no catch house; he lib (live) in dat wood,’ pointing to a