What Are Volcanoes?

A volcano is a landform, a mountain, where molten rocks erupt through

the surface of the planet. The volcano mountain opens downwards to a pool of molten rocks
underneath the surface of the earth. Pressure builds up in the earth’s crust and this is the
reason why eruptions occur. Gases and igneous rocks shoot up and splash over or fill the air
with lava fragments. The volcano eruption can cause hot ash, lateral blasts and lava flow,
mudslides, and more. Formation of Volcanoes:-A volcano mountain is formed by the surface
eruption of magma from within the earth’s upper mantle. The magma that erupts to the surface
and forms a lava flow that deposits ash. As the volcano continues to erupt, a new layer of lava is
added to the surface, accumulating to form a mountain. #Three categories of volcanoes are :-
Active volcano is one which has recently erupted and there is a possibility that it may erupt
soon. Dormant volcano is one that has not erupted in a long time but there is a possibility it can
erupt in the future. Extinct volcano is one which has erupted thousands of years ago and there’s
no possibility of an eruption. Types of Volcanoes 1.Cinder Cones:- Cinder cones are circular or
oval cones made up of small fragments of lava from a single vent that have been blown up.
Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics that build
up around the vent. 2. Composite volcanoes are steep-sided volcanoes composed of many
layers of volcanic rocks, usually made from high-viscosity lava, ash and rock debris. These types
of volcanoes are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and other ejecta in alternate
layers, the strata that give rise to the name. 3.Shield volcanoes are volcanoes shaped like a
bowl or shield in the middle with long gentle slopes made by basaltic lava flows. These are
formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They
generally do not explode catastrophically. Since low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica,
shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. 4.Lava domes are
formed when erupting lava is too thick to flow and makes a steep-sided mound as the lava piles
up near the volcanic vent. They are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are
sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption. Types of Volcanic effects:-
*Hydrothermal eruption: These eruptions include ash and not magma. They are driven by the
heat caused by hydrothermal systems. *Phreatic eruption: This is driven when the heat of the
magma interacts with the water. These eruptions do not include magma and only ash.
*Phreatomagmatic eruption: This eruption takes place when there is an interaction between
the newly formed magma and water. *Strombolian and Hawaiian eruption: Hawaiian eruption
has fire fountains while the Strombolian eruption has explosions due to lava fragments.
*Vulcanian eruption: These eruptions last for a short period of time and can reach up to a
height of 20 km. *Subplinian and Phinian eruptions: Subplinian eruptions reach up to 20 km in
height, while Plinian eruptions reach up to 20-35 km.# Volcano mitigation:- Volcanic hazards
can be mitigated with the help of well defined series of actions. As mentioned earlier, the
monitoring of volcanic activity from a solid base for forecasting and warning of an emption can
lead to evacuation of the people froin the hazard zones. Besides, there are several other
methods to reduce the impact of a volcanic eruption, A few of such methods are listed below: --
Long term planning of human settlements in active volcano zones, - Dissemination of preventive
information for the population residing in the vicinity of a volcano.
Landslides :- A landslide is a downward or outward movement of soil, rock or
vegetation, under the influence Of gravity. A landslide occurs when part of a natural
slope is unable to support its own weight. For example, soil material on a slope with
slippery surface underneath, can become heavy with Rainwater and slide down due to
its increased weight. Natural Causes: Intense rainfall or deposition of snow will raise
the ground water table; decrease the soil Strength and increase weight of associated
materials. Rapid snowmelt in mountains- rapid melting of snow adds water to soil/
rock mass on Slopes Erosion caused by continuous runoff over a slope. The removal
of toe and lateral support Of a soil mass by flow of water in streams, rivers, wave action
etc., can bring about Instability of the soil/rock mass. Ground vibrations created during
earthquakes. Human-Induced Causes * Deforestation * Construction and Excavation *
irrigation and drainage . Types of landslide:- 1.Falls: Falls are sudden movements of
loads of soil, debris, and rock that break away from slopes and cliffs. It occurs as a
result of mechanical weathering, earthquakes, and the force of gravity.2.Slides: This is a
kind of mass movement whereby the sliding material breakaways from the underlying
stable material. 3.Topples: Topple failure encompasses the forward spinning and
movement of huge masses of rock, debris, and earth from a slope. This type of slope
failure takes place around an axis near or at the bottom of the block of rock. 4.Flows:
This type of landslide is categorized into five; earth flows, debris avalanche, debris flow,
mudflows, and creep, which include seasonal, continuous and progressive.

