Classifica(on of solids on the basis of their conduc(vity:

Metals ( conductors ) :
(1) High conductivity and very low resistivity
( 2) conductivity lies in between 10 to 10 S m
2 8 −1

−2 −8
and of resistivity in between 10 to 10 Ωm
Insulators
(1) Low conductivity and high resistivity
( 2) conductivity lies betw 10 to 10 S m
−11 −19 −1

resistivity between 1011 to 1019 Ωm

Semiconductors
(1) conductivity and resistivity intermediate to metals and insulators
( 2) conductivity lies in between 10 to 10 S m
5 −6 −1

−5 6
resistivity between 10 to 10 Ωm.

(1) energy levels of an isolated atom are converted into

corresponding energy band when the atom is in a solid
( 2)There is no appreciable modification in the energy
levels of electrons in the inner orbits but there is a
considerable modification of energy levels of VE Energy bands of solids or band theory of solids
(3) It is bcos, VE are shared by more than one atom in solid.
( 4)∴VE can be considered to be in either of two energy bands Valence band
viz lower VB or upper conduction band. (1) It contains valence electrons
(5) No electron can have an energy in the forbidden ( 2) It may be partially or completely filled with electrons
energy gap between the two bands. (3) It may be partially or completely filled with electrons
(6) Normally, the electrons reside in the VB where they ( 4) It is never empty
are held rather tightly to the individual (5) In this band Electrons do not contribute to electric current

CONDUCTION BAND
Forbidden energy gap or forbidden band : E g ( )
(1) electrons are rarely present The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence band
to conduction band is called energy band gap ( Eg )

( electron lacks energy to move ) (1) Energy band gap is the separation between highest energy level of

( 2) It empty or partially filled valence band and lowest energy level in conduction band.
( 2) This band is completely empty & Electrons are not found in this band.
(3) If λ is the wavelength of radiation used in shifting the electron
from valence band to conduction band, then energy band gap is
hc
E g = hf =
λ

( 4)The width of the forbidden E g is a measure

of the bondage of valence electrons to the atom.
(5) The greater the E g , more tightly the
VE are bound to the nucleus
(6) In order to push an electron from VB to the CB
external energy equal to the FBEG must be supplied.
FBEG → forbidden energy gap
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS ON ENERGY BANDS
Insulators ( e.g. wood, glass, plastic etc. )
(1) substances which do not allow the passage
of electric current through them.
( 2) The VB is full while the CB is empty.
(3) The energy gap between VB & CB is very large ( = 15 eV )
( 4) A very high EF is required to push the VE to the CB
(5) The electrical conductivity of such materials
is extremely small ( or zero )
(6) At room temperature, the VE of the insulators do not
have enough energy to cross over to the CB
(7 ) When the temperature is raised, some of the VE
may acquire enough energy to cross over to the CB
(8) The resistance of an insulator decreases with the
increase in temperature
an insulator has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Semiconductors ( e.g. germanium, silicon etc. )

(1) substances whose electrical conductivity lies
in − between conductors and insulators.
( 2) In terms of energy band, the V.B is almost
filled and C.B is almost empty.
(3) The energy gap between V.B and C.B is very small ( ∼ 1eV )
( 4) comparatively smaller electric field
( < insulators but much > conductors) is required to push
the electrons from the VB to the CB.
(5) At low temperature, S.C behavesas an insulator.
( V.B is completely full and C.B is completely empty.)
(6) at room temperature, some electrons ( about one electron for 10 10
atoms )
cross over to the conduction band, imparting little conductivity to the S.C
(7 ) As the temperature is increased, more V.E cross over
to the C.B and the conductivity increases
(8) Electrical conductivity of a SC increases with the rise in temperature
a SC has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Conductors ( e.g. copper, aluminium etc. )

(1) Substances which easily allow the passage of electric current through
it is because there are a large number of free electrons available in a conductor
( 2) The V.B & C.B overlap so that energy gap Eg = 0
(3) Electrons are free to move within the substance from V.B to C.B
( 4) A very large number of electrons are available for conduction
(5) A small P.D applied across a conductor will constitute a large electric current
intrinsic semiconductor ( uni atoms ) Germanium and silicon
(1) It is a pure semiconductor which is free of every impurity
( 2) conductivity of a pure SC is governed by the n ( e ) excited from the V.B to C.B
(3) Si (14) → ls , 2s 2 p 3s 3 p Ge (32) → 1s , 2s 2 p , 3s 3 p 3d , 4s ,4 p
2 2 6 2 2 2 2 6 2 6 1O 2 2

( 4) Both the atoms have thus four valence electrons.

