29.09.

2022

FLUID MECHANICS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION-
Fluids Basics
Prof. Dr. Zekeriya ALTAÇ and Prof. Dr. Necati MAHİR
Eskişehir Osmangazi University, School of Engng & Architecture

Objectives
Identify the units for the basic quantities of
time, length, force and mass.
Properly set up equations to ensure
consistency of units.
Define the basic fluid properties.
Identify the relationships between specific
weight, specific gravity and density, and
solve problems using their relationships.

1
 29.09.2022

Introduction
Basic Terminology
Physical Characteristics of Fluids
Distinction between Solids, Liquids, and gases
Dimensions and units
Surface tension and its implications
Significance of Fluid Mechanics

Basic Terminology
Mechanics: The oldest physical science that deals with both
stationary and moving bodies under the influence of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that deals with the behavior of
fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the
interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid
dynamics by considering fluids at rest as a special case of motion
with zero velocity.
Fluid mechanics deals with liquids and
gases in motion or at rest.
4

2
 29.09.2022

Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can

be approximated as incompressible (such as liquids,
especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals
with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo
significant density changes, such as the flow of gases
through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air)
over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high
or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with
naturally occurring flows.

Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used in the

design of artificial hearts.

3
 29.09.2022

4
 29.09.2022

Definition of Fluid
Fluid mechanics is a division in applied mechanics
related to the behaviour of liquid or gas which is
either in rest or in motion.
The study related to a fluid in rest or stationary is
referred to fluid static, otherwise it is referred to as
fluid dynamic.
Fluid can be defined as a substance which can
deform continuously when being subjected to shear
stress at any magnitude. In other words, it can flow
continuously as a result of shearing action. This
includes any liquid or gas.

Definition of Fluid

A fluid is a substance, which deforms continuously,

or flows, when subjected to shearing force.
In fact if a shear stress is acting on a fluid it will flow
and if a fluid is at rest there is no shear stress acting
on it.

Fluid Flow Shear stress – Yes

Fluid Rest Shear stress – No

5
 29.09.2022

Definition of Fluid

With exception to solids, any other matters can be

categorised as fluid. In microscopic point of view,
this concept corresponds to loose or very loose
bonding between molecules of liquid or gas,
respectively.
Examples of typical fluid used in engineering
applications are water, oil and air.

11

Fluid Concept
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the
volume remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive
forces between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the
entire available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely
spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike
liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.

Unlike a liquid, a gas

does not form a
free surface, and it
expands to fill the
entire available space.

12

6
 29.09.2022

Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.

Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at relatively fixed positions in
a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual
molecules move about at random in the gas phase.
13

Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.

Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it
is above the critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far from a state of
condensation.

Macroscopic or classical approach:

Does not require a knowledge of
the behavior of individual molecules
and provides a direct and easy way
to analyze engineering problems.

Microscopic or statistical approach:

Based on the average behavior of
large groups of individual
molecules.

On a microscopic scale, pressure is determined by the interaction of

individual gas molecules. However, we can measure the pressure on a
macroscopic scale with a pressure gage.14

7
 29.09.2022

Dimensions and Units

The dimensions have to be the same for each
term in an equation
Dimensions of mechanics are
– Length, L
– Time, T
– Mass, M
– force F = ma MLT−2

– Temperature, Θ

15

16

8
 29.09.2022

17

Problem Solving Scheme

Problem Statement (The goal, FIND?), identify the given
parameters and represent the parameters using symbols
(GIVEN?)
Sketch of the problem (SCHEMATIC)
State any simplifying assumptions (ASSUMPTIONS)
Outline your solution including the equations describing
the physical constraints (PHYSICAL LAWS)
Find relevant properties and state UNITS with each
symbol or quantity (PROPERTIES),
Solve for the unknown symbolically (CALCULATION),
Substitute numerical values with units and do the
arithmetic
– Check your UNITS!
– Check the reasonableness of your answer
INTERPRET your results in CONCLUSION 18

9
 29.09.2022

Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight

Density: The density of a fluid, designated by the Greek
symbol ρ (rho), is defined as its mass per unit volume.
Density is typically used to characterize the mass of a fluid
system. In SI the unit is kg/m3.

Specific Volume, υ, is the volume per unit mass and is

therefore the reciprocal of the density—that is,

In SI the unit is
m3/kg.

19

Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight

Specific Weight: The specific weight of a fluid, designated by

the Greek symbol γ (gamma), is defined as its weight per
unit volume. The specific weight is related to density through
the equation

where g is the local acceleration of gravity. Just as density is

used to characterize the mass of a fluid system, the specific
weight is used to characterize the weight of the system. In SI
the units are N/m3.

20

10
 29.09.2022

Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight

Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of a fluid,
designated as SG, is defined as the ratio of the
density of the fluid to the density of water at
some specified temperature. Usually the
specified temperature is taken as 4°C, and at
this temperature the density of water is 1000
kg/m3.

In equation form specific gravity is expressed as

ρ gρ γ
SG = SG = =
ρH gρH γH
2O @ 4 C 2O @ 4 C 2O @ 4 C

For example, the specific gravity of mercury at 20°C is 13.55.

21

Ideal Gas Law

Gases are highly compressible in comparison to liquids,
with changes in gas density directly related to changes in
pressure and temperature through the equation

N⋅m
– R is the universal gas constant R = 8.314
mol ⋅ K
– T is temperature in Kelvin
Pa ⋅ m3
= 8.314
mol ⋅ K
– p is absolute pressure (Pa), which means that it is
measured relative to absolute zero pressure (a pressure
that would only occur in a perfect vacuum).

