EEE221 Circuit Theory I

Lecture Note 5

ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS
TECHNIQUES

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mahmut Emin ÇELİK

Dr. Hıdır DÜZKAYA

ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

LEARNING GOALS

REVIEW LINEARITY
The property has two equivalent definitions.
We show and application of homogeneity
APPLY SUPERPOSITION
We discuss some implications of the superposition property in
linear circuits
DEVELOP THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS
These are two very powerful analysis tools that allow us to
focus on parts of a circuit and hide away unnecessary complexities

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

This is a very useful application of Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems

1
 SOME EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
ALREADY USED

LINEARITY
THE MODELS USED ARE ALL LINEAR.
MATHEMATICALLY THIS IMPLIES THAT THEY
SATISFY THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

THE MODEL y  Tu IS LINEAR IFF FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS WE CAN USE THE
T (1u1   2 u2 )  1Tu1   2Tu2 LINEARITY ASSUMPTION TO DEVELOP
SPECIAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
for all possible input pairs u1 , u2
and all possible scalars 1 , 2
FIRST WE REVIEW THE TECHNIQUES
AN ALTERNATIVE, AND EQUIVALENT, CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
DEFINITION OF LINEARITY SPLITS THE
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE IN TWO.

THE MODEL y  Tu IS LINEAR IFF

1. T (u1  u2 )  Tu1  Tu2 , u1 , u2 additivity
2. T (u)  Tu,  , u homogeneit y

2
 A CASE STUDY TO REVIEW PAST TECHNIQUES
Redrawing the circuit may help us
DETERMINE VO in recognizing special cases

SOLUTION TECHNIQUES AVAILABLE??

3
 The procedure can be made entirely algorithmic
USING HOMOGENEITY
1. Give to Vo any arbitrary value (e.g., V’o =1 )
2. Compute the resulting source value and call it V’_s

3. Use linearity. VS'  V0'  kVS'  kV0' , k
4. The given value of the source (V_s)
V1 corresponds to
REQ VS
k
VS'

Hence the desired output value is
Assume that the answer is known. Can we
Compute the input in a very easy way ?!!
VS '
If Vo is given then V1 can be computed V0  kV0'  V0
using an inverse voltage divider. VS'
R1  R2
V1  V0 This is a nice little tool
R2 for special problems.
Normally when there is
… And Vs using a second voltage divider
only one source and
R4  REQ R4  REQ R1  R2 when in our judgement
VS  V1  V0 solving the problem
backwards is actually
REQ REQ R2 easier

Solve now for the variable Vo 7

EXAMPLE 1: SOLVE USING HOMOGENEITY

ASSUME Vout  V2  1[V ]

I1

VO

NOW USE HOMOGENEITY

VO  6[V ]  Vout  1[V ]

VO  12[V ]  Vout  2[V ]

4
EXAMPLE 2:

COMPUTE IO USING HOMOGENEITY. USE I  6mA

VS  1.5[mA]  2k  V1  6[V ]
VS 1.5[mA]
V1  3[V ]

0.5[mA ] 0.5[mA ] ASSUME IO  1mA

2mA

USE HOMOGENEITY
I  2mA  IO  1mA
I  6mA  IO  __ 3mA __

Source Superposition

This technique is a direct application of

linearity.

It is normally useful when the circuit has only

a few sources.

10

5
 FOR CLARITY WE SHOW A CIRCUIT VS
WITH ONLY TWO SOURCES + -

IL
+

VL
Due to Linearity circuit
_

VL  a1VS  a2 I S

CONTRIBUTION BY VS
CONTRIBUTION BY I S
VL1
V L2 IS

V 1L Can be computed by setting the current

source to zero and solving the circuit
Can be computed by setting the voltage
V 2L source to zero and solving the circuit
11

Circuit with voltage source

SOURCE SUPERPOSITION set to zero (SHORT CIRCUITED)

I L2
I L1

= VL1 + VL2

Circuit with current

source set to zero(OPEN)

Due to the linearity of the models we must have

I L  I L1  I L2 VL  VL1  VL2 Principle of Source Superposition

The approach will be useful if solving the two circuits is simpler, or more convenient, than
solving a circuit with two sources