(5)The 4 VE of a Ge atom form four covalent bonds by sharing the electrons of
neighbouring four Ge atoms.
(6) Each covalent bond shares two electrons one from each atom
is complete with eight electrons, having no free electrons in the Ge − structure

(7 ) When T= OK, for Ge − structure, the valence band is all full.

Hence acts as an insulator
(8)The energy gap is 0.72 eV and the C.B is totally empty
(9)The minimum energy required to break a covalent bond is
0.72 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV for S.I
(10) At room temperature, the thermal vibrations of the atoms provide energy to
the electrons in V.B to enable some electrons to cross the energy
gap and enter into the C.B as free electrons.
(11)When an electron breaks away from a covalent bond, the empty place or vacancy
left in the bond is called as a hole ( hollow circle )
(12)When an external electric field is applied, these free electrons and holes move in
opposite directions and constitute a current flow through the germanium crystal.
(13) In intrinsic SC, n ( e ) = n ( h) = ni ( number density )
impossiblity of developing pure semieonductor c
(1) at room temperature the number of intrinsic charge carriers
( electrons and holes) is very small ( ~ 10 /m 10 / cm )
16 3 10 3

( 2) intrinsic charge carriers are always produced due to breakage of

covalent bonds by virtue of thermal motion
(3) Hence enough flexibility is unavailable to control their number in a pure SC
( 4) n ( e ) = n ( h) hence electrical neutral as a whole.
 HOLES IN SEMI CONDUTOR
(1) a hole is considered as a seat of +ve charge, having charge equal to that of an electron
( 2)The hole is considered as an active ( entity ) particle in the VB as an electron is in the CB
(3)The motion of the electrons in the CB and also the motion of holes in the VB
are responsible for the electrical conduction in SC.
( 4) there is an energy gap of about 1eV between the valence band and the conduction band.
(5) At T=0 K , the SC behaves as an insulator, as no electron from the VB can move to CB.
(6) But at higher temperature, some of the electrons gain energy due to thermal agitation
and move from the VB to CB
(7 ) a vacancy ( hole ) is created in the valence band at a place where the electron
was present before moving to the conduction band
(8)The absence of a -ve charged electron is equivalent to the presence
of an equivalent amount of +ve charged

Fermi energy :
It is the maximum possible energy possessed
by free electrons of a material at absolute zero temperature ( i.e., 0 K )

(1) When an EF is applied across a SC, the electrons in the CB travel in opposite
direction to that of the applied EFand consitute a flow of electron current ( I e )
( 2) At the same time, the holes in the VB travel in the direction of the
applied EF and constitute a hole current ( I h )
(3) There exist two streams of current inside a SC ( viz ) the electron current
in the CB and the hole current in the VB
( 4) Total current ( I ) = I e + I h . For pure SC at room temperature, I strength is weak.

Doping is a process of deliberate addition of a desirable impurity atoms

to a pure SC to modify its properties in a controlled manner.
The impurity atoms added are called dopants.
The impurity added may be ~ 1 part per million ( ppm ) .
( i ) Dopant atom should take the position of SC atom in the lattice
( ii ) Presence of the dopant atom should not distort the crystal lattice.
( iii ) Radius of the dopant atom should be almost the same as that of the crystal atom.
( iv ) Concentration of dopant atoms should not be large ( i.e ) not > 1 % of the crystal atoms
Methods of doping
(1) Add the impurity atoms in the melt of the SC
( 2) Heat the crystalline semiconductor in an atmosphere
containing dopant atoms or molecules so that the
latter diffuse into the SC
(3) implant dopant atoms / molecules by
bombarding the SC with them
Sc with suitable impurity atom added to it, is called extrinsic SC.
n − type semiconductor
(1)When a pure semiconductor of silicon ( Si ) or germanium (Ge )
in which each Si or Ge atom has four VE, is doped with a
. controlled amount of pentavalent atoms,
( 2) arsenic or phosphorous or antimony or bismuth have five VE
will replace the Si or Ge atom.
(3)The 4 of the 5 VE of the impurity atoms will form covalent bonds
by sharing the electrons with the adjoining four atoms of silicon
( 4)While the 5 th
electron is very loosely bound with the parent impurity
atom and is comparatively free to move
(5) B.E of electron becomes 0 045 eV for silicon & 0.01 eV for Ge .

