Ch.

16 Coordination in Humans

Neurones
Functions: to transmit nerve impulses
1. Cell body
Contains a nucleus, cytoplasm & other organelles (mitochondria, rough ER)

2. Nerve fibres

Branches extending from the cytoplasm of the cell body

 Dendrons: transmits n.i. towards the cell body

Branches into dendrites: receive infomation from receptors/other neurones

 Axons: transmit n.i. away from the cell body

Their ends break up into synaptic knobs: have vesicles containing

neurotransmitters

 Covered by myelin sheath (lipid)

a. Insulate n.f., thus preventing the transmission of n.i. to the surroundings

b. Speed up the transmission of n.i.

c. Usually wrapped in connective tissue to form a nerve

Multiple sclerosis: attacks the myelin sheath

--> slowing o f n.i. transmission & poor coordination, problems with muscle movement and

body balance

Types of neurones:
Sensory neurone Interneurone Motor neurone

Receptors to CNS S.n. to m.i. CNS to effectors

(muscle/gland)

Long dendron, short axon Short dendron and axon Long axon, short dendron

Dendrons to receptors D & A to other neurones Axons to effectors

Cell body outside the CNS Inside the CNS Inside the CNS

Synaptic transmission of nerve impulses

1. n.i. arrives at the synaptic knob

2. Neurotransmitter in the synaptic
vesicles is released
3. n.t. diffuses across the synaptic cleft
4. Binds to the specific protein receptors
on the post synaptic membrane of the
next neurone
5. The binding stimulates the dendron/cell
body of the next neurone to generate
n.i.
6. n.t. may be finally broken down by an
enzyme

Function of mitochondrion: to carry out respiration to release energy for

 Rough ER to produce neurotransmitters

 Releasing neurotransmitters

Importance:

1. As synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters are present only in the

endings of axons, the synapses allow nerve impulses to travel in one direction only.

2. Usually a neurone form synapses with more than one other neurones. This

allows one neurone to communicate with many other neurones. This complex

network of neurones enables the nervous system to achieve coordination that

 involves many receptors and effectors. (cleft !)

Spinal cord
Protections:

1. Bones (enclosed in the vertebral column)

2. Membranes (covered by 3 membranes called meninges)

3. Fluid (filled with cerebrospinal fluid)

a) Acts as a shock absorber

b) Provides mechanical support to the spinal cord

c) Provides nutrients & oxygen to the neurones + removes wastes from them

Structure:

 Outer: white matter (myelin sheath), consists of nerve fibres only

 Inner H-shaped: grey matter (nuclei), consists of cell bodies of neurones

 Center of the grey matter: central canal

- Continuous with the cavity inside the brain. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

 31 pairs of spinal nerves (joins the s.c. through the dorsal & ventral roots)

 Dorsal root: sensory neurones, cell bodies group together --> dorsal root

ganglion

 Ventral root: motor neurones, cell bodies in the grey matter

Function: relays nerve impulses between the brain and other parts of the body. It is also

the reflex centre for many reflex actions.

Reflex action
- inborn, rapid and automatic response to a stimulus.

- involuntary as it doesn’t involve the cerebrum

- stereotyped i.e. same stimulus always results in the same response

- protect us from danger

- involve the s.c. : spinal reflex, brain: cranial reflex

 Reflex arc

--> nervous pathway of a reflex action (receptor, s.n., i.n., m.n., effector)
 Withdrawal reflex:

1. pain receptors in skin are stimulated. They generate n.i.

2. S.n. trasmits n.i. to the spinal cord

3. I.n. relays n.i. to m.n.

4. M.n. transmits n.i. to the effector

5. Arm muscle contracts to withdraw the hand

**n.i. are transmitted to the brain via another nervous pathway. As this pathway

is longer than the reflex arc and involves more synapses, we feel pain after

withdrawing the hand**

Significance: n.i. travel along the r.a. very quickly. This rapid withdrawal of the

hands from the sharp object helps protect the body from further damage.

Knee jerk reflex:

1. stretch receptors in the upper leg muscles are stimulated. They generate n.i.

2. S.n. trasmits n.i. to the spinal cord

3. M.n. transmits n.i. to the effector (leg muscles)

4. Leg muscle contracts and the leg kicks

**only two neurones are involved**

Significance: this reflex action helps maintain body posture and balance.

Brain
Protection:

1. Bones (enclosed within the cranium of the skull)

2. Membranes (covered by 3 meninges)

3. Fluid (filled with cerebrospinal fluid)

Structure:

 Cerebrum
~ largest part of the brain
 ~ consists of the left and right cerebral hemispheres

~ outer layer: cerebral cortex

- highly folded:

increase its capacity enabling it to hold more neurones in a limited

space

~ the cerebral cortex is made up of grey matter (mainly cell bodies)

~ inner part is made up of white matter

Functions:

1．Site of intelligence. It enables us to think, make decisions and have

memories

2．Controls voluntary actions (under conscious control)

3．Can be divided into three areas

a) Sensory areas: receive n.i. from receptors & interpret them to give

sensations

b) Motor areas: send n.i. to effectors to produce voluntary responses

c) Association areas: integrate info. from different sensory areas and

relate the info. to past experience. Then the brain makes decisions and

send n.i. to the m.a. to give a response.

 Cerebellum
~ outer part: gery matter

~ inner part: white matter

Functions:

1．Receives sensory info. about body movement from the ears, eyes,

muscles and joints. It then coordinates muscular actions for smooth body

movements.

2．Maintain body posture and balance (w/ semi-circle panal)

 Medulla oblongata
~ outer: white matter

~ inner: grey matter

Functions:
 1．Controls many involuntary actions (breathing & heart beat).

involuntary actions occur automatically and they are not under

conscious control.

2．Reflex centre for many reflex actions in the head (saliva secretion,

swallowing, sneezing and coughing)

**spinal reflex can be suppressed, but cranial reflex cannot be

suppressed**

Voluntary action
- under conscious control of cerebrum

1. Receptors dectect a stimulus and generate n.i.

2. N.i. are transmitted to the s.a. of the cerebrum slong s.n.

3. The info. is processed & integrated in the association areas of the cerebrum. When a

decision is made, m.a. of the cerebrum generate n.i.

4. N.i. are transmitted to the effector along m.n.

5. The effector gives a response

**may be initiated by the cerebrum directly w/o involving any stimuli**

Questions:
1．Why is the cranial reflex faster than spinal reflex (X involve interneurones) ?

Ans: As fewer synapses are involved in cranial reflex than in spinal reflex,

there are fewer synaptic delays and the speed of nerve impulse

transmission is higher.

2．Why does someone’s intervertebral disc is slipped and back pain ?

Ans: Improper posture/sports injuries/degeneration.

The slipped intervertebral disc presses against the spinal nerve. The nerve

sends n.i. to the brain, which produces the sensation of pain.

3．What would happen to a person whose medulla oblongata was damaged ?

Ans: Death may result as m.o. controls many vital i.v. actions (heartbeat, breathing)
 4．What would happen to a person whose spinal cord was cut ?

Ans: Body parts below the cut would be paralyzed as n.i. from the cerebrum couldn’t

be transmitted down to the body parts below the cut.

5．How the speed of n.i. transmission may differ between n.b. X (w/ m.s.) and n.b. Y

(w/o m.s.)

Ans: Nerve fibre X is myelinated but nerve fibre Y is not.