Thermoelectric Generator

A PROJECT
FOR PHYSICS
(Subject Code: 042)

Submitted By: Geethika Payyavula

Under the Guidance of -

Mr. Cyril S

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Thermoelectric Generator

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify
that Geethika Payyavula
of class 12,
student of EKYA School – ITPL, Bengaluru,
has successfully completed her portfolio
Physics (Code – 042) practical
for the AISSCE as prescribed by CBSE in the year
2024 – 25

Date:
Registration No.: Signature of Principal

Signature Signature
Internal Examiner External Examiner

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Thermoelectric Generator

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to my Physics Teacher,

Mr. Cyril S, for his able support in completing my portfolio.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to my
Principal & Coordinator for providing me
with all the required facilities.
Lastly, I would also like to thank my parents and friends
without whose moral support I would not have been able to
complete this portfolio.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SL.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. Title 1

2. Certificate 2

3. Acknowledgment 3

4. Table of Contents 4

5. Abstract 5–6

6. Introduction 7–8

7. Thermoelectric Modules 9 – 10

8. Thermoelectric Generator 11 – 13

9. Construction 13 – 15

10. Working Principle 16 – 17

11. Types of TEGs 18

12. Advantages and Disadvantages of 19 – 20

TEGs
13. Applications of TEGs 21 – 22

14. Bibliography 23 – 24

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Thermoelectric Generator

Abstract

Today, one of the biggest problems the world is facing is global warming. This is happening
because too much energy is being released into the atmosphere, which raises the temperature
of our planet. This energy often comes from activities that rely on non-renewable sources like
coal, oil, and natural gas. Scientists are working hard to find ways to reduce this energy release
by making our power sources more efficient and finding ways to reuse or recycle the energy
that would normally be wasted.

This project focuses on one possible solution: thermoelectric modules (TEMs). Thermoelectric
modules are devices that can turn heat energy directly into electrical energy. Imagine a device
that could capture waste heat from different sources, like car engines or factory machines, and
use it to generate electricity! This could help reduce the need for traditional energy sources,
which often rely on burning fossil fuels. However, to make these modules work efficiently,
they need to be kept at the right temperature, which is why a good cooling system is essential.

In this project, four different types of thermoelectric modules (TEMs) were tested with
different cooling systems to find the best combination. Testing was conducted using a candle
flame as the heat source, which provided a controlled temperature environment. The
temperature was raised to a maximum of 200°C to mimic the heat that might come from waste
sources in real-world applications. An electronic circuit was used to make sure the power
supplied to the modules was steady and sufficient.

The goal of this experiment was to identify which type of TEM, along with a specific cooling
method, could provide the most stable and reliable output of electricity. To do this, we looked
at important factors of each module, such as:
• The temperature difference between the hot side (facing the flame) and the cold
side (cooled by the chosen system).
• The number of thermoelements inside each module, which affects how much heat
can be converted to electricity.

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• The internal resistance of each module, which can impact how efficiently it
generates power.

After testing and comparing all the different setups, we were able to find the most efficient
combination of TEM and cooling system. This research helps us understand how to use
thermoelectric modules better, which could play an important role in saving energy and
reducing the world’s reliance on non-renewable power sources like batteries or electricity from
the power grid.

In conclusion, this project contributes to the larger goal of energy sustainability. By improving
our ability to recycle waste heat into useful electricity, we can help reduce the need for burning
fossil fuels, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and ultimately help combat global warming.

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Introduction

In today’s world, we rely on energy for almost everything we do – from powering our homes
and schools to running cars, factories, and computers. Unfortunately, much of this energy
comes from burning fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas. These fuels release carbon
dioxide and other harmful gases into the atmosphere, which contributes to global warming and
climate change. As a result, the Earth is heating up, which leads to more extreme weather,
rising sea levels, and environmental problems. To protect the planet for future generations, it’s
essential that we start using energy more efficiently and look for new, cleaner sources of
energy.

