IJETST- Vol.

||02||Issue||06||Pages 2546-2551||June||ISSN 2348-9480 2015

International Journal of Emerging Trends in Science and Technology

Stepper Motor: A Review on Theory and Fundamentals
Authors
Radhakrishna Harshvardhan1, Milind Tambat2, Vikram Patil3
1, 2, 3
Sandip Foundation’s- SIEM
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering
Mahiravani, Trimbak Road, Maharashtra 422 213
Savitribai Phule Pune University (SPPU), Maharashtra, India.
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Stepper motors are different from all other types of electrical drives and it is also called as step motor.
Stepper motor basically follows the principle of discrete control pulse fundamental during its working this
is the reason it rotates in discrete steps. On the other hand ordinary electrical a.c and d.c drives are analog
in nature and rotate continuously depending on magnitude and polarity of the control signal received. The
basic advantage of discrete nature of operation of a step motor makes it easy and suitable for directly
interfacing with a computer and direct computer control. These motors are having wide applications in
industrial control, specifically for CNC machines, where open loop control in discrete steps are acceptable.
These motors can also be adapted for continuous rotation. In this paper we have discussed about the
construction, principle, theory and operations of stepper motors.
Keywords: Stepper motor, electrical drives, discrete control, magnitude, computer control.

1. Introduction
Stepper motor is a special type of electric motor that
moves in precisely defined increments of rotor
position (Steps). The size of the increment is
measured in degrees and can vary depending on the
application. Due to precise control, stepper motors
are commonly used in medical, satellites, robotic
and control applications[1]. There are several features
Figure 1: Block diagram of stepper motor system
common to all stepper motors that make them
ideally suited for these types of applications. They
2. Types of Stepper Motor
are as under
It can be classified into several types according to
High accuracy: Operate under open loop
machine structure and principle of operation as
Reliability: Stepper motors are brushless.
explained by Kenjo in 1984. Basically there are
Load independent: Stepper motors rotate at a set
three types
speed under different load, provided the rated torque
2.1 Variable Reluctance Motor (VRM)
is maintained.
2.2 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor (PMSM)
Holding torque: For each and every step, the motor
2.3 Hybrid Stepper Motor (HSM)
holds its position without brakes.
Stepper motor requires sequencers and driver to
2.1 Variable Reluctance Motor (VRM)
operate. Sequencer generates sequence for switching
It consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a
which determines the direction of rotation and mode
wound stator. When the stator windings are
of operation.
energized with DC current, the poles become

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magnetized. Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth are this machine. If the number of stator teeth and
attracted to the energized stator poles. Both the magnetic poles on the rotor are both doubled, a two-
stator and rotor materials must have high phase motor with a step length of 450 will be
permeability and be capable of allowing high realized.
magnetic flux to pass through even if a low magneto
motive force is applied. When the rotor teeth are
directly lined up with the stator poles, the rotor is in
a position of minimum reluctance to the magnetic
flux [2]. A rotor step takes place when one stator
phase is deenergized and the next phase in sequence
is energized, thus creating a new position of
minimum reluctance for the rotor as explained by
Kenjo in 1984. Cross section of variable reluctance
motor is shown in Figure 2 Figure 3: Cross section of permanent magnet
stepper motor
.
2.3 Hybrid Stepper Motor (HSM)
The term hybrid is derived from the fact that motor
is operated with the combined principles of the
permanent magnet and variable reluctance motors in
order to achieve small step length and high torque in
spite of motor size. Standard HSM have 50 rotor
.
teeth and rotate at 1.8 degree per step. Figures 4 & 5
Figure 2: Cross section of variable reluctance motor
show a cross section and cut view of two phase
HSM. The windings are placed on the stator poles
2.2 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor (PMSM) and a PM is mounted on the rotor. The important
A stepper motor using a permanent magnet in the feature of the HSM is its rotor structure. A
rotor is called a PMSM. The rotor no longer has cylindrical or disk-shaped magnet lies in the rotor
teeth as with the VRM. Instead the rotor is core. Stator and rotor end-caps are toothed. The coil
magnetized with alternating north and south poles
in pole 1 and pole 3 is connected in series consisting
situated in a straight line parallel to the rotor shaft.
of phase A and poles 2 and 4 are for phase B. If
These magnetized rotor poles provide an increased
stator phase A is excited pole 1 acquires north
magnetic flux intensity and, because of this the PM
polarity while pole 2 acquires south polarity [4]. Pole
motor exhibits improved torque characteristics when 1 attracts the rotor’s South Pole while pole 3 aligns
compared with the VRM type [1,3]. An elementary with the rotors north pole.
PM motor is shown in Figure 3 which employs a
cylindrical permanent magnet as the rotor and
possesses four poles in its stator. Two overlapping
windings are wound as one winding on poles 1 and
3 and these two windings are separated from each
other at terminals to keep them as independent
windings. The same is true for poles 2 and 4. The
terminals marked Ca or Cb denotes common to be
connected to the positive terminal of the power
supply. When the windings are excited in the
sequence A - B - A1 - B1 --- the rotor will be driven Figure 4: Cross section of hybrid stepper motor
in a clockwise direction. The step length is 900 in