Natural Hazards• These could be temporary or permanent components of

the particular Environmental contexts, such as ocean currents, Himalayan high
slopes, hazardous structural characteristics, or severe weather conditions in
desert areas or glaciated Places• These are situations in the natural universe
that possess the power to harm Persons, infrastructure, or even both.
Natural Disaster• When the degree of devastation And destruction incurred
due to an incident is exceptionally large, you can consider it a Disaster •
Natural disasters, compared to natural hazards, are more immediate and
Result in large-scale, extensive death, damaging property, and disruption of
social Structures and existence over which individuals have almost no
influence• Every Disaster is specific in context to the local socio-
environmental conditions that influence It, the social reactions it elicits, and
how each social circle deals with it.
What is plate tectonics? Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth’s outer
shell is divided into several plates that glide over the mantle, the rocky inner
layer above the core. The plates act like hard and rigid shells compared to
Earth’s mantle. This strong outer layer is called the lithosphere. The earth’s
lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates and many minor
plates. Plate tectonics affect humans? Plate tectonics affects humans in
several important ways.*It causes earthquakes. *It causes volcanism. *It
induces the recycling of elements within the biosphere and between the
geosphere and biosphere. *It causes mountain-building. Types of plate
boundaries: 1.Transform boundaries: These boundaries happen where two
lithospheric plates move apart, or maybe further precisely, collide away
from one other despite the transform faults, where plates are neither
created nor destroyed. 2.Divergent boundaries: These boundaries happen
when both plates move apart from one another. 3.Convergent boundaries:
These boundaries happen when both plates move towards one other to
form a zone of subduction or a continental collision. 4.Transform
boundaries: These boundaries happen when natural or human-made
structures that cross a transform boundary are offset—split into pieces and
carried in opposite directions. 5.Plate boundary zones: These boundaries
happen where the effects of the interactions are unclear, and the
boundaries usually occur along a broad belt. #Recent major example of
Tsunami from India:- The tsunami in the Indian Ocean on December 26,
2004, was one of the most devastating natural Disasters in the world. The
Tsunami triggered by an earthquake measuring 9.1 on the Richter Scale
(the third strongest ever recorded), killed about 230,000 people in 14
countries around the Indian Ocean; Tsunami-affected areas in India are
West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, etc. It has caused human, animal, Mineral Resources, Surface
WaterResources, Forest and Biomass, Coastal Environment, Terrestrial
Environment, Loss of life and property, Disease, Impact on environment
and biodiversity, and Economic cost. #Examples of earthquake from India:-
A massive 7.9 magnitude shallow focus earthquake hit Nepal on 25 April
2015 at 11.48 AM (IST) followed by number of aftershocks. The epicentre
of this earthquake approximately 80 km NW of Kathmandu, the capital city
of Nepal. Bihar W.B & UP
An earthquake refers to the shaking of the earth’s surface caused by a sudden release
of energy within the earth’s crust. This release of energy generates seismic waves,
commonly known as S waves. The intensity and characteristics of an earthquake are
determined by the seismic activities occurring in a specific region. During an
earthquake, the stored energy accumulated within the earth’s crust is suddenly
released, leading to the rapid movement and displacement of rock masses along fault
lines. This movement produces vibrations that propagate through the earth in the form
of seismic waves. What causes an earthquake? Earthquakes occur due to sudden
tectonic movements within the Earth’s crust. These movements result from interactions
between tectonic plates, large sections of the Earth’s crust that float on the semi-fluid
layer known as the asthenosphere. When stress along plate boundaries becomes too
great, rocks along the boundaries break and slip, releasing stored energy and generating
seismic waves. What are the effects of an earthquake? Earthquakes can have various
effects, including ground shaking, damage to man-made structures, fires and hazardous
chemical spills, landslides and avalanches and the generation of tsunamis in coastal
areas. The severity of these effects depends on factors such as the earthquake’s
magnitude, depth and local geology. Tsunami:- • The term Tsunami has been derived
from a Japanese term Tsu meaning ‘harbor’ and nami Meaning ‘waves’. • Tsunamis are
popularly called tidal waves but They actually have nothing to do with the tides• These
waves which often affect distant shores, Originate by rapid displacement of water from
The lake or the sea either by seismic activity, Landslides, volcanic eruptions

Tsunami generation Tsunamis are most frequently caused by earthquakes, but can also
result from landslides, volcanic eruptions, and very infrequently by meteorites or other
impacts upon the ocean surface. Tsunamis are generated primarily by tectonic
dislocations under the sea which are caused by shallow focus earthquakes along areas
of subduction. The upthrusted and downthrusted crustal blocks impart potential energy
into the overlying water mass with drastic changes in the sea level over the affected
region. The energy imparted into the water mass results in tsunami generation, i.e.