22

11
 29.09.2022

Ideal Gas Law

Standard sea-level atmospheric pressure is 14.696 psi (abs) or
101.33 kPa (abs). For most calculations, these can be rounded
to 14.7 psi and 101 kPa, respectively.

In engineering, it is common practice to measure

pressure relative to the local atmospheric
pressure; when measured this way it is called the
gage pressure.

The absolute pressure can be obtained from the

gage pressure by adding the value of the
atmospheric pressure.

For example, as shown by the figure in the

margin, a pressure of 30 psi (gage) in a tire is
equal to 44.7 psi (abs) at standard atmospheric
pressure. 23

EXAMPLE Determine the density, specific gravity, and mass of the air in
a room whose dimensions are 4m×5m×6m at 100 kPa and 25°C.
GIVEN: ∀=120 m3, P=100 kPa, T= 25°C
FIND: ρ, SG, m=?
Assumptions: Air can be treated as an ideal gas.
Properties: Gas constant of air is R=0.287 kPa m3/kg K.

SOLUTION:
The density of air is determined from the ideal-gas relation Schematic
P 100 kPa kg
ρ= = = 1.17 3
⋅ 3
kg⋅K )(25 + 273.15)K
RT (0.287 kPa m m

The specific gravity of air ρ 1.17 kg3

SG = = m = 0.00117
ρ H 2O 1000 kg3
m
 kg 
Finally, the mass of air m = ρ V = 1.17 3  (120 m3 ) = 140 kg
 m 
Note: 1 mole of air is approximately 21% O2 and 79% N2 so molecular weight (≈
0.21 ×2 ×16+0.79 ×2 ×14) is 28.97 g to be exact; thus, we obtain
R=8.314/28.97=0.287 kPa m3/kg K 24

12
 29.09.2022

Stresses
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a
fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest
is at a state of zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or a
liquid container is tilted, a shear The normal stress and shear stress at
develops as the liquid moves to the surface of a fluid element. For
re-establish a horizontal free fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
surface. and pressure is the only normal stress.
25

Viscosity
The properties of density and specific weight are measures of
the “heaviness” of a fluid. However, these properties are not
sufficient to uniquely characterize how fluids behave, for
example, water and oil have approximately the same density
but behave quite differently when flowing.

There is apparently some additional property that is needed to

describe the “fluidity” of the fluid.

26

13
 29.09.2022

Viscosity
To determine this property, consider a hypothetical experiment
in which a material is placed between two very wide parallel
plates as shown in the figure below:

The bottom plate is rigidly fixed, but the upper plate is free to
move. When the force P is applied to the upper plate, it will
move continuously with a velocity U as illustrated in the figure.
if a shearing stress is applied to a fluid it will deform
continuously.
27

Viscosity
A closer inspection of the fluid motion between the two plates
reveals that the fluid in contact with the upper plate moves with
the plate velocity, U, and the fluid in contact with the bottom
fixed plate has a zero velocity.

The fluid between the two plates moves with velocity u=u(y)
that would be found to vary linearly, Uy/b. Thus, a velocity
gradient, du/dy, is developed in the fluid between the plates.
In this case the velocity gradient is a constant, as du/dy=U/b.

The experimental observation that

the fluid “sticks” to the solid
boundaries is a very important one
in fluid mechanics and is usually
referred to as the no-slip
condition.
All fluids, both liquids and gases, satisfy this condition. 28

14
 29.09.2022

Viscosity
In a small time increment δt, an
imaginary vertical line AB in the
fluid rotates through an angle, δβ,
so that

Since δa =U δt, it follows that

Note that in this case, δβ is a function not only of the force P but
also of time. The rate at which δβ is changing and define the
rate of shearing strain,
REMEMBER
is equal to dx d 2x
xɺ = x= 2
, ɺɺ
dt dt
29

Viscosity
A continuation of this experiment reveals that as the shearing
stress, is increased by increasing P, the rate of shearing
strain is increased in direct proportion—that is,

This result indicates that for common fluids, such as water,

oil, gasoline, and air, the shearing stress and rate of
shearing strain (velocity gradient) can be related with a
relationship of the form

the constant of proportionality is designated by the Greek

symbol µ (mu) and is called the dynamic viscosity, or
simply the viscosity of the fluid.
30

15
 29.09.2022

Viscosity
The value of the viscosity
depends on the fluid, and for a
fluid the viscosity is also
dependent on temperature (see
the figure).

Fluids for which the shearing

stress is linearly related to the
rate of shearing strain are
designated as Newtonian
fluids.

Fortunately, most common

fluids, both liquids and gases, Figure: Linear variation of shearing stress
with rate of shearing strain for common
are Newtonian. fluids.

31

Viscosity
Fluids for which the shearing stress is not linearly related to the
rate of shearing strain are designated as non-Newtonian
fluids. In this course we will only be concerned with
Newtonian fluids.

The dimensions of viscosity are FTL−2. In SI units as N.s/m2

32

16
 29.09.2022

Viscosity (Non-Newtonian vs Newtonian)

Toothpaste
Latex
Paint

Corn
Starch

Newtonian Fluids are linear relationships between stress and

strain: Most common fluids are Newtonian.
Non-Newtonian Fluids are Non-Linear between stress and strain33

Kinematic Viscosity
Often viscosity appears in fluid flow problems combined with
the density in the form

This ratio is called the kinematic viscosity and is denoted

with the Greek symbol ν (nu). The dimensions of kinematic
viscosity are L2/T, and in SI unit it is m2/s.

– Gases - transfer of molecular momentum

• Viscosity increases as temperature increases.
• Viscosity increases as pressure increases.
– Liquids - cohesion and momentum transfer
• Viscosity decreases as temperature increases.
• Relatively independent of pressure (incompressible)
34

17