Behaviour of light at the interface of two media. When light travelling in one medium falls on the surface of a second medium, the following three effects may occur : (i) A part of the incident light is turned back into the first medium. This is called reflection of light. Normal Incident Reflected ray ray Medium 1, Reflecting surface Refracted Tay Fig. 9.1 Reflection and refraction of light.—" ransmittedt into ehangest iret. the inci ght is tt et othe it i This is called refraction ¢ ‘ ght enengy 5 3) The remaining thint i nes Mk eld ia ¢ sound mal atpsoteal by the 0 sheoption of ght, Lanes etn aight Rf ve place aconnting toy the following tev a aa gle of incidenoe is equal to the a {9 The angle of inci reflection, ic. n are e reflected ray: an ®) The incident ray, the ro and the 2 aby at the point of incidence all fie in the same plane, on of light takes F382 The incident ray, reected reflecting surface lie 0 The above of plane ray and the normal to the nthe same plane, |aws of reflection are valid both in case and curved ref Alecting surfaces 93° SPHERICAL MIRRORS 3. What are spherical mirrors > e their a Spherical mirrors ? What are their too silvere, A spherical mirror Part of a hollow sphere Pp Spherical mit (i) Concave mirror, cer bulge surfice i ilorel pan an iy light takes place from the inne Hroltow sy, the ray cameate mirror, face ‘y (i) Convex mirror, in inner hollow surfice is silvered pashan nd in light takes place from the outer bulged gn amvex mirror, 4. Define pole, centre of cur, oF principal axis, linear aperture, aneinee rel foeal length, anc focal plane of ¢ fi in Connex In Fig 9.4, let APB be rate, ray StION With Shy 9 principal sectio ae Reflecting . Silvered surface surface ~ Pole | Centre of curvature Radius of curvature f Fig. 9.4 Characteristics of a concave minor mirror, ie, the secti ion cut by a plane Pole and centre of curvature of the 1. Pole. It is the 2. Centre of cur Of which the n Passing thag’ mirror middle, Point P, ‘Of the spherical mint. rvature, It is the centre Cof thes mirror forms a part. Radius of curvature. It is the radius (R=AC & BC)of the sphere of which the mimeo Principal axis. The line PC passing tert tea the centreofcuraature of the ms its principal axis. es Linear aperture. It is the diameter AB Circular boundary of the spherical miro. sl i * AMGular aperture, 11 is the angle ace by the boundary ofthe spherical mirror oF curvature C alll Fineipal focus, A narrow beam of! tg at } a Principal axis either actually cmt “Ppears to diverge from a point F a mitt mi K SxS after reflection from the spherat pe i a) Point is calied the principal focus a le mnt mirror has a real focus * ini itor has a virtual focus, as show?S. Virtual focus ab ® 45 Principal focus of (a) a concave mirror fe 8° © (ya convex mirror. « Foul length. It is the distance ( f = PF) between thefocus and the pole of the mirror. « foal plane. The vertical plane passing through the rrncpal focus and perpendicular to the principal Tis called focal plane. When a parallel beam of lights incident on a concave mirror at a small angle to the principal axis, it is converged to a point in the focal plane of the mirror, as shown in Fig. 9.6. 79.9.6 Focal plane of concave mirror. Noy t . ret ag§ IN Joining any point of the spherical era eS CONtr8 Of curvature, will be normal to the & thet point. 5. Stay le Perl mj ie on the new cartesian sign convention used for "rors, Moon qatt@lan Sign Convention for Spherical Lan "ding to this sign convention : ty Qe2'9Brams are drawn with the incident Velling from left to right. Mirror 3. All dint incident fi nes Measured in the reel direction of nate to be positive en he 7 ei the opposite dircetion 5. Helene Lit ate taken ta be negative Hees n red upwards and perpendicul & Weights measured dowmeants ang dicul. a far to the principal axis are ta Mirror Heights upwards positive Object on left Distances against incident light Heights messi) Distances along aaa incident light pi positive Fig. 9.7 New Cartesian sign convention, According to this sign convention, the focal length and radius of curvature are negative for a concave mirror and positive for a convex mirror. 