energy radiating away from the source region in the form of long period waves.
Tsunami Mitigation:- • While it is of course not possible to prevent a Tsunami, in certain
tsunami prone countries Some measures have been taken to reduce The damage
caused on shore• Japan has implemented an extensive Programme of building tsunami
walls of up to 4.5m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated Coastal areas. • Site Planning and
Land Management- • Elevate coastal homes: Most tsunami waves are less than 3
meters in height. • Elevating house will help reduce damage to property from most
tsunamis.• · Construction of water breakers to reduce the velocity of waves.• · Use of
water and corrosion resistant materials for construction.• · Construction of community
halls at higher locations, which can act as shelters at the time of a disaster
Ground Subsidence:-Land subsidence is defined as the downward, vertical movement
of the Earth’s surface, which can be Brought on by both natural and human forces.
Interactions between geologic conditions and human Activity have been factors in
numerous incidents of subsidence, the very slow to rapid sinking or settling Of Earth
materials. Most subsidence is caused either by the withdrawal of fluids from
subsurface Reservoirs or by the collapse of surface and near-surface soil and rocks
over subterranean voids. Impacts of Land subsidence:- The combined consequences of
climate change land subsidence, and increased urbanization lead to making sinking
cities. Due to the city’s inadequate drainage systems, land subsidence can result in the
settlement of clay on Upper levels, damaging the city’s infrastructure (roads, bridges),
and causing flood risk. According to experts, it might undermine buildings, including
homes and other infrastructure, as well as Cause fractures to appear in the foundations
of the structures. Water management disturbance and associated repercussions such
as changes in the gradient of streams, Canals, drains, increased seawater intrusion, and
increased pump power. Farmland production in deltaic areas has declined as a result of
a reduction in freshwater availability Caused by an increase in saltwater intrusion,
coming from a reduction in land elevation caused by land Subsidence. The cessation of
ground sinking can sometimes result in unexpected environmental issues. Mitigation:-
*Slope stabilization Using methods like terracing or erecting retaining walls, slopes can
be stabilized in Order to prevent landslides and erosion. *Planting vegetation on slopes
can aid in soil stabilization and erosion prevention. *Control of drainage In hilly areas, it
is crucial to effectively manage and maintain drainage systems. *Strengthening
foundations Buildings in mountainous communities may occasionally need to have
their Foundations reinforced in order to stop them from sliding or collapsing. Planning
and zoning With careful planning and zoning, structures can be kept out of locations
that are Vulnerable to landslides or erosion. #Land subsidence in Joshimath:- Land
subsidence has occurred in Joshimath as a result of the town’s geological location and
the haphazard and widespread development that has taken place there and nearby.
Because Joshimath was constructed over the remnants of a previous landslide, even
small triggers might cause the slopes to become unstable. In India’s seismic zonation
plan, the town is also in Zone V, which denotes the highest danger.It occupies a
seismically active terrain because it is sandwiched between the Main Central Thrust
(MCT) and the Vaikrita Thrust (VT). Joshimath is additionally vulnerable to severe
weather because it is climatologically located in an area that commonly experiences
concentrated, high-intensity rains. Extreme rainfall, for instance, might cause landslides
because of how dangerously balanced the slopes are. Joshimath is a sand and stone
deposit, thus it was not a good location to build a city since vibrations from blasting and
excessive traffic would also cause natural variables to be out of balance.561 homes
have reported cracks, and at least 66 families have left the area. According to a
government official, more than 3000 people have been impacted thus far.