(6) Thus, each impurity atom ( Donor atoms) added donates one free
electron to the crystal structure.
(7 )The conduction of electricity is due to the motion of electrons
( i.e.) negative charges ∴ the resulting SC is called n − type SC
(8)On giving up their fifth electron, the donor atoms become positively charged.
However, the matter remains electrically neutral as a whole.
(9) 0 045 e V energy is required to remove this electron from the impurity
atom of silicon SC and make it a free electron.

n − type semiconductor
(1)When a pure Si or Ge ( tetravalent ) is doped with a group V pentavalent impurities
like arsenic ( As ) , antimony ( Sb ) , phosphorus ( P ) etc, we obtain a n − type SG.
( 2) The pentavalent impurity atoms are known as donor atoms.
(3) The conduction of electricity in such SG is due to motion of electrons.
( 4) It is called donor type SG, because the doped impurity atom donates
one free electron to SG for conduction.
(5) In n − type SG electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.
P type SemiConductor
( i )When a pure SC of Germanium (Ge ) or Silicon ( Si ) , in which each atom
has four VE is doped with a controlled amount of trivalent atoms say
gallium, or Indium ( In ) or Boron ( B ) or Aluminium ( Al )
which have three VE the impurity atom will replace the Ge or Si atom.
( ii )The three VE of the impurity atom will form covalent bonds by sharing
the elelctrons of the adjoining three atoms of Ge, while there will be
one incomplete covalent bond with a neighbouring Ge − atom,
due to the deficiency of an electron
 ( iii )This deficiency is completed by taking an electron from one of the Ge − Ge bonds,

(
thus completing the In − Ge bond.This makes Indium ionised −ve ly charged )
and creates a 'hole'.
( iv ) An electron − moving from a Ge − Ge bond to fill a hole, leaves a hole behind.
( v )The trivalent atoms are called acceptor atoms and the conduction of electricity
occurs due to motion of holes
( vi ) Also, at ordinary temperature, some of the covalent bonds may get ruptured,
releasing equal number of holes and electrons.
( vii )Total n ( e ) is relatively small as compared to the n ( h) in p − type SC.
( viii ) Hence in the p − type SC, electrons are minority carriers
and holes are majority carriers

p − type semiconductor :
(1) pure semiconductor of Si or Ge ( tetravalent ) is doped with a group III trivalent
impurities like aluminium ( AI ) , boron ( B ) , indium ( In ) etc,
( 2) The trivalent impurity atoms are known as acceptor atoms
(3) conduction of electricity in such SG is due to motion of holes ( +ve charges ) .
( 4) It is called acceptor type SG because the doped impurity atom creates a hole in
SG which accepts the electron resulting conduction in p − type semiconductor.
(5) holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers
p − n junction ( or junction diode )
(1) Donor impurities are introduced into one side and acceptors
into the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic SG.
( 2) conduction current flows in one direction only.
(3) Reverse direction offers very high resistance.