6. Derive a relationship between the focal length and radius of curoature of a spherical mirror. Relation between f and R. Consider a ray AB parallel to the principal axis, incident at point B of a spherical mirror (concave ot convex) of small aperture. After reflection from the mirror, this ray converges to point F (in case of a concave mirror) or appears to « o on between fand Rf acon mito Fig. 9.8 Relatic (a) a concave morprincipal focus in the case ofa coney yy after reflection, become paral jy 4ya™” iy Princip, ina gt int Fin © reflection Tht ature, cate af Ht? rama to mitToF Ny diverge from po i obeying the laws of mirror, Cis the ee currvatare and BC is 2 a the Jaw of reflection z According t A AB is parallel to PC gor maar = Zr=Za Hence CF=FB or a mirror of small aperture, FR FP CF FP Hence CP = CF + FP= FP + FP=2FP Fig, 2.10 (0 Aray trough F becomes prt 0 axis after reflection fom a concave nae, to, Rg o Re2f or fry cor Focal length =4 x Radius of curvature te the rules used for drawing images formed by spherical mirrors. Draw ray diagrams showing the formation of images by concave and convex mirrors for different 0 it i i : oe Lene ‘on the principal axis. : Fig. 9.10 (6) A ray directed through F becomes pat ules for drawing images formed by spherical principal axis after reflection from « 7 mirrors. The position ofthe image formed by spherical — aoe a et ae by bape any two of the (iii) A ray, Passing through the centre of. ‘curvatureinty crn een apontonthe objec. ease of conenve mirror (Fig. 9.11(a)), and dirt tot he cee ecg pall othe principal axis wil, the centre of curvature in the ene Of «conver nine ferret pet Lenina the case of Fg 9.11(b)] falls normally (i= 21 =0°) and ised nirror [Fig 9.9), 0 come Poe inthe case ofa convex mira [Fig 99(6), oo Fi *8 (6) Ay parle tothe pinpa reflect ani passes thy : y stele en acne amet MONE F811 (0) A cay pasng through cis eeted Of same path after reflection from a concave mil 5 $90) Atay pat Wthe ome fom F afte seterign PEA ais ection f *Ppears i (A ray passing thy Hom conver ming Fig, 9.11 ( cave 4 oma miner ig gh Principal foes, ie ) Atay det tomas fe _ focus Sat " : Nb ond directo case Path after reflection from a ne monn te ay Lie) For the ray incident at any ans “cled ray follows the laws of reflect”ve ave Mirrors wwe a wa nage ' 2, Real a, Smaller than object pa 9.12 0) wom image iS of es 2, Real ae ‘4, Same size as object: gine iP | B Fig. 9.12 (0) symchenven Fand C. The image is ie 2. Real | nveted 4, Larger than object. Fig, 9.12 (¢) Pet her ‘ sna F and P. The image is A iat the mirror wala 4. Larger than object. Fis, 9.12 (a)Formation of image by Convex Mirror : y For any position of the object between and pole P, the image is 1, Behind the mirror 2. Virtual 3. Erect 4. Smaller than object. Fig. 9.12 (e) 9.4 THE MIRROR FORMULA 8. State the mirror formula. Is the same formula applicable to both concave and convex mirrors ? Write the assumptions used in the derivation of mirror formula. Mirror formula The mirror formula is a mathematical relationship between object distance u, image distance v and the focal length f of a spherical mirror. This relation is agit Us Oe eh This formula is applicable to all concave and convex mirrors, whether the image formed is real or virtual. Assumptions used in the derivation of mirror formula : (i) All the rays are paraxial. (ii) The aperture of the mirror is small. (iii) The object placed on the principal axis is small in size.14. What is meant by refraction of light ? Refraction of light. When light travels in the same homogeneous medium, it travels along a straight path. However, when it passes obliquely from one transparent medium to another, the direction of its path changes at the interface of the two media. This is called refraction of light. The phenomenon of the change in the path of light as it passes obliquely from one transparent medium to another is called refraction of light.Spherical lenses. Most of us are familiar with lenses. As magnifying glasses, lenses have been in use for centuries, Lenses