Flood means inundation due to overflowing of a large volume of water, whatever be its
source. Flood is a rise, usually brief, in the water level in a stream to peak from which
the water level Recedes at a slower rate. However, areas with no stream or river may
also suffer from floods in the case of inadequate Drainage – a situation being
experienced increasingly by unplanned or ill-planned growth in Urban centres in addition
to that created by blockages in agricultural areas. Areas far from river Or canal banks
and not usually prone to floods may experience flooding if there is a sudden rush Of
water in river or canal. Typical Adverse Effects:- The most important consequence of
floods is the loss of life and property. Structures like houses, Bridges; roads etc. Get
damaged by the gushing water, landslides triggered on account of water Getting
saturated, boats and fishing nets get damaged. There is huge loss to life and livestock
Caused by drowning. Lack of proper drinking water facilities, contamination of water
(well, Ground water, piped water supply) leads to outbreak of epidemics, diarrhoea, viral
infection, Malaria and many other infectious diseases. Flooding also leads to a large
area of agricultural land getting inundated as a result there is a Huge crop loss. This
results in shortage of food, and animal fodder. #Possible Risk Reduction Measures:-
*Mapping of the flood prone areas is a primary step involved in reducing the risk of the
region. Historical records give the indication of the flood inundation areas and the
period of occurrence And the extent of the coverage. Warning can be issued looking
into the earlier marked heights of The water levels in case of potential threat. *Land use
control will reduce danger of life and property when waters inundate the floodplains
And the coastal areas. The number of casualties is related to the population in the area
at risk. In Areas where people already have built their settlements, measures should be
taken to relocate to Better sites so as to reduce vulnerability. *Construction of
engineered structures in the flood plains and strengthening of structures to Withstand
flood forces and seepage. The buildings should be constructed on an elevated area. If
Necessary build on stilts or platform. *Flood Control aims to reduce flood damage. This
can be done by decreasing the amount of Runoff with the help of reforestation (to
increase absorption could be a mitigation strategy in Certain areas), protection of
vegetation, clearing of debris from streams and other water holding Areas, conservation
of ponds and lakes etc. *Flood Management In India, systematic planning for flood
management commenced with the Five Year Plans, particularly with the launching of
National Programme of Flood Management In 1954. During the last 48 years,

#Recent catastrophic floods in India:- Northwest India has been severely impacted by
incessant rainfall since July 8, 2023, with Record-breaking levels of heavy to extremely
heavy rainfall observed in Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Delhi. This intensified monsoon is believed to be
a consequence of climate change. Further, the Combination of a western disturbance
and monsoonal winds has caused an unprecedented Spell of extreme rainfall
throughout northwest India.
What is an avalanche of snow? A snow avalanche is typically the mass movement of
snow, ice and sometimes rocks, vegetation and soil down a slope. The downhill path is
typically greater than 50 m. Also, they generally start on slopes that are about 30-45°
steep and stop on terrain less than 15°.➤As an example, avalanches occur mainly on
slopes more than 30° in the Swiss Alps.➤ They can flow as slow as 20-100 km/h to
quite fast at 50- 200 km/h. Small avalanches can also carry some 10 tons of materials
while extreme ones can displace as much as 100,000 tons. What are the causes and
effects of snow avalanches? The causes of avalanches include many factors such as
topography, vegetation, weather conditions, weight of Snow cover, geological factors
such as earthquakes etc. The effects of snow avalanches include minor to huge Loss to
life and property. Small avalanches can block highways and train-tracks blocking
movement, while Large avalanches can kill hundreds of people and cause loss of
manmade structures. Types of Avalanches:- 1. Loose Snow Avalanches:- First of these
are the Loose Snow Avalanches. They are common on steep slopes. And are seen after
a fresh snowfall. 2. Slab Avalanches:- Loose Snow Avalanches, in turn, could cause a
Slab Avalanche, which is characterized by the fall of a large block of ice down the
slopes. 3. Powder Snow Avalanches:-Powder Snow Avalanches are a mix of the other
forms, Loose Snow and Slab. The bottom half of this avalanche consists of a slab or a
dense concentration of snow, ice and air. 4.Wet Snow Avalanches:- Finally, there are
Wet Snow Avalanches. These are quite dangerous as they travel slowly due to friction,
which collects debris from the path fairly easily. 5. Icefall Avalanches:-When glaciers
flow over a cliff, they form the ice equivalent of a waterfall or an icefall. Falling blocks of
ice create an avalanche of ice, which often entrains snow below it or triggers slabs. 6.