FORMATION OF DEPLETION LAYER ( depleted → emptied )

(1) As soon as a pn junction is formed, electrons from n − type material
diffuse into p − type material and fill some of the holes there.
( 2) At the same time, holes from p − type material diffuse into'
the n − type material and are filled by electrons.
(3)This migration of charge carriers ( free electrons and holes ) results
in n − section acquiring a +ve charge and a p − section a − ve charge
( 4)These two layers of +ve and − ve charges form depletion region ( layer )
(5) In a short time, the steady state reached and further movement of
charge carriers ( free electrons and holes ) across the junction stops.
(6) EF set up by the depletion layer acts as a barrier to further
diffusion of electrons into the p − region and holes into the n − region
(7 ) Depletion region has only immobile ions its size ~ 10−6 m ( 0.001 mm )

Depletion region :
In the vicinity of junction, the region containing
the uncompensated acceptor and donor ions is known
as depletion region.
There is a depletion of mobile charges ( holes and free electrons )
in this region
. Since this region has immobile ( fixed ) ions which
Barrier potential (Vo )
(1)Once pn junction is formed and depletion layer created,
further movement of charge carriers across the junction stops
( 2) There exists a PD across the depletion layer and is called barrier potential (Vo )
(3) V depends on factors including the
0

( a ) type of semiconductor material,

(b ) the amount of doping
( c ) temperature
( 4) For Silicon Vo = 0.7 V; For germanium, Vo = 0.3 V
(5) electric field ( E ) set up by Vo across the junction is very high
V0 0.7
E= = = 7*105 V/m = 700 V / mm
d 10−6
Forward biasing : A p − n junction is said to be forward biased
if the +ve terminal of the external battery B is connected to p − side
and −ve terminal to the n − side of p − n junction

(1)To apply FB, connect +ve terminal of the battery to p − type

and − ve terminal to n − type
( 2)The applied forward voltage (VF ) establishes an EF which
acts against the field due to potential barrier.
(3)The barrier height is reduced at the junction
( 4) As potential barrier voltage is very small (0.3 to 0.7V ) ,
∴ a small forward voltage is sufficient to completely
eliminate the barrier
(5)Once the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward voltage,
junction resistance becomes almost zero and a low
resistance path is established for the entire circuit.
(6) current flows in the circuit. This is called forward current ( I ) F

(7 ) magnitude of forward current depends upon the mag of applied FV

(8) current in the n − side is carried by free electrons ( majority carriers)
Reverse biasing. ( RB )
(1) A PNJ is said to be reverse biased if the
+ve terminal of the external battery B is connected to n − side
and negative terminal to p − side of the p − n junction
( 2) In reverse biasing, the applied voltage V of battery B,
mostly drops across depletion region of PNJ and its
direction of voltage is same as that of potential barrier.
(3) Due to it, the reverse bias voltage supports the potential barrier.
( 4) the barrier height increases and width of depletion region increases.
(5) there is no conduction across the junction due to majority carriers.
(6) However, a few minority carriers ( holes in n side & electrons in p side )
of PNJ diode cross the junction after being accelerated by high RB voltage.
(7 )They constitute a current that flows in the opposite direction.
This is called reverse current or leakage current
(8) Since the large increase in reverse voltage shows small increase
in reverse current, hence the resistance of PNJ is high to
the flow of current when reverse biased.
(9)The reverse current is not limited by the magnitude of the Vapplied
but it is due to concentration of minority carriers on either side of PNJ
(10)The voltage of external battery for forward biasing is
low ( about 1 5 V ) and for reverse biasing is high (10 to 25 V )
potential barrier opposes the forward current
and supports the reverse current.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A PNJ DIODE
Forward characteristics.
(1) It is the graph between forward voltage (V ) applied across the PNJ
F

diode and the resulting forward current ( I ) through the diode

F

( 2) R is current limiting resistance and prevents the forward current

from exceeding the permitted value
(3)The forward current is due to the majority carriers
( 4)The forward voltage (V ) across the junction diode is increased
F

from zero in steps and the corresponding values of forward

current ( I F ) through the diode are noted.
( 4) we get the forward characteristic OAB between V & I F F

(5) When the applied forward voltage is zero ( circuit is open at K )

the BP Vo at the junction does not permit current flow.
(6) As the V F
is increased from zero, the I F increase very slowly (OA)
until the VF across the diode reaches Vo
(O.7V for Si & O.3V for Ge → knee voltage )
(7 )Once the applied V F
exceeds the VK , the I F increases rapidly ( AB )

what is knee voltage

(1)The V F
at which the I F through the diode starts increase
rapidly with increase of VF is called knee voltage.
For Si , VK = 0.7 V for Ge, VK = 0.3 V

( 2) Below the knee voltage, the curve is non − linear

(3) After V , diode behaves like an ordinary conductor.
F

I rises sharply linearly with increase in V ( AB ) .

F F
 Reverse characteristics
(1) It is the graph between the reverse bais V applied
R

across PNJ & reverse current ( I ) through the diode

R

( 2)V across the diode is increased from zero in steps and

R

the corresponding values of I R are noted.

(3) Since the diode is reverse biased, its resistance is very high
and practically no current flows through the circuit.
( 4) But a very small reverse current due to flow of minority
carriers accross the PNJ ( µA) flows with RB
(5)This is called reverse saturation current because its value practically
remains constant until reverse breakdown voltage (V ) is reached.
BR

(6) After V reverse current I increases very sharply resulting

BR R

in overheating and possible damage

(7 )This large value of I is due to K.E of electrons
R

( minority carriers) becomes high enough to knock out

electrons from SC atoms
(8)Thus there is sudden decrease in resistance of the junction
and abrupt rise of reverse current.

DYNAMIC OR A.C. FORWARD RESISTANCE OF JUNCTON DIODE

(1) It is the opposition offered by the PNJD to the changing I F

( 2)The ratio of change in forward voltage across the diode to the

resulting change in current through it is called a.c. forward resistance of the diode.
a.c. Forward resistance rf ( )
Change in forward voltage across diode
(3) = Corresponding change in current through diode
oc − oa ac
= =
of − od df

Q1 What is a rec-fier ? What is the principle of a rec-fier ?

DEFINITION : The process of conver-ng alterna-ng current into direct current is called
rec-fica-on and the device used for this process is called rec-fier.

(i) When a p-n junc-on diode is forward biased, it offers less resistance and a current flows
through it;
but when it is reverse biased, it offers high resistance and almost no current flows through it.
(ii) This unidirec-onal property of a diode enables it to be used as a rec-fier.
(iii) When a.c. signal is fed to a diode, the diode is forward biased during the posi-ve half
cycle and a current flows through it.
(iv) During the nega-ve half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it does not conduct. Thus
the signal is rec-fied.
The p-n junc-ons can be used as (i) a half-wave rec-fier, and (ii) a full-wave rec-fier.

Q2 . With the help of a circuit diagram, explain the use of a junc:on diode as a half-wave
rec:fier. Draw the input and output waveforms.

(i)A half-wave rec:fier consists of a transformer,

a junc:on diode D and a load resistance RL.
(ii) The primary coil of the transformer is connected
to the a.c. mains and the secondary coil is connected in series with the junc:on diode D and
load resistance RL.
(iii) We assume that the diode is ideal so that it offers infinite resistance during the reverse
biasing.
(iv) When a.c. is supplied to the primary, the secondary of the transformer supplies desired
alterna:ng voltage across A and B.
(v) During the posi:ve half cycle of a.c., the end A is posi:ve and the end B is nega :ve.
The diode D is forward biased and a current I flows through RL.
(vi) As the input voltage increases or decreases, the current I also increases or decreases and
so does output voltage (= IRL) across the load RL·
(vii) Output voltage across RL is of same waveform as the posi:ve half wave of the input.
During the nega:ve half cycle, the end A becomes nega:ve and B posi:ve.
(viii) The diode is reverse biased and no current flows. No voltage appears across RL.
(ix) In the next posi:ve half cycle, again we get output voltage.
The output voltage is unidirec:onal but pulsa:ng.
(x) Since the voltage across the load appears only during the posi:ve half cycle of the input
a.c., Hence this process is called half-wave rec:fica:on and the arrangement used is
called a half-wave rec:fier.

Q3 With the help of a circuit diagram, explain full wave

rec:fica:on using junc:on diodes.
Draw the waveforms of input and output voltages.