One solution is to use renewable energy sources. These include solar power (energy from the
sun), wind power, and hydropower (energy from water). Unlike fossil fuels, renewable energy
sources do not run out and don’t produce as much pollution. They offer a way to generate
power without causing more harm to the environment. However, we still need more
technology and development to make renewable energy sources more accessible, affordable,
and efficient.

Another interesting way to make energy more efficient is by using something called
thermoelectricity. Thermoelectricity is a process that allows us to take wasted heat energy
and turn it directly into electricity. For example, many machines and vehicles produce a lot of
heat while they’re working. In the past, this heat was usually wasted and just released into the
air. But with thermoelectric technology, we can capture this heat and use it to produce
electricity. This makes the system more efficient, reduces costs, and helps cut down on
pollution.

Thermoelectricity was discovered a long time ago. In 1821, a scientist named Thomas Johann
Seebeck found out that when you create a temperature difference between two ends of certain
materials, it can generate electricity. This is known as the Seebeck effect. Later, in 1834, a
scientist named Jean Charles Peltier discovered the opposite effect, where electricity can
create a temperature difference between two materials, which is now called the Peltier effect.
Another scientist, Lord Kelvin, studied these two effects in 1851 and created formulas that
explain how they work together. Over the years, scientists have worked to understand and
improve thermoelectric technology, and in 1909, a researcher named Edmund Altenkirch

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came up with a way to measure the efficiency of thermoelectric devices, which he called the
figure of merit.

Thermoelectricity is now being considered as an important alternative energy source for the
future. Thermoelectric devices are not only used for creating electricity but can also be used
in coolers and heaters. One big advantage of thermoelectric technology is that it doesn’t need
moving parts to work, which makes it very reliable and long-lasting. Since it can recycle waste
heat into electricity, it’s also very environmentally friendly. This makes thermoelectricity a
great option for industries that produce a lot of heat, like manufacturing, transportation, and
energy production. By turning waste heat into useful power, we can make our energy systems
more sustainable, reduce pollution, and save money.

In this project, we are focusing on how to make thermoelectric systems even better.
Specifically, we’re exploring which cooling methods work best with thermoelectric modules
(TEMs) to maximise their efficiency. When a TEM is exposed to a heat source, it needs to
have a cold side as well, so that there is a temperature difference to produce electricity. The
greater the difference between the hot side and the cold side, the more electricity it can generate.
But if the device becomes too hot, it stops working effectively. This is why a good cooling
system is necessary.

For this experiment, we used a candle flame as the heat source to provide a controlled
temperature, with a maximum heat level of 200°C. By testing four different types of
thermoelectric modules with different cooling systems, we aim to find the most efficient
combination. An electronic circuit was also used to provide constant and stable power during
the experiment. The parameters we focused on included the temperature difference between
the hot and cold sides, the number of thermoelements in each module, and the internal
resistance.

The goal of this project is to find the best setup that will allow us to recycle heat energy in the
most efficient way possible. If we can improve the efficiency of thermoelectric modules, it
could have a big impact on our ability to use energy more responsibly. This kind of research
is essential for helping us reduce our reliance on non-renewable energy sources and creating a
cleaner, more sustainable future.

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Thermoelectric Generator

Thermoelectric Electric Modules

A thermoelectric generator (TEG) module is a device that can take heat energy and turn it
directly into electrical energy. This is done using something called the Seebeck effect. When
one side of the TEG module is hot and the other side is cool, a temperature difference, or
“temperature gradient,” is created. This temperature gradient causes the electrons to start
moving from the hot side to the cool side, which generates an electric current.

Inside a TEG module, there are small components called thermoelectric elements that make
this energy conversion possible. These elements come in two types: n-type and p-type. The
“n” and “p” refer to the type of charge carriers in each material:

• N-type elements have extra electrons (negative charge carriers).

• P-type elements have fewer electrons, which creates “holes” (positive charge
carriers).