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Advantages and disadvantages of HSM are as
follows:
a. Advantages
1. Step angle error is very small and non-
cumulative.
2. Rapid response to starting, stopping and
reversing.
3. Brushless design for reliability and simplicity.
4. High torque per package size.
5. Holding torque at standstill.
Figure 5: Cut view of hybrid stepper motor 6. Can be stalled repeatedly and indefinitely
without damage.
When the excitation is shifted from phase A to phase 7. No extra feedback components required
B, in which case the stator pole 2 becomes north (encoders).
pole and stator pole 4 becomes south pole, it would b. Disadvantages
cause the rotor to turn 900 in the clockwise 1. Resonance
direction. Again phase A is excited with pole 1 as 2. Vibration
south pole and pole 3 as north pole causing the rotor 3. Torque ripple.
to move 900 in the clockwise direction. If excitation
is removed from phase A and phase B is excited, 3. Comparison of Stepper Motor
then pole 2 produces south pole and pole 4 produces The choice of the type of the stepper motor depends
north pole resulting in rotor movement of 900 in the on the application Selection of stepper motor
clockwise direction. A complete cycle of excitation depends on torque requirements, step angle and
for the HSM consists of four states and produces control technique [5].
four steps of rotor movement. The excitation state is
the same before and after these four steps and hence Table 3: Comparison based on advantages and
the alignment of stator/rotor teeth occurs under the disadvantages
same stator poles [4,5]. The step length for a HSM Motor Advantages Disadvantages
and angle through which the rotor moves for each Type
step pulse is known as step angle. Variable 1. Robust- No magnet 1. Vibrations
Table 1: Mechanical properties of HSM reluctance 2. Smooth movement 2. Complex
motor due to no cogging circuit for
Sr. No. Motor Part Material
torque control
1. Shaft Non magnetic 3. High stepping rate 3. No smaller
material
Neodymium iron
2. Magnet and speed slewing step angle
boron (NdFe)/ capability. 4. No detent
3. Smarium
Rotor core Steel sheet cobalt torque
4. (SMCO5)
Stator core Steel sheet Permanent 1. Detent torque 1. Bigger step
5. Coil Copper magnet 2. Higher holding angle
stepper torque 2. Fixed rate
Table 2: Standard step angle of HSM motor 3. Better damping torque
3. Limited
Step Step Per
power output
Angle Revolution
and size
0.9 400 Hybrid 1. Detent torque 1. Resonance
1.8 200 stepper 2. No cumulative 2. Vibration
3.6 100 motor position error
7.2 50 3. Smaller step angle
15 24 4. Operate in open loop

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Table 4: Comparison based on different phase receiving a directional pulse the step motor reverses
properties the direction of rotation.
Type of Phases Properties
2 Phase 1. Simple driver circuit with
low heat dissipation
2. Less step error compared to
other phases
3. Higher accuracy due to
more number of stator poles.
3 Phase 1.Torque ripple is more
2. Poor peak torque ratio
3. Power transistors are less
4 Phase 1. Low torque ripple
2. Good peak torque ratio Figure 6: Open loop control of a stepper motor
5 Phase 1. Lower torque ripple
2. More expensive controller. The major disadvantage of the open loop scheme is
that in case of a missed pulse, there is no way to
4. Selection of Motor detect it and correct the switching sequence. A
Stepper motor can be selected based on the missed pulse may be due to malfunctioning of the
following specifications: driver circuit or the pulse generator. This may give
4.1 Electrical specifications include number of rise to erratic behaviour of the rotor. In this sequel
phases, step angle, winding voltage, winding the closed loop arrangement has the advantage over
resistance/ inductance, holding torque, pull-out open loop control, since it does not allow any pulse
torque, maximum slew rate, positional accuracy, to be missed and a pulse is send to the driving circuit
temperature rise and power supply & drive circuits. after making sure that the motor has rotated in the
proper direction by the earlier pulse sent. In order to
4.2 Mechanical specifications includes shaft length implement this, we need a feedback mechanism that
& shape, motor length, shape of flange face, lead will detect the rotation in every step and send the
wire length and connector type. information back to the controller. Such an
arrangement is shown in Fig. 14. The incremental
5. Control of Step Motors encoder here is a digital transducer used for
In many cases step motors are used for accurate measuring the angular displacement.
positioning of tools and devices. Precision control
over the rotation of the motor is required for these
cases. Control of step motors can be achieved in two
ways: open loop and closed loop. The open loop
control is simpler and more widely used, such a
scheme is shown schematically in Fig.13. The
command to the pulse generator sets the number of
steps for rotation and direction of rotation. The pulse
Figure 7: Feedback control of a stepper motor
generator correspondingly generates a train of pulse
[6].
The Translator is a simple logical device and
6. Different Modes of Excitation
distributes the position pulse train to the different
Different types of excitation schemes of the stepper
phases. The amplifier block amplifies this signal and
motor are:
drives current in the corresponding winding. The
6.1 Full step
direction of rotation can also be reversed by sending
6.2 Half step
a direction pulse train to the translator. After
6.3 Micro step