We can have any combination of sources. And we can partition any way we find convenient
12

6
EXAMPLE 3: WE WISH TO COMPUTE THE CURRENT i
1

= +

Req  3  3 || 6 [k ] R  6  (3 || 3) [k ]
eq

v2
Loop equations
i2" 
Req

Contribution of v1

Once we know the “partial circuits”

we need to be able to solve them in Contribution of v2

an efficient manner 13

EXAMPLE 4 Compute V0 using source superposition

We set to zero the voltage source

Current division

Ohm’s law

Now we set to zero the current source

Voltage Divider
 2[V ]
6k V0"

3V +
-
V0  V0'  V0"  6[V ]
3k
14

7
EXAMPLE 5 Compute V0 using source superposition
We must be able to solve each circuit in a very
efficient manner!!!

If V1 is known then V’o is obtained using a voltage divider

V1 can be obtained by series parallel reduction and divider

Set to zero current source +
+ +
 6k
+ 4k||8k V1 V'0
V1
-
V1 _
_
_
 8/3
2k V1  ( 6) 2k
2  8/3
6k 18
VO'  V1  [V ]
6k  2k 7
Set to zero voltage source The current I2 can be obtained using a current divider
and V”o using Ohm’s law

I2 + 2k  (2k || 4k )
I2 I2  (2)mA
2k||4k 2k  6k  (2k || 4k )
2mA 6k V"0 VO"  6kI 2

2k VO  VO'  VO"
_ 15
WHEN IN DOUBT… REDRAW!

EXAMPLE 6 COMPUTE I0 USING SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

1. Consider only the voltage source

I 01  1.5mA

2. Consider only the 3mA

source
3. Consider only the 4mA source Current divider

I 02  1.5mA

I 03  0 Using source superposition

I 0  I 01  I 02  I 03  3mA
16

8
 EXAMPLE 7

I1

I1
I O1  
2

2
2 1 3

1
3

17

THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS

These are some of the most

powerful analysis results to be
discussed.
They permit to hide information that
is not relevant and concentrate in
what is important to the analysis

18

9
 Low distortion audio power amplifier TO MATCH SPEAKERS AND
AMPLIFIER ONE SHOULD ANALYZE
THIS CIRCUIT

From PreAmp
(voltage ) To speakers

Courtesy of M.J. Renardson

RTH
http://angelfire.com/ab3/mjramp/index.html REPLACE AMPLIFIER
BY SIMPLER
TO MATCH SPEAKERS AND AMPLIFIER “EQUIVALENT”
VTH +
IT IS MUCH EASIER TO CONSIDER THIS -

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT!
19

THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

May contain  May contain
independent and independent and
dependent sources vO dependent sources
with their controlling with their controlling
variables _ b variables
PART A PART B

RTH i a

 LINEAR CIRCUIT
vTH vO
 PART B
_ b
PART A
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
for PART A
vTH Thevenin Equivalent Source
20
RTH Thevenin Equivalent Resistance

10
 NORTON’S EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

May contain  May contain
independent and independent and
dependent sources vO dependent sources
with their controlling with their controlling
variables _ b variables
PART A PART B

i a

LINEAR CIRCUIT
iN RN vO
PART B
_ b
PART A
Norton Equivalent Circuit
for PART A
iN Norton' s Equivalent Source
21
RN Thevenin Equivalent Resistance

OUTLINE OF PROOF - version 1

If Circuit A is unchanged then the current should be the same FOR ANY Vo

USE SOURCE SUPERPOSITION iO

All independent

 sources set to
zero in A

vO
DEFINE RTH    i  
vO
 i SC ; vO
i SC
i  iO  i SC

iO RTH
SPECIAL CASE : OPEN CIRCUIT (i  0)
v v v
vO  vOC  0   OC  i SC  RTH  OC  i SC  OC
RTH i SC RTH
v 22
i   O  i SC  vO  vOC  RTH i HOW DO WE INTERPRET THIS RESULT?
RTH

11
 OUTLINE OF PROOF - version 2

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

May contain  May contain
independent and independent and
dependent sources vO dependent sources
with their controlling with their controlling
variables _ b variables
PART A PART B

1. Because of the linearity of the models, for any Part B the relationship
between Vo and the current, i, has to be of the form v  m *i  n
O