A typical TEG module has anywhere from ten to a hundred of these n-type and p-type elements,
and they are arranged in pairs. Each pair, consisting of one n-type and one p-type element, is
called a p-n pair. These p-n pairs are connected in a way that allows electricity to flow through
them in sequence, which is known as being “connected in series.” At the same time, these
pairs are arranged so that they share the temperature gradient between the hot and cold sides,
which is called “thermally in parallel.” This setup is very efficient because it allows the
module to make the most out of the temperature difference.

The p-n pairs are sandwiched between two ceramic layers. These layers act as insulators,
protecting the thermoelectric elements and helping to keep the temperature difference stable.
The p-n pairs are connected by conductive tabs, which are small pieces of metal that allow
electricity to flow from one element to the next. These tabs are attached to the elements with
a type of low-melting-point solder, like PbSn (lead-tin) or BiSn (bismuth-tin). This solder
helps keep the elements firmly connected while allowing the module to operate at high
temperatures.

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One of the biggest challenges with TEG modules is something called thermal fatigue.
Thermal fatigue happens because, over time, the module heats up and cools down repeatedly.
Every time this happens, the materials inside the module expand slightly when they heat up
and then contract when they cool down. This constant expansion and contraction causes
thermal stress at the points where the different materials are connected, especially at the
interface between the p-n pairs and the conductive tabs. Over time, this stress can cause cracks
and weaken the connections, reducing the module’s efficiency and shortening its lifespan.

This problem of thermal fatigue is why TEGs don’t last as long as we might like and why their
efficiency can decrease over time. Since the materials in the TEG expand and contract at
different rates when exposed to heat, the stress can eventually cause parts of the module to
break down. Scientists and engineers are working on ways to improve these materials and
connections to make TEGs more durable, but it remains a critical challenge.

Despite these challenges, TEG modules are widely used because they have a flat bulk
architecture, meaning their design is compact and efficient. This makes them useful in many
applications where space is limited, like in cars or small devices, and it allows them to turn
waste heat into usable electricity without needing extra moving parts.

In summary, a TEG module is a powerful little device that can take heat energy and turn it into
electrical energy, which is great for making systems more energy-efficient. However, because
of the stress caused by constant heating and cooling, TEG modules face issues with thermal
fatigue that can affect their performance and longevity. Scientists continue to study these
challenges and look for ways to make TEG modules even better for future use.

Figure 1.1 Thermoelectric Generator

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Thermoelectric Generator
Thermoelectric Generator
A thermoelectric generator (TEG) is a device that can directly turn heat into electrical energy.
It’s different from traditional power plants, which usually convert heat energy to electricity in
two steps. In a regular power plant, like a coal or nuclear plant, fuel (often coal) is burned to
heat water, turning it into steam. The steam then spins a turbine, turning the heat energy into
mechanical energy. After that, the mechanical energy from the spinning turbine is converted
into electrical energy. This two-step process loses some energy along the way, which makes
the system less efficient.
A thermoelectric generator, however, is much simpler because it only requires one step. It can
convert heat energy directly into electricity without needing to go through the mechanical step.
This makes it more efficient because less energy is lost. TEGs are also sometimes called
Seebeck generators because they rely on a scientific principle known as the Seebeck effect.
Understanding the Seebeck Effect
The Seebeck effect was discovered by a scientist named Thomas Seebeck in 1821. It explains
how, when there’s a difference in temperature between two sides of certain materials, an
electric current can be generated. In simple terms, if you heat one side of the TEG and keep
the other side cool, the difference in temperature causes electrons to move. This movement of
electrons creates electricity.
A TEG takes advantage of this effect by creating a temperature gradient – a difference in
temperature across the device. One side is kept hot, while the other side is kept cool. As long
as there’s a temperature difference, electricity will flow, and the TEG can continue producing
power.
How TEGs Work Compared to Conventional Power Plants
Let’s look at the difference more closely:
• In Conventional Power Plants: Fuel, like coal, is burned to heat water, turning
it into high-pressure steam. The steam spins a turbine, converting heat energy into mechanical
energy. Then, this mechanical energy is changed into electrical energy using a process called
electromagnetic induction, discovered by a scientist named Fleming. The process involves
two stages of energy conversion (heat to mechanical, then mechanical to electrical), which
means some energy is lost in each step. This is why these plants can be less efficient.
• In Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs): TEGs skip the mechanical step. Instead,
they use the Seebeck effect to convert heat directly into electricity. This makes them simpler
and, in many cases, more efficient, especially when there’s waste heat available, such as from
car engines, industrial processes, or even solar panels. By converting this otherwise wasted
heat into electricity, TEGs can save energy and reduce operating costs.
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Thermoelectric Generator
Benefits of Thermoelectric Generators
Because TEGs can directly turn heat into electricity, they have several important advantages:
1. Higher Efficiency with Direct Conversion: Since TEGs don’t need the two-step
process of turning heat into mechanical energy and then electrical energy, they can operate
with greater efficiency. More of the original heat energy is turned into useful electricity.
2. Economic Benefits: By capturing and converting waste heat (heat that would
normally just be lost into the environment), TEGs help save on energy costs. They can produce
electricity in places where it would otherwise be wasted, making them economically valuable.
3. Environmental Benefits: TEGs can help reduce pollution by making power
systems more efficient and reducing the need for additional fuel. For example, by using TEGs
to capture waste heat from cars or factories, we can generate electricity without burning more
fossil fuels.