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6.1 Full step excitation mode 1. Micro step is a way of moving the stator flux of a
Full step excitation mode is achieved by energizing stepper motor more smoothly than in full or half step
both windings while reversing the current drive modes.
alternately. Essentially one digital input from the 2. Less vibration making noiseless step.
driver is equivalent to one step. If two phases of the 3. Makes smaller step angles and hence better
hybrid stepper motor are excited, the torque positioning is possible.
produced by the motor is increased, but the power 4. In many applications micro step increases system
supply to the motor is also increased. This can be an performance.
important consideration for applications, where the 5. Micro step diminish the oscillation.
power available to drive the motor is limited.

Figure 10: Micro step excitation

Figure 8: Full step excitation
7. Characteristics of stepper motor
The construction features between the various types
6.2 Half step excitation mode
of SM are different, but their behaviors are similar.
In half step mode, the drive alternates between two
Some additional characteristic details about HSM
phases ON and a single phase ON. Half step
are given below:
sequence is shown in Figure 9. This increases the
angular resolution, but the motor also has less torque
7.1 Static Characteristics
(approx 70%) at the half step position (where only a
1) Torque Angle curve: The torque increases,
single phase is ON) []. This may be mitigated by
almost sinusoidal with angle from equilibrium
increasing the current in the active winding. The
position as shown in Figure 11. S is the step angle
advantage of half step is that it reduces the vibration.
(deg) and M is the maximum angle.

Figure 9: Half step excitation

6.3 Micro step excitation mode

The full step length of a stepper motor can be
divided into smaller increments of rotor motion
Figure 11: Torque- angle curve of stepper motor
known as micro step by partially exciting several
phase windings and micro step sequence is shown in
2) Holding torque (TH): It is the maximum load
Figure 10. Micro step is typically used in
torque which the energized step per motor can
applications that require accurate positioning and a
withstand without slip from position.
fine resolution over a wide range of speeds. The
3) Detent torque (TD): It is the maximum load
major disadvantage of the micro step drive is the
torque which an unenergized step per motor can
cost of implementation due to the need for partial
withstand without slipping and is also known as
excitation of the motor windings at different current
cogging torque. It is due to residual magnetism and
levels [7]. The merits as below
about 5 -10% of holding torque. Detent torque is

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typically fourth harmonic torque as shown in Figure 8. Conclusion
12. Step motors find wide applications as an electrical
actuator. It can be readily interfaced with a computer
and can be controlled for rotation at a very small
angle, or a precisely determined speed. Step motors
nowadays can deliver large torque also. These are
the reasons step motors are gradually replacing
conventional a.c. and d.c. motors in many cases. The
Figure 12: Torque and detent torque profiles of constructions, principles of operation and driving
stepper motor schemes used for step motor have been discussed in
this lesson. Both the open loop and close loop
7.2 Dynamic characteristics control schemes for position control of step motors
Torque versus speed relationship of a stepper motor have been elaborated. The torque characteristics of a
is shown in Figure 13. The two curves are the pull- in step motor is distinctly different from conventional
torque and the pull-out torque curve and motors and nonlinear in nature. As a result it is not
intermediately pull-out region is called the slewing possible even to develop a linearised transfer
curve. function model of a step motor (a practise that is
common for a.c. and d.c. servomotors). This is
possibly a major hindrance for modelling and
simulation of systems with step motor drives.

References
1. C.W. de Silva: Control Sensors and
Actuators, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1989
2. T. Wildi: Electrical Machine Drives and
Power Systems
3. D. Austin, Generate stepper- motor speed
profiles in real time, article in Embedded
Figure 13: Torque Vs Speed curves of stepper
motor Systems Programming’ January 2005.
4. D. W. Jones, Control of Stepper Motors,
sections 5.2.10, 10.8, 10.9 and 10.10 of the
The pull-out torque versus speed curve represents
Handbook of Small Electric Motors edited
the maximum friction-torque load that a stepping
by W. H. Yeadon and A. W. Yeadon,
motor can drive before losing synchronism at a
McGraw-Hill, 2001.
specified stepping rate with the magnetic field and
motor stall. The pull- in torque versus speed curve 5. P.C. Sen, “Principles of Electric Machines
represents the maximum frictional load at which the and Power Electronics,” Second Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, USA, 1997.
stepper motor can start without failure of motion
6. Guru Hiziroglu, “Electric Machinery and
when a pulse train of the corresponding frequency is
Transformers, Third Edition, Oxford
applied. The pull- in torque depends on the inertia of
University Press, USA, 2001.
the load connected to the motor. The pull- in region
is defined as the maximum control frequency at 7. Theodore Wildi, "Electrical Machines
which the unloaded motor can start and stop without Drives, and Power Systems," Prentice Hall,
losing steps. The pull-out region is defined as the Ohio, 2006.
maximum frequency at which the unloaded motor
can run without losing steps and is alternatively
called the maximum pull-out rate.

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