2. Result must hold for “every valid Part B” that we can imagine
3. If part B is an open circuit then i=0 and... n  vOC
4. If Part B is a short circuit then Vo is zero. In this case
vOC
0  m * iSC  vOC  m     RTH
iSC
How do we interpret this?
vO   RTH i  vOC 23

THEVENIN APPROACH

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a
May contain 
independent and
dependent sources vO ANY
with their controlling
_ b PART B
variables
PART A

vO   RTH i  vOC For ANY circuit in Part B

RTH This is the Thevenin equivalent

circuit for the circuit in Part A
i + The voltage source is called the
vOC +
_ vO THEVENIN EQUIVALENT SOURCE
_ The resistance is called the
THEVENIN EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
PART A MUST BEHAVE LIKE 24
THIS CIRCUIT

12
 vOC v vOC
Norton Approach vO  vOC  RTH i  i   O  i SC
RTH RTH RTH

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a
May contain 
independent and
dependent sources vO ANY
with their controlling
_ b PART B
variables
PART A

Norton Equivalent
i a Representation for Part A

iSC Norton Equivalent Source
RTH vO
i SC

Norton b
25

ANOTHER VIEW OF THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS

RTH i a

i +
RTH vO
vOC +
_ vO i SC
_ 
Norton b
Thevenin
vOC
i SC 
RTH
This equivalence can be viewed as a source transformation problem
It shows how to convert a voltage source in series with a resistor
into an equivalent current source in parallel with the resistor
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION CAN BE A GOOD TOOL TO REDUCE THE
COMPLEXITY OF A CIRCUIT
26

13
 Source transformation is a good tool to reduce complexity in a circuit ...
WHEN IT CAN BE APPLIED!!

“ideal sources” are not good models for real behavior of sources
A real battery does not produce infinite current when short-circuited

a a THE MODELS ARE EQUIVALENTS WHEN

RV RI RV  RI  R
VS
+
-

IS VS  RI S
b b
Improved model Improved model
for voltage source for current source

Source Transformationcan be used to determine the Thevenin or Norton Equivalent...

BUT THERE MAY BE MORE EFFICIENT TECHNIQUES

27

EXAMPLE 1: SOLVE BY SOURCE TRANSFORMATION In between the terminals we connect a current

source and a resistance in parallel
The equivalent current source will have the
value 12V/3k
The 3k and the 6k resistors now are in parallel
and can be combined

In between the terminals we connect a voltage

source in series with the resistor

The equivalent source has value 4mA*2k

The 2k and the 2k resistor become connected

in series and can be combined

After the transformation the sources can be combined

The equivalent current source has value 8V/4k
and the combined current source has value 4mA

Options at this point

1. Do another source transformation and get

a single loop circuit

2. Use current divider to compute I_0 and then

compute V_0 using Ohm’s law 28

14
 EXAMPLE 2: Compute V_0 using source transformation

EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
I0

Or one more source transformation

R eq R3 3 current sources in parallel and

three resistors in parallel

+ RTH R4
Veq -

VVeqTH Req I eq
R4 V0 Veq  Req I eq V0 
R4  R3  Req
Veq

29

RECAP OF SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

a a THE MODELS ARE EQUIVALENTS WHEN

RV RI RV  RI  R
VS
+
-

IS VS  RI S
b b
Improved model Improved model
for voltage source for current source

Source Transformationcan be used to determine the Thevenin or Norton Equivalent...

WE NOW REVIEW SEVERAL EFFICIENT APPROACHES

TO DETERMINE THEVENIN OR NORTON EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

30

15
 A General Procedure to Determine the Thevenin Equivalent
vTH Open Circuit vo ltage
voltage at a - b if Part B is removed
i SC Short Circuit Current
current through a - b if Part B is replaced
by a short circuit

RTH 
vTH
Thevenin Equivalent Resistance One circuit problem
i SC
LINEAR CIRCUIT i 0 a
1. Determine the Remove part B and May contain  
independent and
Thevenin equivalent compute the OPEN dependent sources vOC Vab
with their controlling
source CIRCUIT voltage Vab variables _
_
PART A b