How TEGs Are Used

TEGs are used in a variety of applications where there’s a source of waste heat. For example:
• In Cars: Some cars use TEGs to turn the waste heat from the engine into extra
power. This can help improve the car’s overall fuel efficiency.
• In Factories: Many factories produce a lot of heat as a byproduct of their
operations. TEGs can be installed to capture this heat and convert it into additional power for
the factory’s equipment.
• In Space Missions: TEGs are also used in space exploration, where they convert
the heat from decaying radioactive materials into electricity for powering spacecraft.

Summary
In summary, a thermoelectric generator (TEG) is a device that turns heat into electricity in one
simple step. It does this by using the Seebeck effect, which creates a flow of electricity when
there’s a difference in temperature across the TEG. This direct conversion makes TEGs more
efficient and economically beneficial, especially when used to capture waste heat. TEGs are
an exciting technology for the future because they can help reduce energy costs and
environmental impact by making our power systems more efficient.

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Thermoelectric Generator

Figure 1.2 Peltier Power Generator

Thermoelectric Generator Construction

A thermoelectric generator (TEG) is built to turn heat into electricity using special materials
that create a temperature gradient (a difference in temperature) across the device. When one
side of a TEG is hot and the other is cool, this temperature difference allows it to generate
electricity. The construction of a TEG mainly relies on semiconductor materials that can
conduct electricity efficiently.

Semiconductor Materials
The key to a TEG’s construction lies in the use of two different types of semiconductor
materials: p-type and n-type. Both of these types of materials are special because they conduct
electricity in unique ways, allowing a flow of electric charges (electrons and “holes”) when
there’s a temperature difference.

1. P-Type Material: In p-type materials, the primary charge carriers are “holes.” A
hole is essentially a spot where an electron is missing, and it behaves as if it has a positive
charge. When a temperature difference is applied, these holes move towards the cooler side,
creating a flow of charges that contributes to generating electricity.

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2. N-Type Material: In n-type materials, the charge carriers are electrons, which
are negatively charged particles. When the temperature difference is applied, electrons move
toward the cooler side, also creating a current that helps produce electricity.
By using both p-type and n-type materials together in the TEG, the device can generate more
power from the temperature gradient.
Thermocouples and Metal Alloys
A thermocouple is the part of a TEG that combines p-type and n-type materials to create the
temperature gradient needed to produce electricity. A thermocouple has two different
semiconductors (p-type and n-type) joined together. When one end of the thermocouple is
heated, the temperature difference causes the electrons and holes to move, creating an electric
current.

To build the thermocouples, engineers use special metal alloys (mixtures of metals) that work
well at high temperatures and allow the charge to flow efficiently. Two common alloys used
in TEGs are:

• Bismuth Telluride (Bi₂Te₃): This alloy is widely used in TEGs because it has
the right properties to conduct electricity effectively and withstand high temperatures. Bismuth
telluride is often used in both p-type and n-type forms.
• Antimony Telluride (Sb₂Te₃): This is another common alloy used in TEGs,
often paired with bismuth telluride to create the semiconductor paths in the thermocouples.
These metal alloys make up the core pathway through which electrons and holes move to
generate electricity in the TEG.

Assembling a TEG
In a typical TEG, several p-type and n-type materials are connected in a series of
thermocouples, usually between two ceramic plates. These ceramic plates help keep the device
stable and insulate it from the surrounding environment. When the thermocouples are
connected in this way, the temperature difference across each pair (one side hot and one side
cool) creates a steady flow of electricity.
The setup looks something like this:

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1. Ceramic Layers: The top and bottom of the TEG are often made of ceramic
material. Ceramics are strong and can handle high temperatures, so they protect the
semiconductor materials inside.
2. Thermocouple Paths: Inside the TEG, p-type and n-type materials are arranged
in pairs to create thermocouples. Each pair is connected in a way that allows the flow of
electricity from one side to the other when there is a temperature difference.
3. Metal Tabs and Connections: The thermocouples are connected by small metal
tabs, which help conduct the electricity generated by the temperature gradient.
When a temperature gradient is applied to the TEG (for instance, by keeping one side heated
and the other side cooled), electrons and holes start moving, creating an electric current that
can be used to power devices or charge batteries.

Summary
In summary, the construction of a thermoelectric generator is based on using semiconductor
materials like p-type and n-type metals, which respond to temperature differences by
generating electricity. By combining these materials in thermocouples and arranging them
between ceramic layers, TEGs can efficiently convert heat directly into electrical energy. This
technology is helpful for capturing waste heat from sources like engines and factories, making
it a valuable tool for creating sustainable and efficient energy solutions.

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Thermoelectric Generator Working Principle
The thermoelectric generator (TEG) works based on something called the thermoelectric
effect, or more specifically, the Seebeck effect. This effect allows a TEG to convert heat
directly into electricity. Here’s how it works:
When one side of a TEG is hotter than the other, it creates a temperature gradient (a
difference in temperature between the two sides). This temperature gradient causes electrons
to start moving from the hot side to the cooler side. When electrons move, they create an
electric current, which is what we use to power devices. This movement of electrons happens
because of a difference in energy levels caused by the heat on one side, which is enough to
make the electrons flow from high-energy (hot) areas to low-energy (cool) areas. This flow of
electrons is what generates electricity.
How Thermoelectric Materials Make This Happen
The TEG uses thermocouples, which are pairs of two special semiconductor materials: p-
type and n-type. Semiconductors are materials that have properties between a conductor (like
metal) and an insulator (like rubber). They are used because they allow a controlled movement
of charges, which is ideal for generating electricity in this way.
1. P-Type Material: In p-type materials, the main “carriers” of electricity are called
holes. A hole is like a missing electron and behaves as if it has a positive charge. P-type
materials are also called acceptors because they can accept electrons to fill these holes.
2. N-Type Material: In n-type materials, the main carriers of electricity are
electrons, which have a negative charge. N-type materials are also called donors because they
have extra electrons that are ready to flow from one side to the other.
When these two materials (p-type and n-type) are connected and there’s a temperature
difference between their two ends, electrons and holes start to move. This movement creates
a potential difference (similar to voltage) across the thermocouple.

The Role of the Temperature Gradient

The TEG needs a temperature gradient to work effectively. A temperature gradient means
that one side of the TEG is hot while the other side is cool. This difference in temperature is
what triggers the movement of electrons and holes in the p-type and n-type materials.

• At the hot side: Electrons gain energy from the heat, making them more active
and likely to move towards the cooler side.

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• At the cool side: Electrons lose energy as they reach the cooler area, which helps
maintain a flow or “circuit” of electricity across the TEG.