used in spectacles help us to read with comfort. Various optical instruments like camera, projector, microscope, telescopes, ete., cannot function without lenses. A lens is a piece of a refracting medium bounded by two surfaces, at least one of which is a curved surface. The commonly used lenses are the spherical lenses. These lenses have either both surfaces spherical or one spherical and the other a plane one. Lenses can be divided into kvo categories : (i) Convex or converging lenses, and (if) Concave or diverging lenses. (i) Convex or converging lens. It is thicker at the centre than at the edges. It converges a parallel beam of light on refraction through it. It has a real focus. Types of convex lenses : (a) Double convex or biconvex lens. In this lens, both surfaces are convex. (b) Planoconvex lens. In this lens, one side is convex and the other is plane. (c) Concavoconvex. In this lens, one side is convex and the other is concave. Biconvex Planoconvex Concavoconver Fig. 9.52 Different types of convex lenses.x s. It is thinner at the parallel beam of virtual focus. (7) Concave or diverging len centre than at the edges. It diverges a light on refraction through it. It has a Types of concave lenses : (a) Double concave or biconcave lens. In this lens, both sides are concave. (b) Planoconcave lens. In this lens, one side is plane and the other is concave. (c) Convexoconcave lens. In this lens, one side is convex and the other is concave. Biconcave _ Planoconcave Convexoconcave Fig. 9.53 Different types of concave lenses.Electrostatic properties of a conductor. When placed in electrostatic fields, the conductors show the following properties : 1. Net electrostatic field is zero in the interior of a conductor. As shown in Fig. 2.42, when a conductor is placed in an electric field ae its free electrons begin to move in the opposite direction of Negative charges are induced on the left end and positive Conductor Fig. 2.42 Electric field inside a conductor is zero,a ir d charges are induced on the right end of iy, e . Con ‘he process continues till the electric fig Nd by the induced charges becomes equal ang 5%! ty Rear its | outer boundary: As the field E =0 at all points insie the conductor, the flux é, through the Gaussian site mustbe zero. According to Gauss’s theorem, | 2 =p E. dS=— ef = Fig. 2.43 saterior of Hence there can be no charge in the inte" conductor because the Gaussian surface lies the outer boundary. The entire excess reside at the surface of the conductor. ott? 4. Potential is constant within and 0% oi 9f a conductor, Electric field at any point 67 Negative of the potential gradient, ie, .. dr avers F y _ bee inside a conductor E =0 and more "gential component on the surface * ao drjal is constant throughout the ac (Od has the same value (as Hea a tt gee surface ofa conductor isan ace: tS su |, there exists an electric | is Gace. THIS indicates that the te face will be different from the [ntl G1 a Ist outside the surface, I apd at the surface of a charged a ional to the surface charge nit propmcharged conductor of irregular rface charge density at any point Surface of conductor fi. 244 A-smal pill box as a Gaussian surface of a charged conductor. afissiriace. To determine E at this point, we choose a rt inder (pill box) as the Gaussian surface about tis point. The pill box lies partly inside and partly cuside the conductor (Fig. 2.44). It has a cross- sstional area AS and negligible height. Electric field is zero inside the conductor and just cuts, it is normal to the surface. The contribution to ‘he total flux through the pill box comes only from its cules cross-section. hagpeg CONE = onder As shown in Fig. 2.45, consider @ having a cavity, with no charges &=Eas Charge enclosed by pill box, q=0 AS 8y Gauss's theorem, t & ae Eas=S.48 i. =—_ | Points normally outward, so we write E zoo" k poms | i Bh eu 2 f " ditection i Vector normal to the surface in the Bu. . | eagle fi | aed cong is zero in the cavity of a hollow k | I bh+ Inalde the cavity. Imagine a Gaussian surface i rface in + conductor quite close to the cavit cavity. Everywher the conductor, E~0, By Gauss thenrens enclosed by this Gaussian surtace is zero (<0 ee q@0), Consequently, the electric field m ield must be zero overy point Inside the cavity (q=0-> £0) Lp excess charge 4 q lies on its surface. at E=0). The entire Gaussian surface 9 Fig. 2.45 Electric field vanishes in the cavity of a conductor. 