EXPERIMENT NO – 11

Aim : To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors

connected in series.
Apparatus : Two given resistors of unknown resistances, an ammeter,
a voltmeter of suitable range, rheostat of about 10 Ω resistance, an
accumulator or a dry cell, a plug key, connecting wires, sand paper etc.

Theory: Two resistors are said to be connected in series if they are

connected end as shown in the figure. The equivalent resistance of the
series combination, i,e, R is given as
R = r1 + r2
Where r and r are the individual resistances of the resistors connected
in series as shown in the Figure

Fig 11.1. r1 and r2 are connected in series.

Procedure
1. Determine the individual r1 and r2 of the given resistors by
following the circuit diagram and procedural steps of Experiment
No. 4.
2. Study the following circuit diagram for series combination of r1
and r2 as given in the Figure. Make the connections of various
pieces of apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram given in the
Figure.

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Fig 11.2. Circuit diagram to determine the equivalent resistance of
two resistors connected in series.

Fig. 11.3 Arrangement diagram for series combination of the given

two resistors.

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 3. Insert the key (K) and adjust the rheostat (Rh) for a small current
as indicated by ammeter A. Record the ammeter and voltmeter
readings.
4. Increase the current by adjusting the position of slider of the
rheostat and note down the corresponding readings of ammeter
and voltmeter. Thus take three sets of observations and determine
mean value of the equivalent resistance R of the series
combination.
5. Record the observations as detailed below :
Observations
Zero error of voltmeter = ……. volt
Zero error of ammeter = ……. amp
Least count of the voltmeter = ……. volt
Least count of the ammeter = ….... amp
Range of ammeter = ….... amp
Range of voltmeter = ….... volt
Note
If the zero error of the instrument is negative then it must be added to
the observed value to obtain the corrected value and vice versa.
Table 11.1
Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading
Resistance Mean
Resistance Obs. (V) (I)
= V/I resistance
(Ohm) No. Observed Correct Observed Corrected
(ohm) (ohm)
(volt) (volt) (amp) (amp)
1
r1 2
3
r2 1

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 2
3
1
R 2
3

Calculations
Resultant resistance of the resistors in Series
(i) By experiment, R = …….ohm
(b) By calculations, R = r1 + r2 = ……ohm

Result
Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental value of F is
equal to its calculated value. Thus the relation R = r1 + r2 for series
combination is verified.
Precautions
1. Draw a circuit diagram as given in the book and get it checked
by your teacher.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires by sand paper and then
make neat, clean and tight connections.
3. Get your circuit connections checked by your teacher before
passing current.
4. Close the key (K) only when you are taking readings.
5. Take care that the source of current, i.e. dry cell is not short
circuited.
6. not the zero errors and the ranges of the ammeter and voltmeter.

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 7. Positive terminals of ammeter should be connected to the
positive pole of the cell.
8. The positive terminal of the voltmeter should be connected to
the higher potential ends of the resistors r1 and r2 in series
combination.
9. A suitable rheostat of about 10 Ω should be used to change the
current smoothly.
10. Excessive current should not be passed, otherwise due to
excessive heating, temperature increases. With increase in
temperature the resistance of the resistor changes.

Khaikhawmna
Resistor pahnih, series-a thlunzawm ten resistance an neih zat
zawnchhhuah kan tum a ni a, he zawnchhuahna formula awmsa R = r1
+ r2 finfiah hi kan tum ber chu a ni.

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 EXPERIMENT NO – 12
Aim: To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors
connected in parallel.
Apparatus
Two given resistors of unknown resistances, an ammeter, a voltmeter
of suitable range, rheostat of about 10 Ω resistance, an accumulator or
dry cell, a plug key, connecting wires, sand paper etc.
Theory
Two resistors are said to be connected in parallel if one end of each
resistor is connected to one common point A and the other end of each
resistor is connected to another common point B as shown in the
Figure.

Fig. 12.1 Parallel combination of resistors r1 and r2

The equivalent resistance F of the parallel combination is given by
the relation
I I I
= +
R r1 r 2

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 Procedure
1. Determine the individual resistances r1 and r2 of the given
resistors following the procedural steps and circuit diagram of
the experiment No.4.
2. Study the circuit diagram for parallel combination of r1 and r2 as
given in the Figure. Make the connections of various pieces of
apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram given in the next
Figure.
3. Insert the key (K) and adjust the rheostat (Rh) for a small current
as indicated by ammeter A. Note the ammeter and voltmeter
readings.

Fig 12.2 Circuit diagram for parallel combination of r1 and r2

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Fig 12.3 Arrangement diagram for parallel combination of r1 and r2.
4. Increase the current by adjusting the position of the slider of the
rheostat suitably. Record the corresponding readings of
ammeter and voltmeter. Take three sets of observations and
determine the mean value of the equivalent resistance R of the
parallel combination.
5. Record your observations as given below :

Observations
Zero error of the voltmeter = …volt
Least count of the voltmeter = ….volt
Zero error of the ammeter = …amp
Least count of the ammeter = …amp

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 Note
If the zero error of the instrument is negative, then it must be added
to the observed value to get the corrected value and vice versa.
Table 12.1
Voltmeter
Ammeter Reading (I) Resistance Mean
ResistanceObs. Reading (V)
V/I Resistance
(Ohm) No. Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
(Ohm) (Ohm)
(Volt) (Volt) (amp) (amp)
1
r1 2
3
1
r2 2
3
1
R 2
3

Calculations : Resultant Resistance of Resistors in Parallel

(i) By experiment R = ….ohm
I I I
(ii) By calculation = + = .....(ohm) −1 or R = ….ohm
R r1 r 2

Result
Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental value of R
equals the calculated value of R.