Second circuit problem

2. Determine the Remove part B and
LINEAR CIRCUIT i a
SHORT CIRCUIT compute the SHORT May contain  SC
current CIRCUIT current I ab independent and
dependent sources v0 I ab
with their controlling
vOC variables _

vTH  vOC , RTH  PART A b

i SC
31

EXAMPLE 3: DETERMINING THE THEVENIN EQUIVALENT

R1
VTH Part B is irrelevant.
a The voltage V_ab will be the value of the
Thevenin equivalent source.
To Part B
VS IS
I SC
+
- R2 What is an efficient technique to compute the
open circuit voltage?
b
VTH VTH  VS
  IS  0
R2 R1 NODE
Now for the short circuit current ANALYSIS
Lets try source superposition 1 1 V
(  )VTH  S  I S
When the current source is open the VS R1 R2 R1
current through the short circuit is
1
SC I  R2 RR
R1 VTH  VS  1 2 I S
When the voltage source is set to zero,
R1  R2 R1  R2
the current through the short circuit is
2
I SC  IS
R1 R2  VS 
V VTH    I S 
I SC  IS  S R1  R2  R1 
R1
R1 R2
To compute the Thevenin resistance we RTH 
use R1  R2 Is this a
general
VTH
RTH  For this case the Thevenin resistance can be computed as result?
32
I SC the resistance from a - b when all independent sources have been
set to zero

16
 Determining the Thevenin Equivalent in Circuits with Only INDEPENDENT SOURCES

The Thevenin Equivalent Source is computed as the open loop voltage

The Thevenin Equivalent Resistance CAN BE COMPUTED by setting to zero all the sources
and then determining the resistance seen from the terminals where the equivalent will be placed
R1 a
a
To Part B R1 R2 RTH
VS +
-
IS R2

b b
“Part B”
Since the evaluation of the Thevenin
equivalent can be very simple, we
RTH  3k  can add it to our toolkit for the
solution of circuits!!

RTH  4k
33
“Part B”

EXAMPLE 4

5k

“PART B”

6V

1k
VO  (6V )  1[V ]
1k  5k
34

17
EXAMPLE 5 COMPUTE Vo USING THEVENIN
In the region shown, one could use source
transformation twice and reduce that part to
a single source with a resistor.
... Or we can apply Thevenin Equivalence
to that part (viewed as “Part A”)

RTH  4k For the open loop voltage

the part outside the region
The original circuit becomes... 6 is eliminated
VTH  12[V ]  8[V ]
3 6
And one can apply Thevenin one more time!
 For open loop voltage use KVL
1
VTH 1
VTH  4k * 2mA  8V  16V
R1TH  4k


...and we have a simple voltage divider!!

8
V0  16[V ]  8V
88

35

Or we can use Thevenin only once to get a voltage divider For the Thevenin resistance

RTH  8k
“Part B”
For the Thevenin voltage we have to analyze the
following circuit
METHOD??
Source superposition, for example

Contribution of the voltage source

6
1
VOC  12V  8V
3 6
Contribution of the current source
Thevenin Equivalent of “Part A” 2
VOC  (2k  2k ) * (2mA)  8V

Simple Voltage Divider

36

18
EXAMPLE 6 USE THEVENIN TO COMPUTE Vo

You have the choice on the way to partition

the circuit.
Make “Part A” as simple as possible
Since there are only independent sources,
for the Thevenin resistance we set to zero all
sources and determine the equivalent resistance

RTH  2  (2 || 4)
10
“Part B”
 k
3
For the open circuit voltage we analyze the
following circuit (“Part A”) ... The circuit becomes...

Loop Analysis
I 2  2mA
 6V  4kI1  2k ( I1  I 2 )  0

6  2I2 5
I1  mA  mA V0 
6  32  48
 V
6 3 10  
6  3  7
VOC  4k * I1  2k * I 2  20 / 3  4V  32 / 3[V ] 3 37

EXAMPLE 7: USE THEVENIN TO COMPUTE Vo



“PART B”
I
VOC


9kI  18[V ]  I  2mA
VOC  3kI  12  6[V ]