Cornice Fall Avalanches:-Cornices are the fatal attraction of the mountains; their beauty
is matched only by their danger. Cornices are elegant, cantilevered snow structures
formed by wind. Drifting snow onto the downwind side of an obstacle such as a
ridgeline.

A Meteorite is a piece of rock from outer space that strikes the surface of the Earth.A
MeteoroidIs a meteorite before it hits the surface of the Earth. *Meteors are glowing
fragments of rock matter from outside the Earth’s atmosphere that burn and glow Upon
entering the Earth’s atmosphere. They are more commonly known as shootingstars.
Some meteors, Particularly larger ones, may survive passage through the atmosphere
tobecome meteorites, but most are Small objects that burn up completely in the
atmosphere. They are not, in reality, shooting stars. Impact craters:- When a large object
impacts the surface of the Earth, the rock at the site of the impact is deformed and
Some of it is ejected into the atmosphere to eventually fall back to the surface. This
results in a bowl-shaped depression with a raised rim, called an Impact Crater. The size
of the impact crater depends on Such factors as the size and velocity of the impacting
object andthe angle at which it strikes the surface of The Earth.
Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low-Pressure area
distinguished by swift and often disruptive air Circulation. The word cyclone is derived
from the Greek word Cyclos meaning the coils of a snake and it was coined by Henry
Piddington. In this article, we will know about the types of Cyclones, how they are
formed and their different names. Causes :-There are 6 factors that can be held
responsible for the formation of the Cyclone: *Ample amount of warm temperature at
the surface of the sea. *Instability in the atmosphere. *How the Coriolis force is
impacting the area so that low-pressure Area can be created.* When the humidity is
high in the lower to middle levels of the Troposphere. * Disturbance in the pre-existing
low-level area.* When the vertical wind shear is low. Effects of : *Seawater enters the
low-lying coastal areas, causing severe loss of life and property. *It also reduces the
fertility of the soil. Continuous heavy rainfall may further worsen the flood situation.
*High-speed winds accompanying a cyclone can damage houses, telephones and other
communication systems, trees, etc., causing tremendous loss of life and property.
Types of Cyclones? 1.Tropical Cyclone The regions where the tropical cyclone occurs
are over the tropical Ocean. Hurricanes and typhoons are the two types of tropical
cyclone. Atlantic and Northeast Pacific are the regions where hurricanes are Found.
Whereas, in the Northwest Pacific, typhoons are found. A Tropical cyclone is divided
into 5 categories depending on the intensity And the wind speed. *Cyclone: Indian
Ocean, African Thailand, Indonesia, south east, *Typhone: China, Japan, south korica,
phillippin etc *Harican; Carabian country, irland *Tornado: USA, Canada, maxico, Latin
American country. *Whilli whilli: Norther Austaliya. 2.Polar Cyclone:- The polar cyclone
is also known as the “Arctic hurricane” in the Northern Hemisphere. This is due to their
energy sources. The heat is Transferred from water to air and the latent heat is released
in the form of Cloud condensation. The forecast of the polar cyclone is difficult as they
Take less than 24 hours, and they are formed quickly. They are formed Over the Arctic
and Antarctic seas. 3.Mesocyclone:-The mesocyclone is considered to be one of the
strong thunderstorms. The mesocyclone is found within the convective storm in the
form of a Vortex of air. The air rises and rotates along the vertical axis. Direction of air
and the low-pressure system are the same in the Given hemisphere. The mesocyclone
is accompanied by the rotating air Within the thunderstorm. 4.Extratropical Cyclone:-
The cyclones that are formed in the middle latitudes along the frontal Boundaries are
either known as extratropical cyclones or mid-latitude Cyclones. The winds of the
extratropical cyclone are weaker however, The temperature gradients are sharp. The
nor’easter is an example of an Extratropical cyclone that impacts the east coast of the
United States. Few important facts:- * The 1970 Bhola cyclone is considered to be the
strongest cyclone In India. *Goa and Maharashtra are the states that were affected by
the Nisarga Cyclone in India. Every year close to 2-4 tropical cyclones impact different
states of India. The most affected region is the east coast of India which includes Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal.