Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Computer System (Computer Architecture)

What Does Computer Architecture Mean?

Computer architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and

hardware technology standards interact to form a computer system or platform. In
short, computer architecture refers to how a computer system is designed and what
technologies it is compatible with.

As with other contexts and meanings of the word architecture, computer

architecture is likened to the art of determining the needs of the
user/system/technology, and creating a logical design and standards based on those
requirements

ALU(Arithmetic
and Logical
Unit)

Fig. Computer System Architecture.

1llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)
 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

The principle of Computer system is input, processing and Output. i.e. IPO.

Input(I) Processing(P) Output(O)

The architercture of computer can be explained in the following ways.

a)Input Unit

In computing, an input device is a piece of equipment used to provide data

and control signals to an information processing system such as a computer or
information appliance. Examples of input devices include keyboards, mouse,
scanners, cameras, joysticks, microphones etc.

Input Device:

i)Mouse

A computer mouse is a handheld hardware input device that controls a cursor in

a GUI (graphical user interface) and can move and select text, icons, files,
and folders on your computer. For desktop computers, the mouse is placed on a flat
surface (e.g., mouse pad or desk) in front of your computer.

2llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

ii)Keyboard

The keyboard is the most common means of hardware by which user will
input the data. It looks like an electronic typewriter keyboard but contains keys for
specific purposes. It is quite similar to the keyboard of the typewriter(QWERTY)
but contains some additional keys.

i)alphanumeric keys

ii)punctuation keys

iii)Special keys

iii)Joystick

A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and

reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. ... Joysticks are often
used to control video games, and usually have one or more push-buttons whose
state can also be read by the computer. It is mostly used in aircraft system.

3llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

iv)Light pen

A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive wand

used in conjunction with a computer's cathode-ray tube (CRT) display. It allows
the user to point to displayed objects or draw on the screen in a similar way to a
touchscreen but with greater positional accuracy.

v)Touch Screen

A touchscreen or touch screen is the assembly of both an input

('touch panel') and output ('display') device. ... The touchscreen enables the user
to interact directly with what is displayed, rather than using a mouse, touchpad, or
other such devices (other than a stylus, which is optional for most
modern touchscreens).

vi)TrackBall

A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket containing

sensors to detect a rotation of the ball about two axes—like an upside-down mouse
with an exposed protruding ball. ... Large trackballs are common on CAD
workstations for easy precision.
4llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)
 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

vii)Digitizing Tablet
A digitizing tablet is a sensitive input device that converts a hand-drawn trajectory
into a digital on-line form, which is a sequence. This hand-drawn trajectory may be
a signature input, handwriting, or hand-drawn graphics. A digitizing
tablet usually consists of an electronic tablet and a pen or a stylus.

viii)Digital Camera
A digital camera is a similar to a traditional film-based camera, but it captures
images digitally. When you take a picture with a digital camera, the image is
recorded by a sensor, called a "charged coupled device" or CCD. ... Some digital
cameras have built-in memory, but most use an SD or Compact Flash card.

ix)Scanner
An image scanner—often abbreviated to just scanner, is a device that optically
scans images, printed text, handwriting or an object and converts it to a digital
image. Commonly used in offices are variations of the desktop
flatbed scanner where the document is placed on a glass window for scanning.

5llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

x)Bar Code Reader(BCR)

Barcode readers (barcode scanners) are electronic devices
for reading printed barcodes. ... Barcode readers consist of a light source, a lens
and a light sensor that translates optical impulses into electrical ones. Additionally,
nearly all barcode readers contain decoder circuitry. It is mostly used in library,
department store to know the product details.

xi)Optical Character Reader(OCR)

Optical character recognition or optical character reader (OCR) is the
electronic or mechanical conversion of images of typed, handwritten or printed text
into machine-encoded text, whether from a scanned document, a photo of a
document, a scene-photo (for example the text on signs and billboards in a
landscape photo) ...

6llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

xii)Magnetic Ink character Reader(MICR)

MICR (magnetic ink character recognition) is a technology used to verify the

legitimacy or originality of paper documents, especially bank cheque in characters
on the original documents.

xiii)Smart Card
Smart card readers are used with smart cards which are a type of plastic
technology card with a built-in chip used for. electronic processes including
personal identification, access control, authentication, and financial
transactions. Smart card readers obtain or ―read‖ this type of data.

xiv)Microphone
Sometimes abbreviated as mic(mike), a microphone is a hardware peripheral and
input device originally invented by Emile Berliner in 1877.
A microphone allows computer users to input audio into their computers.

7llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Central Processing Unit (CPU)/Processor

The computer's central processing unit (CPU) is the portion of a computer that
retrieves and executes instructions. The CPU is essentially the brain of a CAD
system. It consists of an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), a control unit, and
various registers. The CPU is often simply referred to as the processor. The ALU
performs arithmetic operations, logic operations, and related operations, according
to the program instructions.
The control unit controls all CPU operations, including ALU operations, the
movement of data within the CPU, and the exchange of data and control signals
across external interfaces (system bus). Registers are high-speed internal memory-
storage units within the CPU. Some registers are user-visible; that is, available to
the programmer via the machine instruction set. Other registers are dedicated
strictly to the CPU for control purposes. An internal clock synchronizes all CPU
components. The clock speed (number of clock pulses per second) is measured in
megahertz (MHz) or millions of clock pulses per second. The clock speed
essentially measures how fast an instruction the CPU processes. The parts of CPU
are explained below:

a)ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit)

Stands for "Arithmetic Logic Unit." An ALU is an integrated circuit within
a CPU or GPU that performs arithmetic and logic operations. Arithmetic
instructions include addition, subtraction, and shifting operations, while logic

8llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

instructions include boolean comparisons, such as AND, OR, XOR, and NOT
operations.
ALUs are designed to perform integer calculations. Therefore, besides adding and
subtracting numbers, ALUs often handle the multiplication of two integers, since
the result is also an integer. However, ALUs typically do not perform division
operations, since the result may be a fraction, or a "floating point" number. Instead,
division operations are usually handled by the floating-point unit (FPU), which
also performs other non-integer calculations.
While the ALU is a fundamental component of all processors, the design and
function of an ALU may vary between different processor models. For example,
some ALUs only perform integer calculations, while others are designed to handle
floating point operations as well. Some processors contain a single ALU, while
others include several arithmetic logic units that work together to perform
calculations. Regardless of the way an ALU is designed, its primary job is to
handle integer operations. Therefore, a computer's integer (number) performance is
tied directly to the processing speed of the ALU.

b)Control Unit( CU)

A control unit (CU) is an integrated circuit in a processor that controls
the input and output. It receives instructions from a program, then passes them to
the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The ALU performs the appropriate calculations
and sends the resulting values back to the control unit. The control unit sends these
values to the corresponding program as output.
A typical control unit is comprised of several logic gates and includes two
important components:
1. Program Counter (PC)
2. Instruction Register (IR)
The program counter loads individual instructions from memory and stores them
sequentially. The instruction register decodes these instructions and converts them
to commands for the CPU. After each instruction, the CU increments the program
counter and fetches the next instruction.
Control units operate at the clock speed of the corresponding CPU. Therefore, the
control unit of a 3 GHz processor can handle three billion operations per second.

c)Register Array

9llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

A register is a temporary storage area built into a CPU. Some registers are used
internally and cannot be accessed outside the processor, while others are user-
accessible. Most modern CPU architectures include both types of registers.
Internal registers include the instruction register (IR), memory buffer register
(MBR), memory data register (MDR), and memory address register (MAR). The
instruction register fetches instructions from the program counter (PC) and holds
each instruction as it is executed by the processor. The memory registers are used
to pass data from memory to the processor. The storage time of internal registers is
extremely temporary, as they often hold data for less than a millisecond.

Memory Unit (MU)

The memory unit is responsible for storing data and instructions either for a short
or longer period of time. Memory devices are of two types;
1) Primary memory or Main memory/system memory/Internal memory(Temporary
memory)
2) Secondary memory or auxiliary memory(Permanent Memory)

Primary Memory
It is the main memory of the computer. It is used for storing data and instructions
during processing. It is the only memory which is directly accessible to CPU. It is
usually expensive, faster of read/write operation, and used in small storage
capacity. Example RAM, ROM, Cache memory.