RESULTING EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

RTH  2k 2k

RTH 
4k VO

RTH  3k || 6k  2k VTH  6V 
4
VO  (6V )  3[V ]
44

38

19
 EXAMPLE 8: COMPUTE Vo USING NORTON

4k
I
RN 2k
IN
I SC
 RN 
RN  RTH  3k PART B VO  2kI  2k  I N 
R
 N  6 k 
12V
I SC  I N   2mA  2mA 3 4
3k VO  2 ( 2)  [V ]
9 3
COMPUTE Vo USING THEVENIN PART B
VTH
RTH

+
- 2k VO
VTH 
VTH  12 2 4
 2mA  0 VO  (6V )  [V ]
3k 27 3
RTH  3k  4k 39

EXAMPLE 9 Equivalent Resistance: Independent sources only

RTH

I2
RTH  3R || 3R  1.5R

I1 KVL VTH Equivalent Voltage: Node, loop, superposition… Do loops

 I 1 I S  VS  5R( I1  I 2 )  RI 2  0
VTH  RI 2  2R(I1  I 2 )
How about source superposition?
VS
RTH
Opening the current source: 1
VTH 
Short circuiting the voltage source 2
+
- VTH + 5 1
IS I1 R I1  I S I 2  I S
6 6
V2TH 2 1
VTH  RI1  2 RI 2  RI S
2
This is what we need to get 3R 2R KVL
1 2
I2 _
VTH  VTH  VTH 40

20
 EXAMPLE 10 All independent sources
All resistors are in parallel!!


VTH


The circuit can be simplified

,,, An to compute Equivalent Source...

 
  VTH  
SOURCE
TRANSFORMATION 
VTH
Voltage divider

8k
VTH  (6  24 / 6)[V ] 41
8k  (8 / 6)k

THEVENIN EQUIVALENT FOR CIRCUITS WITH ONLY DEPENDENT SOURCES

A circuit with only dependent sources cannot self start.

(actually that statement has to be qualified a bit.

What happens if a  R1  R2 ? )

FOR ANY PROPERLY DESIGNED CICUIT WITH ONLY DEPENDENT

SOURCES
 aI x  ( R1  R2 ) I X  0 VOC  0, I SC  0
 a  R1  R2 I x  0 This is a big simplification!!
 a  R1  R2  0  I x  0 But we need a special approach for the
computation of the Thevenin equivalent resistance

Since the circuit cannot self start we need to probe it

with an external source
The source can be either a voltage source or a
VTH  0 current source and its value can be chosen arbitrarily!
Which one to choose is often determined by the
simplicity of the resulting circuit

42

21
IF WE CHOOSE A VOLTAGE PROBE... WE MUST COMPUTE CURRENT SUPPLIED BY
PROBE SOURCE

VP  aI X VP
IP  IX  IX 
R1 R2
 1 1 a 
I P     VP
(VP )
 R2 R1 R1R2 

VP
RTH 
IP
(VP ) RTH 
VP
 1 1 a 
   VP
 R2 R1 R1R2 
The value chosen for the probe voltage is irrelevant.
43
Oftentimes we simply set it to one

IF WE CHOOSE A CURRENT SOURCE PROBE

We must compute the node voltage V_p

KCL
V
(IP ) VP VP  aI X I  P
  I P  0 X R2
R2 R1
 1 1 a 
   VP  I P
R
 2 R1 R R
1 2

(IP ) VP
RTH 
IP

The value of the probe current is irrelevant. For simplicity

it is often choosen as one.

44

22
EXAMPLE 11 FIND THE THEVENIN EQUIVALENT

V1 V1  2V X V1  VP
KCL @V1 :   0
1k 2k 1k
V1 VP VX  VP  V1
Controlling variable:

SOLVING THE EQUATIONS

4 3
V1  VP , V X  VP
7 7
VP VP  2V X V X
Do we use current probe or voltage probe? IP   
2k 1k 1k
If we use voltage probe there is only one 15VP
node not connected through source IP 
14k