Why It’s Useful

This direct conversion of heat to electricity is valuable because it avoids the need for moving
parts (like in traditional engines), which makes TEGs simpler and more durable. Additionally,
TEGs can use “waste heat” from other sources, like the exhaust from an engine, to generate
power. This ability to convert leftover heat into electricity helps improve energy efficiency
and can even reduce pollution.

Summary
In summary, a thermoelectric generator works because of the Seebeck effect, where a
temperature difference across p-type and n-type materials causes electrons and holes to move,
creating an electric current. The TEG’s semiconductor materials (p-type and n-type) make this
possible by allowing a controlled flow of electrons and holes, resulting in a steady stream of
electricity. By using heat that would otherwise go to waste, TEGs help make energy systems
more efficient and environmentally friendly.

Figure 1.3 Seebeck Effect

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Types of Thermoelectric Generator

Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) can be classified based on the source of heat they use to
produce electricity. Here are some common types of TEGs:
1. Fossil Fuel Generators:
These TEGs generate heat by burning fossil fuels like natural gas, propane, or butane. When
these fuels are burned, they produce heat, which creates a temperature difference that allows
the TEG to generate electricity. Fossil fuel-based TEGs typically produce power in the range
of 10 watts to 100 watts. This type is often used in small, portable power systems, especially
in areas where solar or other renewable sources might not be reliable or available.

2. Solar Source Generators:

In this type of TEG, solar energy is used to produce heat. Instead of burning fuel, the TEG
absorbs sunlight, which heats one side of the thermoelectric module while the other side
remains cooler. This temperature difference creates the conditions needed to generate
electricity. Solar-powered TEGs are environmentally friendly because they use the sun’s
renewable energy, and they don’t produce emissions. These types of generators are commonly
used in remote or off-grid locations where there is plenty of sunlight, such as for powering
small devices in rural areas or for experimental setups in solar energy projects.
3. Nuclear-Fueled Generators:
Nuclear-fueled TEGs use nuclear energy as their heat source. In this case, a small amount of
radioactive material generates heat through a process called radioactive decay. This heat can
be very consistent and long-lasting, which makes nuclear-fueled TEGs highly reliable. They
are typically used in situations where a continuous power source is required over many years
and where other energy sources are not practical. For instance, they are often used in space
missions to power spacecraft and rovers, as they can generate power in environments with no
sunlight. Nuclear TEGs have a high power rating compared to other types, and they can
produce up to 1000 watts of electricity, making them very powerful for their size.

Each type of TEG has its own advantages and limitations, and they are chosen based on the
needs of the specific application. Fossil fuel TEGs are more portable and can work in low-
light environments, while solar TEGs are cleaner and ideal for sunny regions. Nuclear TEGs
provide a steady power supply over long periods and are commonly used in specialised
applications like space exploration, where reliability is crucial.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermoelectric Generators
(TEGs)
Thermoelectric generators, or TEGs, have some important benefits but also a few limitations.
Here’s a detailed look at the advantages and disadvantages of using TEGs:
Advantages of Thermoelectric Generators:
1. Economically Friendly:
TEGs can help save money in the long run because they don’t require fuel or complex
machinery to operate. Once set up, they produce electricity with minimal maintenance costs.
This makes them economically sustainable, especially for long-term uses.
2. Recycles Waste Heat:
One of the coolest features of TEGs is that they can use waste heat—heat that would otherwise
be lost. For example, in factories, cars, or even electronics, a lot of energy escapes as heat.
TEGs can capture this excess heat and turn it into electricity, reducing energy waste and
making systems more efficient.
3. Reliable Source of Energy:
TEGs are extremely reliable because they have no moving parts. Unlike engines or turbines,
they don’t wear out as easily or require frequent repairs. This makes TEGs ideal for places or
situations where maintenance would be difficult, like in remote locations or even in space.
4. Lower Production Cost:
Compared to other types of power generators, TEGs are relatively simple to produce. They
don’t need complicated technology or large amounts of fuel, so the overall production costs
are lower. This makes TEGs more accessible for various uses and easier to implement in
certain situations, especially for small-scale applications.