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Precautions.
1. Draw a circuit diagram as given in the book and get it checked
by your teacher.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires by sand paper and then
make neat, clean and tight connections.
3. Get your circuit connections checked by your teacher before
passing current.
4. Close the key (K) only when you are taking readings.
5. Take care that the source of current, i.e. dry cell is not short
circuited.
6. Note the zero errors and the ranges of the ammeter and
voltmeter.
7. Positive terminals of ammeter should be connected to the
positive pole of the cell.
8. The positive terminal of the voltmeter should be connected to
the higher potential ends of the resistors r1 and r2 in series
combination.
9. A suitable rheostat of about 10 Ω should be used to change the
current smoothly.
10. Excessive current should not be passed, otherwise due to
excessive heating, temperature increases. With increase in
temperature the resistance of the resistor changes.
Khaikhawmna
Resistor pahnih, parallel-a thlun zawm ten resistance an neih zat
zawnchhhuah kan tum a ni a, he zawnchhuahna formula awm sa
I I I
= + finfiah hi kan tum ber chu a ni.
R r1 r 2

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 EXPERIMENT NO – 13
Aim: To find the pH of the following samples using pH paper/
Universal indicator.
(i) Dilute hydrochloric acid
(ii) Dilute solution of sodium hydroxide
(iii) Dilute solution of ethanoic acid
(iv) Lemon juice
(v) Water
(vi) Dilute solution of sodium bicarbonate.
Materials Required
Apparatus: Test tubes, pH paper (or Universal indicator), droppers,
white tile.
Chemicals: Samples of dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute solution of
sodium hydroxide, dilute solution of ethanoic acid, lemon juice, water
dilute solution of sodium bicarbonate,
Basic Principles
1. pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] of a
solution.
2. For an acidic solution [H+] > 10-7. Therefore, its value is less
than seven (pH < 7). For example, the pH values of dilute
hydrochloric acid, ethanoic acid and lemon juice are less than 7.
3. For a basic (alkaline) solution [H+] < 10-7. Therefore, its pH
value is greater than seven (pH > 7). For example, the pH value
of dilute solution of NaOH is greater than 7.
4. For a neutral solution [H+] = 10-7. Therefore, its pH value is
equal to seven (pH = 7). For example, the pH value of
pure/distilled water is 7 at 298 K.
5. The pH of a sample can be measured by the use of pH paper or
universal indicator.

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Procedure
(i) Take the given solutions in separate clean test tubes and mark
them as A, B, C, D, E and F respectively.
(ii) Place a strip (test strip) of the pH paper on a clean and dry
glazed white tile.
(iii) Withdraw the solution from test tube A in a clean dropper
and put two drops of it on the pH paper.
(iv) Compare the colour developed on the test strip with the
colour given on the chart of the pH paper.
(v) Record the pH value corresponding to the colour.
(vi) Perform similar experiments with the other solutions and
record your observations as indicated in the table.

Fig. 13.1 Experimental steps to measure the pH of different samples

(a) HCI (b) NaOH (c) Ethanoic Acid
(d) Lemon Juice (e) Water (f) Sodium Bicarbonate

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 Observations:
Colour pH
developed value Nature of
S.No. Name of Sample
on pH (from samples
paper chart)
1 Dilute hydrochloric acid Acidic
Dilute solution of sodium
2 Basic
hydroxide
Dilute solution of
3 Acidic
ethanoic acid
4 Lemon juice Acidic
5 Water Neutral
Dilute solution of sodium
6 Basic
bicarbonate

Results:
In the given samples we have observed that:
1. The pH values of dilute hydrochloric acid, solution of ethanoic
acid and lemon juice are less than 7. Therefore, these have acidic
character.
2. The pH values of dilute solution of sodium hydroxide and dilute
solution of sodium bicarbonate are more than 7. Therefore, these
have basic character.
3. The pH of distilled water is 7. Therefore, it has a neutral
character.
Precautions
1. The pH paper should not be touched with unclean and wet
hands.
2. Clean the dropper removing each solution for testing.
3. One strip of pH paper may be divided into three or more parts
for judicious measure.

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 Khaikhawmna:
pH (puissance d’hydrogen) chu Power of Hydrogen (Hydrogen
chakna) tihna a ni ber mai a, thil tui (solution)-a hydrogen ion (H+)
tam lam tehna a ni. Thil engpawh, a tuiril (solution)-a a awm laiin a
thur (acidic) nge a kha (basic) nge a pangngai (neutral) tih hriat nana
hman a ni. Acid tamna solution-ah chuan pH value chu 7 aiin a hniam
a, basic/alkaline-ah chuan 7 aiin a sang ṭhin. Neutral solution-ah erawh
chuan 7 a ni thung. Tui thianghlim ṭha tak pH value chu 7 a ni a, a
thianghlim ṭhat loh erawh chuan 7 a ni thei lo. pH paper chu paper te
tak te, indicator-a tuam a ni a; solution hrang hrang a chiahin a rawng
a danglam ṭhin. He pH papers siamna atana hman universal indicators
siam dan hi a inan thlipthlep kher loh avangin pH papers rawng pawh
a in ang lo hret hret thei.
Dropper kan tih hi naute damdawi tui pekna ang hi a ni a. Glazed
tile aiah hian thil var fai ṭha tak, rawng kal lo eng pawh hman theih a
ni; eg. Sunglows’. Sodium bicarbonate hi chawhmeh baina atana kan
hman soda tho hi a ni. Ethanoic acid hi a awm loh chuan ei tur (eg sa,
etc) chiah hnip/vawn ṭhat nana kan hman thin ‘vinegar’ hi a hman ve
theih mai; ethanoic acid pawlh dal a ni.

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