VP 14
VP
RTH   k
I P 15
IP Using voltage probe. Must compute
current supplied

45

EXAMPLE 12 Find the Thevenin Equivalent circuit at A - B

Only dependent sources. Hence V_th = 0

To compute the equivalent resistance we
must apply an external probe

We choose to apply a current probe R  VP

TH
IP
@V_1

VP (IP )
@V_2
 IP
Controlling variable
“Conventional” circuit with dependent
sources - use node analysis 3(V1  2V1)  6V1  2(V1  V2 )  0
RTH
2(V2  V1)  3V2  6[V ]
A
5V1  2V2  0 * / 2 30 10
V2  
 2V1  5V2  6 * / 5 21 7
B V2
(VP  V2 )  ( I P  1mA )  RTH   (10 / 7)k
Thevenin equivalent 1mA
46

23
EXAMPLE 13

RTH
A

Thevenin equivalent
 VP 
I P  1mA I_1 = I_p/2
I_3=0 The resistance is
R_th = 2kOhms VP VP numerically equal
RTH  
I P 1mA to V_p but with
MUST FIND VAB  VP . METHOD? units of KOhm

Loop analysis
VX
I1  ; I2  I P
2000
2k * I3  1k * ( I 2  I3 )  2k * ( I3  I 2  I1)  4k * ( I3  I1)  0
Controlling variable VX  1k * ( I3  I 2 )
Voltage across current probe
 VP  1k * ( I3  I 2 )  2k * ( I3  I 2  I1)  0 47

Thevenin Equivalent
Circuits with both Dependent and Independent Sources
We will compute open circuit voltage and short circuit current
LINEAR CIRCUIT i a For each determination of a Thevenin equivalent
May contain 
independent and we will solve two circuits
dependent sources vO
with their controlling
variables _ b
PART A
Any and all the techniques discussed should be readily
available; e.g.,
KCL, KVL,combination series/parallel, node, loop analysis,
RTH source superposition, source transformation, homogeneity
a
V
VTH RTH  I
+
OC
-
SC

b
The approach of setting to zero all sources and then
combining resistances to determine the Thevenin
VTH  VOC resistance is in general not applicable!!

48

24
EXAMPLE 1 Use Thevenin to determine Vo Guidelines to partition:
“Part A” should be as simple as possible.
“Part B”
After “Part A” is replaced by the Thevenin
equivalent we should have a very simple circuit
The dependent sources and their controlling
variables must remain together

Open circuit voltage Constraint at super node V1  VOC  12  V1  12  VOC

Options???
V1 KCL at super node (12  VOC )  (aI 1X ) 12  VOC VOC
  0
1k V 2k 2k
Equation for controlling variable I 1X  OC
36 2k
Solve VOC 
4  (a / 1k )
Short circuit current
VA VA I SC  
12V
 18mA
I "X  0 1k || 2k
2k
VOC 2
RTH   [k]
I SC 4  (a / 1k )
Negative resistances for some “a’s”
Solution to the problem
RTH (a  2k ) Setting all sources to zero and combining
resistances will yield an incorrect value!!!!

1k 1k 18
V0  VTH  (  6)=  V
1k  1k  RTH 1 7
VOC 1k  1k  k 49
3

EXAMPLE 2: Find Vo using Thevenin Open circuit voltage Method???

V1 Super node


VTH KVL
IX IX 

V1 V  ( 3V ) V1  (3 / 4)[V ]
 1mA  1 0
Short Circuit Current 2k 6k
Controlling variable
KVL  VTH  1000I X  V1  0
V11 IX 
V1
VTH  (3 / 8)[V ] 2k
The equivalent circuit
I SC R TH 1k
I 1X
+
1 +
2k
V11  1000 I 1X I 1X  V1  V 1  0  I 1  0
VTH - VO
1 X _
2k
KCL 2
I SC  1mA  (3V ) /(6k )  0.5mA V0  (3 / 8)[V ]
2  1  (3 / 4)
VOC The equivalent resistance cannot be obtained by
RTH   (3 / 4)k short circuiting the sources and determining the
I SC resistance of the resulting interconnection of resistors
50

25
EXAMPLE 3: Use Thevenin to compute Vo DON’T PANIC!! Select your partition

Now compute V_0 using the Thevenin equivalent

“Part B”

6k
RTH V0  11[V ]
6 k  8k
VTH

VX1
Open Circuit Voltage Use loops Loop equations I1  ; I 2  2mA
2000
Controlling variable
VX1  4k ( I1  I 2 )
VX1  2kI1  2kI1  4k ( I1  I 2 )  I1  4mA
VOC  2k * I1  3[V ] 2k * 4mA  3V  11V
KVL for V_oc