RAM(Random Access Memory)

10llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing
data, program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data
until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is
erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location
inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same
amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very
expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if
there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is
often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in
the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is
being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile
nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do
not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular
basis.

11llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for
the same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM
is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the

data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data
several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is
cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed
of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

ROM(Read Only Memory)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read
but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is
stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such

12llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to

as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

i)PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user
buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

ii)EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to

40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The
charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path.
For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal
window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

iii)EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and

reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
13llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)
 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively

erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than
erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM

The advantages of ROM are as follows −

 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified

Cache Memory(pronounced as “Cash”)

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up
the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to
hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU.
The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by
the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

14llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.
Flash Memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for
transfering data between a personal computer (PC) and digital devices. ... Flash
memory is a type of electronically erasable programmable read
only memory (EEPROM), but may also be a standalone memory storage device
such as a USB drive

Video Card
A video Card is also called a video controller and appears as a circuit board to fit
on mother board. The video card contains electronic circuits having GPU, visual
processing units, heat sink, video BIOS, video memory, RAMDAC, video graphics
array, digital visual interface, HDMI and display port.

15llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Graphics Card
Graphics card is a printed circuit board housing a processor and a RAM. It
enhances the graphical capabilities of the computer. It also have BIOS chip, to
store the settings of the card and performs diagnostics during input and output at
startup.
Following are some of the important differences between Graphics Card and Video
Card.

Sr. Key Graphics Card Video Card

No.

Graphics Card controls the quality Video card also achieves the
of pictures, videos and enhances same as it controls the colors
1 Concept
gaming experience. displayed, resolution, speed of
rendering images etc.

Integrated Graphics Card speed is Video card speed is quite faster

inferior than dedicated Video Card as compared to Graphics Card.
2 Performance
as video card has its own RAM for
superior performance.

Integrated Graphics Card is cheaper, Video card is costlier as

3 Cost more compact and have lower compared to graphics card.
energy requirements.

Graphics Card is optional and may Video Card is mandatory part

4 Presence not be present in default installation of PC system.
of a PC System.

5 Improvement Graphics Card improves picture Video Card controls the

quality, supports high resolution and display setting of the PC

16llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Sr. Key Graphics Card Video Card

No.

3D effects. system.

Usage Graphics Card are used primarily for Video Card are used for video
6
gaming consoles. editing, multimedia projects.

Secondary Memory

You know that processor memory, also known as primary memory, is expensive
as well as limited. The faster primary memory are also volatile. If we need to store
large amount of data or programs permanently, we need a cheaper and permanent
memory. Such memory is called secondary memory. Here we will discuss
secondary memory devices that can be used to store large amount of data, audio,
video and multimedia files.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from
primary memory −

 It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is switched off

 It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes
 It is cheaper as compared to primary memory
 Both Magnetic Tape and Magnetic Disk are the type of non-volatile
magnetic memory and used to store the data. On the basis of architecture and
features we can distinguish between both Magnetic Tape Memory and
Magnetic Disk Memory. Following are the important differences between
Magnetic Tape Memory and Magnetic Disk Memory.

17llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Sr. Key Magnetic Tape Memory Magnetic Disk Memory

No.

1 Definition Magnetic tape is type of non-volatile On other hand Magnetic Disk is

memory uses thin plastic ribbon is also type of non-volatile
used for storing data and as data use memory uses circular disk used
to be stored on ribbon so data for storing data.
read/write speed is slower due to
which is mainly used for data
backups.

2 Constituent As mentioned above Magnetic tape On other hand Magnetic disk

memory is having plastic ribbon as memory has metallic or plastic
main constituent. circular disk coated with
magnetic oxide, as main
constituent.

3 Cost Cost concern in case of Magnetic While on other hand in case of

Concern tape memory is less as plastic ribbon Magnetic disk memory the cost
is much cheaper as compared to the concern is more as compared to
circular disk as in case of magnetic that of Magnetic tape memory.
disk memory.