Disadvantages of Thermoelectric Generators:

1. Low Efficiency:
Unfortunately, TEGs aren’t very efficient at turning heat into electricity. This means they don’t
convert a high percentage of the heat they capture into usable energy. Because of this, TEGs
are often only practical for small-scale power generation or applications where high efficiency
isn’t necessary.

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Thermoelectric Generator
2. Limited Applications:
Because of their low efficiency and specific design, TEGs can’t be used everywhere. They are
best suited for small devices or unique situations like capturing waste heat. They aren’t as
useful for large-scale power generation, like powering entire homes or cities. TEGs are often
used in niche areas, like powering sensors in remote areas or in special cases where a small
amount of power is needed for a long time.
3. Requires a Constant Source of Heat:
TEGs only work if there is a constant temperature difference between their hot and cold
sides. This means they need a reliable and consistent heat source to keep generating electricity.
If the temperature fluctuates or drops, the TEG won’t work as effectively, or it might stop
working altogether. This limitation can be challenging in some situations where a steady heat
source isn’t available.
4. Energy Cannot Be Stored:
TEGs can only generate power when there’s an active temperature difference; they can’t store
the energy they produce. This means they need to be connected to a device or a battery that
can store or use the power right away. Without a system to store energy, TEGs won’t be useful
when the heat source is gone.

Overall, TEGs are a promising and environmentally friendly way to generate small amounts
of power, especially from waste heat. They are reliable and cost-effective but still limited by
their low efficiency and dependence on a continuous heat source. This makes TEGs ideal for
niche applications, especially where consistent power is needed from a reliable but low-output
source. However, they aren’t quite ready to replace traditional power sources on a large scale.

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Thermoelectric Generator
Applications of Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs)
Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) are useful in many unique and specialised areas. Their
ability to turn heat directly into electricity without any moving parts makes them reliable and
efficient in certain situations. Here are some of the main applications of TEGs:
1. Electronics
TEGs can be used in small electronics, especially devices that require a constant, low amount
of power. For example, TEGs can be installed in electronic sensors, watches, or remote gadgets
where replacing batteries would be difficult or inconvenient. By using heat from nearby
components (such as a microprocessor in a device), TEGs can provide a continuous power
supply without needing a battery. This is especially helpful in places where regular access to
electricity or charging is limited.
2. Space Applications
One of the most interesting uses of TEGs is in space. In space, traditional power sources like
batteries or solar panels have limitations: batteries eventually die, and solar panels only work
when exposed to sunlight. Since space missions often encounter periods of darkness, like on
the far side of the Moon or on outer planets, TEGs are a good alternative. They can use the
heat from radioactive decay (like the heat given off by plutonium) to generate power. This
technology has been used in deep space missions, such as the Voyager probes and the Mars
Curiosity Rover, where TEGs provide a steady and reliable source of power for years, even in
extreme conditions.
3. Renewable Energy Sources
TEGs also have applications in the field of renewable energy. They can help capture and
convert waste heat produced by renewable sources, such as solar and geothermal energy, into
electricity. For example, solar power systems often produce a lot of heat in addition to sunlight.
TEGs can use this extra heat to generate additional electricity, making the system more
efficient. Similarly, in geothermal plants, TEGs can convert excess heat into electricity,
helping to maximise the output from natural heat sources and reduce dependency on traditional
power plants.
4. Gas Pipelines
Gas pipelines, which transport natural gas over long distances, generate a lot of heat as part of
their operation. This heat can be captured by TEGs and converted into electricity to power
monitoring devices and sensors along the pipeline. These sensors are essential for checking
pressure, flow, and other important factors to ensure the safety of the pipeline. Since pipelines
are often located in remote areas where it’s hard to get electricity, TEGs provide a reliable,

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self-sustaining power source for these monitoring systems. This way, TEGs help keep
pipelines safe and functioning effectively without needing extra power sources.
5. Radio Communication
In remote locations where power supply is limited, TEGs can play a crucial role in keeping
radio communication devices powered. For example, in wilderness areas, on mountains, or in
polar regions, TEGs can use available heat sources to power radio transmitters. This is
especially useful in scientific research stations, exploration sites, or emergency situations
where communication is vital, but access to electricity is challenging. By using a TEG, a steady
power source can be maintained, ensuring reliable radio communication even in areas where
power infrastructure doesn’t exist.