Loop equations
Short circuit current
I1
I1  4mA Same as before
Vx"
I1  ; I 2  2mA 3V  2k * I1 11
2000 I SC   mA
 3V  2k ( I SC  I1)  0 2k 2
I sc
Controlling variable Thevenin resistance
I2 VX"  4k * ( I1  I 2 ) VOC 11[V ] 51
RTH    2k
I SC (11/ 2)mA

EXAMPLE 4

Linear Model for Transistor The alternative for mixed sources

R1 VOC
Vx
a
VTH  VOC , RTH 

I SC
vS + R2 R3VTH
- Open circuit voltage
g mVx 
b
VTH   gm R3Vx
I SC R2 RR
R TH Vx  v S  VTH   gm 3 2 v S
R1  R2 R1  R2
a
Short circuit current
+ R2
VTH
-
I SC   gmVx   gm vS
R1  R2
b
Equivalent Resistance
VOC
RTH   R3
I SC
52

26
EXAMPLE 5 Mixed sources. Must compute Voc and Isc
supernode
Open circuit voltage
KCL at super node I1  I X  2 I X  0
 The two 4k resistors are in parallel I1  I X
VTH
I1

I X  0  VTH  12[V ]
KCL at supernode
Short circuit current
I SC  4 I X
KVL
4k * ( I SC / 4)  12[V ]  6k * I SC  0
12
V 12V I SC  mA
RTH  TH   7k 7
IX I SC I SC (12 / 7)mA
R TH
a

VTH
FINAL ANSWER 
b 53

EXAMPLE 6 Mixed sources! Must compute open loop voltage and

short circuit current
Open circuit voltage

VX Vb VTH  VX  Vb
 VTH  R 2
For Vx use voltage divider VX  (2VS )  VS
R  2R 3
For Vb use KVL

Vb  2 R(aVX )  VS  (1  4aR / 3)VS

VTH  VX  (2 RaVX  VS )  (1  2 Ra)(2VS / 3)  VS
Short circuit current 1 4aR
We need to compute V_x
VTH   VS
Single node 3
I SC KCL@Vx V 1  2V 3VS
V1 V 1  Vs
x S
 X  aV X1  X 0 V X1 
VX 2R R 2R 4  2aR
KCL again can give the short circuit current

V X1  VS 1  4aR
I SC  aV X1  I SC   VS
2R 4 R(1  2aR)
R TH
V V 4 R(1  2aR) a FINAL ANSWER
RTH  OC  TH 
I SC I SC 3 
VTH

54
b

27
EXAMPLE 7 FIND AND PLOT RTH , VOC , WHEN 0  RX  10k
DATA TO BE PLOTTED
4 RX  RX 
RTH  4k || RX  VOC  12  6  
4  RX  4k  RX 

Using EXCEL to generate and plot data

THEVENIN EQUIVALENT EXAMPLE

Rx[kOhm] Voc[V] Rth[kOhm]

0 12 0
0.1 11.8537 0.097560976 USING EXCEL
0.2 11.7143 0.19047619
0.3 11.5814 0.279069767
0.4 11.4545 0.363636364 14
0.5 11.3333 0.444444444
0.6 11.2174 0.52173913 12
0.7 11.1064 0.595744681
0.8 11 0.666666667 10
0.9 10.898 0.734693878 8
Voc[V]

1 10.8 0.8
1.1 10.7059 0.862745098 6
1.2 10.6154 0.923076923 Voc[V]
1.3 10.5283 0.981132075 4 Rth[kOhm]
1.4 10.4444 1.037037037 2
1.5 10.3636 1.090909091
1.6 10.2857 1.142857143 0
1.7 10.2105 1.192982456 0 2 4 6 8 10
1.8 10.1379 1.24137931
Rx[kOhm]
55
1.9 10.0678 1.288135593