(i) A full wave rec-fier consists of a transformer,

two junc-on diodes D1 and D2 and a load resistance RL.
(ii) The input a.c. signal is fed to the primary coil P of the transformer.
(iii) The two ends A and B of the secondary S are connected to the p-ends of diodes D1 and
D2 The secondary is tapped at its central point T which is connected to the n-ends of
the two diodes through the load resistance RL as shown in Fig.
(iv) At any instant, the voltages at the end A (input of D1) and end B (input of D2) of the
secondary with respect to the centre tap T will be out of phase with each other.
(v) Suppose during the posi-ve half cycle of a.c. input, the end A is posi-ve and the end B is
nega-ve with respect to the centre tap T.
(vi) Then the diode D1 gets forward biased and conducts current along the
path AD1XYTA as indicated by the solid arrows.
(vii) The diode D2 is reverse biased and does not conduct.
(viii)During the nega-ve half cycle, the end A becomes nega-ve and the end B becomes
posi-ve with respect to the centre tap T.
(ix) The diode D1 gets reverse biased and does not conduct. The diode D2 conducts current
along the path B02XYTB, as indicated by broken arrows.
(x) As during both half cycles of input a.c. the current through load RL flows in the same
direc-on (X→ Y), so we get a pulsa-ng d.c. voltage across RL as shown in Fig.
(xi) Since output voltage across the load resistance RL is obtained for both half cycles of input
a.c., Hence this process is called full wave rec-fica-on and the arrangement used is
called full-wave rec-fier.

Q4 . What is a phoiodiode ? Explain its working principle. Why is a photodiode operated in

reverse bias ? Give some important uses of photodiodes.

(i) A photodiode is a p-n junc:on fabricated from a photosensi:ve semiconductor and

provided with a transparent window so as allow light to fall on its junc:on.

(ii) A resistance R is connected in series with a reverse biased photodiode.

The voltage is kept slightly less than the breakdown voltage.
(iii) When no light is incident on the junc-on, a small reverse satura-on current flows
through the junc-on. This reverse current is due to thermally generated electronhole
nairs and is called dark current.

(iv) When the photodiode is illuminated with light photons of energy hv greater than the
energy gap Eg of the semiconductor, addi-onal electron-hole pairs are generated due to
the absorp-on of photons.
(v) This genera-on of photogenerated charge carriers occurs in or near the deple-on region.
Due to the junc-on field, electrons get collected on n-side and holes on the p-side se[ng
up an emf.
(vi) This sends a current through the load. In a reverse biased photodiode, we can easily
observe the change in photocurrent with the change in radia-on intensity.
(vii) Hence a photo diode can be used to detect op-cal signals.
(viii) When a photodiode is illuminated with light photons of energy hv > Eg, and increasing
intensi-es I1, I2, I3, etc., the value of reverse satura-on current increases with the
increase in intensity of incident light, as shown in Fig.
(ix) Hence, a measurement of the change in the reverse satura-on current on illumina-on
can give the values of light intensity.

Uses of photodiodes.
A photodiode can turn its current ON andOFF in nanoseconds.
So it can be used as a fastest photo-detector.
1. In detec-on of op-cal signals.
2. In demodula-on of op-cal signals.
3. In light-operated switches.
4. In speed reading of computer punched cards. 5. In electronic counters.

Q5 What is a light emiYng diode? Draw a circuit diagram and explain its ac:on. Give
advantages of LEDs over conven:onal incandescent lamps.
(i)Light emiYng diode is a heavily-doped forward-biased p-n junc:on which spontaneously
converts the biasing electrical energy into op:cal energy, like infrared and visible light.
(ii)LED is represented by either of the two symbols .
the shorter lead responds to n - or cathode side while the
longer lead corresponds to p - or anode side.