2.16 ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING 26. What is electrostatic shielding ? Mention its few applications. Electrostatic shielding. Consider a conductor with a cavity, with no charges placed inside the cavity. Whatever be the size and shape of the cavity and whatever be the charge on the conductor and the external fields in which it might be placed, the electric field inside the cavity is zero, i.e., the cavity inside the conductor remains shielded from outside electric influence. This is known as electrostatic shielding. Such a field free region is called a Faraday cage. The phenomenon of making a region free from any electric field is called electrostatic shielding. It is based on the fact that electric field vanishes inside the cavity of a hollow conductor. Applications of electrostatic shielding 1. Ina thunderstorm accompanied by lightning, it + to sit inside a car, rather than near a tree e metalllic body of the tic shielding from is safes or on the open ground. The car becomes an electrostal lightning. 2. Sensitive components of electronic devices are pro- tected or shielded from external electric distur- bances by placing metal shields around them. 3, In a coaxial cable, the outer conductor connec” ted to ground provides an electrical shield to the signals carried by the central conductor.2.17 ELECTRICAL CAPACITANCE OFA CONDUCTOR 27. Define electrical capacita which factors does it depend ? a Electrical capacitance of a conductor. Ti ee old capacitance of a conductor is the measure of its ability tol 10 ‘ electric charge. When an insulated conductor 1s give some charge, it acquires a certain potential. If we increase the charge ort a conductor, its potential also increases. If a charge Q put on an insulated conductor increases its potential by V, then Q«xV_ or Q=CV The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the conductor. Thus Charge Potential nce of & conductor. On Capacitance = Hence the capacitance of a conductor may be defined as the charge required to increase the potential of the conductor by unit amount. The capacitance of a conductor is the measure of its capacity to hold a large amount of charge without running a high potential. It depends upon the following factors : 1. Size and shape of the conductor. 2. Nature (permittivity) of the surrounding medium 3. Presence of the other conductors in ; ich bourhood. ee neigh- It is worth-noting that the ca: ductor does not depend on the n and the amount of charge existin: pacitance of a con- ature of its material 'g On the conductor.Units of capacitance. The % i Tar SL Mit of gg farad (F), named in the honour of Michag} Pita, a The capacitance of conductor is 1 farag “day ® charge of | coulomb to it, increases itn ofacharge of 1 coulomb to it, increases its ote ti 1coulomb ONT 1 farad =" orp pC 1 volt Tyeleys One farad is a very large unit of capa practical purposes, we uses following sun at ip 1 millifarad =1mF=10 f a 1 microfarad =1yF = 10° F 1 picofatad Dimensions of capacitance. The unt of capac pRotC 1S 1? _1(As? 1V 1J/C 1) INm <. Dimensions of capacitance 272 aL Le és 2.18 CAPACITANCE OF AN ISOLATED SPHERICAL CAPACITOR 29. Obtain an expression for the capacitance of isolated spherical conductor of radius R. Capacitance of an iso- lated spherical conductor. Consider an isolated sphe- tical conductor of radius R. The charge Q is uniformly distributed over its entire surface. It can be assumed ‘0 be concentrated at the centre of the sphere. The >otential at any point on the stance? | vurface of the spherical Fig, 2.46 CapaCit conductor will be spherical cond ve 2 4ne, R - Capacitance of the spherical cond 1 vacuum is aor sto 1 Q Aney RB ¥ Cx 4negR pct ® “Le spherical ro leary, the capacitance of a sphere oportional to its radius,