56

28
EXAMPLE 7 FIND AND PLOT RTH , VOC , WHEN 0  RX  10k
DATA TO BE PLOTTED
4 RX  RX 
RTH  4k || RX  VOC  12  6  
4  RX  4k  RX 
Using MATLAB to generate and plot data
» Rx=[0:0.1:10]'; %define the range of resistors to use
» Voc=12-6*Rx./(Rx+4); %the formula for Voc. Notice "./"
» Rth=4*Rx./(4+Rx); %formula for Thevenin resistance.
» plot(Rx,Voc,'bo', Rx,Rth,'md')
» title('USING MATLAB'), %proper graphing tools
» grid, xlabel('Rx(kOhm)'), ylabel('Volts/kOhms')
» legend('Voc[V]','Rth[kOhm]')

57

A MORE GENERAL VIEW OF THEVENIN THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a
May contain  USUAL INTERPRETATION
independent and
dependent sources vO
with their controlling
variables _ b
PART A

R
2R a
i a - VX
LINEAR CIRCUIT with
ALL independent  +

sources set to zero

aVX
PART A
vO
 2R
VTH  _ +
b -
VTH
b
THIS INTERPRETATION APPLIES
EVEN WHEN THE PASSIVE ELEMENTS
INCLUDE INDUCTORS AND CAPACITORS 58

29
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
Courtesy of M.J. Renardson

http://angelfire.com/ab3/mjramp/index.html

From PreAmp
(voltage ) To speakers

The simplest model for a

speaker is a resistance...
RTH

RTH
VTH + SPEAKER
-
MODEL
VTH +
-

BASIC MODEL FOR THE

ANALYSIS OF POWER 59
TRANSFER

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

VL2 RL RL
PL  ; VL  VTH PL  V2
R TH RL RTH  RL  RTH  RL 2 TH


+ RL For every choice of R_L we have a different power.
-
VL How do we find the maximum value?
VTH (LOAD)
 Consider P_L as a function of R_L and find the
maximum of such function

SOURCE dPL  R  RL 2  2 RL RTH  RL  

 VTH2  TH 

dRL  RTH  RL 4 3 
Technically we need Set the derivative to zero to find extreme points.
to verify that it is For this case we need to set to zero the numerator
indeed a maximum The maximum
RTH  RL  2 RL  0  RL*  RTH power transfer
theorem
The value of the maximum
power that can be The load that maximizes the power transfer for a circuit is
transferred is equal to the Thevenin equivalent resistance of the circuit.

VTH2
PL (max)  ONLY IN THIS CASE WE NEED TO COMPUTE THE THEVENIN VOLTAGE
60
4 RTH

30
EXAMPLE 1 DETERMINE RL FOR MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
a We need to find the Thevenin resistance
b
at a - b.
The circuit contains only independent sources ....

RTH  4k  || 3k ,6k || 6k

Resistance for maximum
power transfer

If we MUST find the value of the

power that can be transferred THEN
we need the Thevenin voltage!!!
loop1: I1  2mA
loop2 : 3k ( I 2  I1 )  6kI 2  3V  0
3[V ] 1 1
I2    I1  [mA ]
9k 3 3
KVL : VOC  4k * I1  6k * I 2  10[V ]

V2 100[V 2 ] 25
PMX  TH PMX   [mW ]
4 RTH 4 * 6k 6
61

EXAMPLE 2 DETERMINE RL AND MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFERRED

a
c 1. Find the Thevenin equivalent at a - b
2. Remember that for maximum power
transfer
RL  RTH V2
PMX  TH
4 RTH
b
d .... And it is simpler if we do Thevenin
This is a mixed sources problem at c - d and account for the 4k at the end
loop1: I1  4mA
loop2 :  2kI X'  2kI 2  4k ( I 2  I1 )  0
1I I2 '
Controlling variable: I X  I2
I 2  I1  4mA  VOC  8[V ]
RTH  2k
Now the short circuit current
I "X  0 I SC  4mA
Remember now where the partition was made
RL  6k
82 8
PMX  [mW ]  [mW ]
4*6 3
62

31
EXAMPLE 3 EXAMINE POWER, OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
AS FUNCTIONS OF RESISTANCE

VIN2
PV  IN
2  R2
2
 VIN 
PV  R2  
 R1  R2 
OUT

VIN
I
2  R2
R2
VOUT  V
2  R2 IN 63

LAST YEAR MIDTERM EXAM PROBLEMS

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