(iii) A p-n junc:on made from a translucent semiconductor like gallium arsenide or indium
phosphide is provided with metallised contacts.
(iv) When it is forward biased through a series resistance R light photons are emiZed from the
non-metallised surface of the n-region.
(v) The series resistance R limits the current through the LED and hence controls the intensity
of light emiZed by it.
(vi) When the P-n junc:on is forward biased, electrons are sent from n-region → p-region
(where they are minority carriers) and holes are sent from p-region → n-region (where
they are minority carriers).
(vii) Near the junc:on, the concentra:on of minority carriers increases as compared to the
equilibrium concentra:on (i.e., when there is no bias).
(viii) On either side near junc:on, the excess minority carriers combine with the majority
carriers.
(xi)On recombina:on, the energy is released in the form of photons.
Photons with energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap are emiZed.
(x) When the forward bias of the diode is small, the intensity of emiZed light is small.
As the forward current increases, intensity of light increases and reaches a maximum.
Further increase in forward current decreases the light intensity.
LEDs are biased such that the light emiYng efficiency is maximum.
 The general shape of the I- V characteris:cs of an LED is similar to that of.a-normal p-n
junc:on diode, , the barrier poten:als are much higher and slightly different for each colour.
Two important features of LEDs are:
1. The colour of light emiZed by an LED depends on its
band-gap energy.
2. The intensity of light emiZed is determined by the
forward current conducted by the p-n junc:on.
Advantage of L.E.D over incadescent lamp
1. Low opera-onal voltage ans less power consump-on
2. Fast ac-on and no warm up -me required.
3. The bandwidth of emibed light is 100 A to 500 A i.e., the light is nearly monochroma-c.
4. Long life and ruggedness. 5. Fast ON/OFF switching capability.
Light emitting diode (LED
(1) It converts electrical energy into light energy
( 2) Uses
It is aofheavily
LEDs :doped p − n junction which operates under
1. Infrared LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems.
forward bias and emits spontaneous radiation
2. In op-cal communica-on. 3. In image scanning circuits for picture phones.
(3) 4.The I − V characteristics of a LED is similar to that of Si junction diode
LEDs are used as indicator lamps in radio receivers and other electronic equipment.
( 4) 5.Threshold
Hand calculators,
voltages are cash
muchregisters,
higher anddigital
slightlyclocks, etc.foruse
different seven-segment
each colour red or green
(5) displays.
The reverse breakdown voltages of LEDs are very low, around 5 V
(6) For fabrication of visible LEDs , least have a band gap must be 1.8 eV
(7 ) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP ) is used for making LEDs of different colours.
GaAs is used for making infrared LED.

Q6. What is a solar cell ? Give its V-I characteris:c, advantages and uses
(i)It is a junc-on diode which converts solar energy into electricity and is based photovoltaic
effect (genera-on of voltage due to bombardment of light photons).
(ii) It consists of a p-n junc-on made from Si or GaAs. A thin layer (~ 0.3 µm) of n-Si is grown
on one-side of a p-Si wafer (- 300 µm) by diffusion process.
(iii)On the top of n-Si layer, a metal electrode is deposited which acts as a front contact.
This leaves open enough area (~ 85%) for light to reach the n-Iayer .
(iv) The bobom of the p-Si layer is metallic back contact.
(v) When a solar cell is illuminated with light photons of energy hv > Eg, it generates emf due
to three basic processes:
(a) Genera-on of e-h pairs due to excita-on of electrons from valence band to conduc-on
band by light photons (with hv > E) near the . . g junc-on.
(b) Separa-on of electrons and holes due to the electric field of the deple-on region.
Electrons are swept to n-side and holes to p-side.
(c) Collec-on : the electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and
holes reaching p-side are collected by the back contact.
(vi) Thus p-side becomes posi-ve and n-Side becomes nega-ve giving rise to a photovoltage
across the junc-on.
(vii) When a load resistance RL is connected in the external circuit, a photo-current IL flows.
This current is propor-onal to the intensity of illumina-on.
(viii) I-V characteris-c of a solar cell drawn in the fourth quadrant. This is because a solar cell
does not draw current but supplies the current to the load.
The open circuit voltage Voc depends on the illumina-on.
(ix) Hence the output power of a solar cell depends on the intensity of incident sunlight.

Advantages are
(i) pollu:on free, (ii) long las:ng (iii) maintenance free.
But high cost of installa:on and low efficiency.
Uses are (i) charging the baZeries of solar cells in day :me and use the baZeries for power
during nights.
(ii) Solar cells, or beZer called photocells, are used in light meters in photography.
(iii) Some wrist watches and hand calculators are powered by solar cells.
(iv) Spacecrads make use of arrays of solar cells or solar panels to provide electrical energy.