Summary
Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) are especially useful in situations where reliability,
durability, and low maintenance are needed. Their unique ability to turn heat into electricity
directly and continuously makes them ideal for electronics, space missions, renewable energy
applications, gas pipelines, and radio communication in remote areas. Although TEGs don’t
produce as much power as traditional energy sources, their specialised applications make them
an essential tool in many fields.

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Bibliography

1. Rowe, D. M. Thermoelectrics Handbook: Macro to Nano. CRC Press, 2005.

• This book provides an in-depth understanding of thermoelectric materials,
devices, and applications. It covers both theoretical concepts and practical applications of
TEGs in various fields.
2. Snyder, G. Jeffrey, and Toberer, Eric S. “Complex Thermoelectric Materials.”
Nature Materials, vol. 7, no. 2, 2008, pp. 105–114.
• This article discusses the advances in complex thermoelectric materials and their
potential in power generation. It explains how material choices affect the efficiency of TEGs.
3. Bell, Lon E. “Cooling, Heating, Generating Power, and Recovering Waste Heat
with Thermoelectric Systems.” Science, vol. 321, no. 5895, 2008, pp. 1457–1461.
• This paper explains how thermoelectric systems can be used for various
applications, including waste heat recovery, and explores their potential environmental
benefits.
4. Riffat, S. B., and Ma, Xiaoli. “Thermoelectrics: A Review of Present and
Potential Applications.” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 23, no. 8, 2003, pp. 913–935.
• This article reviews the current applications of thermoelectric generators and
discusses their potential for use in future energy solutions, including renewable energy
integration.
5. Goldsmid, H. Julian. Introduction to Thermoelectricity. Springer, 2010.
• This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the science of
thermoelectricity, including the principles behind TEGs, the materials used, and the basic
applications.
6. DiSalvo, F. J. “Thermoelectric Cooling and Power Generation.” Science, vol. 285,
no. 5428, 1999, pp. 703–706.
• An insightful paper that discusses the mechanics of thermoelectric power
generation and its applications, including cooling and waste heat recovery.
7. Rowe, D. M., and Min, G. “Evaluation of Thermoelectric Modules for Power
Generation.” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 73, no. 2, 1998, pp. 193–198.
• This study evaluates the effectiveness of various thermoelectric modules and
discusses the technical challenges and solutions in optimising TEGs for power generation.
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8. Sootsman, Joseph R., Hang Cao, and Mercouri G. Kanatzidis. “New and Old
Concepts in Thermoelectric Materials.” Angewandte Chemie International Edition, vol. 48,
no. 46, 2009, pp. 8616–8639.
• This article provides an overview of thermoelectric materials, both traditional and
novel, that have been used in TEGs, and examines their efficiency in generating power.
9. U.S. Department of Energy. “Thermoelectric Power Generation: Technology
Brief.” Energy.gov, 2021.
• A government publication discussing the technology and benefits of
thermoelectric power generation, with specific case studies on TEG applications in renewable
energy and waste heat recovery. Accessible online at https://www.energy.gov.
10. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. “Thermoelectric Generators in Space
Missions.” JPL - NASA, 2022.
• This source provides information on the use of TEGs in space exploration,
including how they power probes and rovers. Available online at https://www.jpl.nasa.gov.
11. Kan, Myoung Ho, et al. “Review on Thermoelectric Generators for Vehicle
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on the potential to use waste heat for additional power generation in vehicles.
12. Rowe, D. M. “Thermoelectric Waste Heat Recovery as a Renewable Energy
Source.” Renewable Energy Review, vol. 15, 2019, pp. 353-368.
• This article explains how thermoelectric generators can capture and convert
industrial waste heat into electricity, providing an environmentally friendly energy solution.

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