4 Reliability As plastic ribbon is not much reliable On other hand due to more
and chances of its breakdown is more breakdown prone circular disk
hence Magnetic tape memory is less Magnetic disk memory
reliable as compared to Magnetic becomes more reliable than
Disk memory. Magnetic tape memory.

5 Performance Data store and retrieval is much On other hand data storage and
slower in case of Magnetic tape retrieval is faster in case of
memory due to which it is less Magnetic disk memory and
efficient and has comparatively hence has better performance
degrade performance as compared to and more efficient as compared

18llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Sr. Key Magnetic Tape Memory Magnetic Disk Memory

No.

Magnetic disk memory. to Magnetic tape memory.

6 Usage Due to low data transmission rate and On other hand Magnetic disk
less portability Magnetic tape memory can be used as
memory mainly used for Data backup secondary storage.
purposes.

19llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Depending on whether secondary memory device is part of CPU or not, there are
two types of secondary memory – fixed and removable.

Let us look at some of the secondary memory devices available.

Hard Disk Drive

Hard disk drive is made up of a series of circular disks called platters arranged
one over the other almost ½ inches apart around a spindle. Disks are made of non-
magnetic material like aluminum alloy and coated with 10-20 nm of magnetic
material.

20llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches and they rotate with speeds varying
from 4200 rpm (rotations per minute) for personal computers to 15000 rpm for
servers. Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A
magnetic reader arm is used to read data from and write data to the disks. A
typical modern HDD has capacity in terabytes (TB).

Optical Disk

CD Drive

CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually
lasers, to read and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of
storage space for less than a dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into CPU
cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it
with you. There are three types of CDs −

21llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

 CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these

CDs are recorded by the manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video
are released on CD-ROMs.
 CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user
once on the CD-R. It cannot be deleted or modified later.
 CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted
on these optical disks again and again.

DVD Drive

DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store 15
times the data held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files
that need high storage capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties – read only,
recordable and rewritable.

Pen Drive

Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather than
magnetic fields or lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar to RAM,
except that it is nonvolatile. It is also called USB drive, key drive or flash
memory.

22llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Blu Ray Disk

Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD)
video and other multimedia file. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as compared to
CD/DVD. This enables writing arm to focus more tightly on the disk and hence
pack in more data. BDs can store up to 128 GB data.

SSD
A solid-state drive is a solid-state storage device that uses integrated circuit
assemblies to store data consistently, typically using flash memory, and acts as
secondary storage in the hierarchy of computer storage

23llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Output Unit
Output tool is any part of a computer hardware tool that converts information into
human readable form. It can be text, graphics, touch, audio, and video. Some
output devices are visual display units such as a monitor, printer graphic output
devices, plotters, speakers, and so on

Output Devices
There are two types of output devices in a computer system.They are;
a)Softcopy Output Devices
b)Hardcopy Output Devices
Softcopy output Devices
Soft copy output devices give screen displayed output that is lost when the
computer is shut off. ... Some examples of soft copy output devices are monitors,
projectors, video display terminals. Soft copy is an electronic display of digital
information, such as files viewed on the pc monitor. some of the softcopy output
devices are explained below;
Monitor
Classification of monitor on the basis of colors Displayed
a)Monochrome Monitor
A monochrome monitor is a type of CRT computer monitor in which computer
text and images are displayed in varying tones of only one color, as apposed to a
color monitor that can display text and images in multiple colors. They were very
common in the early days of computing, from the 1960s through the 1980s, before
color monitors became popular.

24llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

b)Grayscale Monitor
Grayscale is a group of shades without any visible color. On a monitor, each
pixel of a grayscale display carries an amount of light, ranging from the weakest
amount of light, or black, to the strongest amount of light, or
white. Grayscale only contains brightness information, not color.

c)Color monitor
A display monitor capable of displaying many colors. In contrast, a
monochrome monitor can display only two colors — one for the background and
one for the foreground. Color monitors implement the RGB color model by
using three different phosphors that appear red, green, and blue when activated.
Classification of Monitor on the basis of their Display Technique
a)Cathode Ray Tube(CRT)
A cathode-ray tube is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns, the
beams of which are manipulated to display images on a phosphorescent screen.
The images may represent electrical waveforms, pictures, radar targets, or other
phenomena. A CRT on a television set is commonly called a picture tube.

25llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

b)LCD Monitor
A liquid-crystal display is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated
optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals
combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using
a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.

c)LED Monitor
A LED display is a flat panel display that uses an array of light-emitting diodes as
pixels for a video display. Their brightness allows them to be used outdoors where
they are visible in the sun for store signs and billboards.

D)Gas Plasma Monitor

A plasma display panel is a type of flat panel display that uses small cells
containing plasma: ionized gas that responds to electric fields. Plasma TVs were

26llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

the first large flat panel displays to be released to the public. Until about 2007,
plasma displays were commonly used in large televisions.

Speaker
Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers sold for use with
computers, although usually capable of other audio uses, e.g. for an MP3 player

27llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

b)Hardcopy Output Devices

Hard copy output devices are devices that provide output on printed paper or
other permanent media that is human readable (tangible). Examples
of devices that produce hard copy are printers, plotters and microfiche. Examples
of hard copy documents would include a flyer, a letter, a book, a card, and so on.
Some of the hardcopy output devices are:
i)Printer
In computing, a printer is a peripheral machine which makes a persistent
representation of graphics or text, usually on paper. While most output is human-
readable, bar code printers are an example of an expanded use for printers.
Basically there are two types of Printer. They are;
a)Impact Printer(producing noise)
Impact printers create an image by using some mechanism to physically press an
inked ribbon against the page, causing the ink to be deposited on the page in the
shape desired. These printers are typically loud, but remain in use today because
of their unique ability to function with multipart forms. There are different types
of Impact Printer. They are explained below;
1)Dot Matrix Printer
A dot matrix printer is an impact printer that prints using a fixed number of
pins or wires. Typically the pins or wires are arranged in one or several vertical
columns. ... While inkjet and laser printers technically exhibit dot matrix
printing, they are not considered to be "dot matrix printers".
2)Daisy Wheel Printer
A daisy wheel printer is an early type of impact printer invented in 1969 by
David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems. The printer uses a metal or plastic disk
containing each of the letters, numbers, and other characters it supports. ... Daisy
28llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)
 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

wheel printers were popular in the 1970s and 1980s, but are no longer used
today.
3)Line Printer
A line printer prints one entire line of text before advancing to another line. Most
early line printers were impact printers. Line printers are mostly associated
with unit record equipment and the early days of digital computing, but the
technology is still in use.
b)Non Impact Printer(Not producing sound)
Non-Impact printers don't uses any direct contact between ink ribbon and paper.
They use laser, xerographic, electrostatic, chemical or inkjet technology.
These printers are less noisy and don't have mechanical moving parts to
conduct printing. Some of the Non impact printer are explained below;

1)Inkjet Printer
Inkjet printing is a type of computer printing that recreates a digital image by
propelling droplets of ink onto paper and plastic substrates. Inkjet printers are
the most commonly used type of printer, and range from small inexpensive
consumer models to expensive professional machines.
2)Laser Printer(v v imp)
A laser printer is a printer that uses a focused beam or light to transfer text and
images onto paper. ... The result is a clean copy of the image written on the paper.
Because laser printers do not use ink, they have less image smearing problems
than inkjet printers and are able to print pages faster.
3)Thermal Printer
A thermal impact printer or electrothermal printer is a printer that uses heated
pins to "burn" images onto heat-sensitive paper. ... These printers are commonly
used in calculators and fax machines; and although they are inexpensive
and print relatively fast, they produce low resolution print jobs.
Plotter
A plotter is a printer that interprets commands from a computer to make line
drawings on paper with one or more automated pens. Unlike a regular printer , the
plotter can draw continuous point-to-point lines directly from vector graphics files
or commands. ... As a rule, plotters are much more expensive than printers.

29llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Bus Architecture
Bus is a group of wires that connects different components of the computer. It is
used for transmitting data, control signal and memory address from one component
to another. A bus can be 8 bit, 16 bit, 32 bit and 64 bit. A 32 bit bus can transmit
32 bit information at a time. A bus can be internal or external.

Types of bus:

· Data bus

Data bus carries data from on component to another. It is uni-directional for input
and output devices and bi-directional for memory and CPU.

· Control bus

Control bus carries control signal. CU of CPU uses control signal for controlling
all the components. It is uni-directional from CPU to all other components.

. Address bus

Address bus carries memory address. A memory address is a numerical value used
for identifying a memory location. Computer performs all its task through the
memory address. CU of CPU sends memory address to all the components. So,
address bus is also uni-directional from CPU to all other components.

30llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Interfaces and Ports (connector/Hole)

A special piece of circuitry that is fitted inside a computer and sits between
the computer and the port is called interface. The purpose of an interface is to
provide a compatible connection between computer and port where the
peripheral devices are connected.

31llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

32llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Computer Network and Network Types

Computer Network
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to
each other to share information and resources.

Characteristics of a Computer Network

 Share resources from one computer to another.

 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the
other computer(s) connected over the network.
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the
network and let other computers of the network use the machines available
over the network.
Following is the list of hardware's required to set up a computer network.

 Network Cables
 Distributors
 Routers
 Internal Network Cards
 External Network Cards
Importances of Networking
a) It allows departments to share hardware.
b) It allows information’s to be shared.

33llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

c) It allows for the electronic transfer of the text.

d) It allows for the decentralization of various data processing functions.
e) It allows for the communication between organizations.
f) It allows for easier backup process.
Classification of Computer Network
A)On the basis of Geographical Area:
i)LAN
ii)MAN
iii)WAN
iv)Internet
v)Intranet
On the basis of Geographical Area:
i)LAN(Local Area Network)
A local area network is a comparatively lesser and privately-owned network with
the highest duration of 10km to support local connectivity within a building or
limited geographical area.
In private offices, this type of networking is trendy and effectively used. They are
generally used to interface with personal computers and buildings, incorporate
workplaces and industry to share resources and transfer data.
The figure shows a LAN having computers from several departments like Sales,
Finance, Production, Publication, etc.

34llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Features of LAN
Limited Geographic Limits
A LAN is constructed for a limited area. It usually traverses a single frequency
workgroup floor in a building or on campus etc. LAN uses different protocols or
rules for information transmission.
Limited number of users
Generally, LAN supports fewer numbers of users, frequently around five or ten,
and more users can be supported by associating multiple LANs, which provides
better results than creating one big-network of the nature of LAN.
Reliability and Stability
LANs are very reliable. Failures on a LAN are generally because of wrong or
incorrect installation. Monitoring software that comes with a LAN supports
beneficial programs like error recognition, prevention of transmission loss and
outstanding security features.
Flexibility
A major growth in LANs today is the flexibility they often. Earlier adaptation
would provide only one type of desktop computers. Today advanced LANs,
however, can provide various types of computers. This flexibility also develops
operating systems and repository media.

35llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Security and Administration

A LAN administrator is one who handles the working of a LAN. The administrator
deals with functions like adding or removing users, generating passwords,
providing authorizations and different resources like printers and backing up
information. These functions can be implemented without much difficulty since
both hardware and software are relatively simple to handle today.
ii)MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size greater than LAN but
smaller than a WAN. It normally comprises networked interconnections within a
city that also offers a connection to the Internet.
The distinguishing features of MAN are

Network size generally ranges from 5 to 50 km. It may be as small as a

group of buildings in a campus to as large as covering the whole city.
 Data rates are moderate to high.
 In general, a MAN is either owned by a user group or by a network provider
who sells service to users, rather than a single organization as in LAN.
 It facilitates sharing of regional resources.
 They provide uplinks for connecting LANs to WANs and Internet.

Example of MAN

 Cable TV network
 Telephone networks providing high-speed DSL lines
 IEEE 802.16 or WiMAX, that provides high-speed broadband access with
Internet connectivity to customer premises.

36llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

iii)WAN(Wireless Area Network)

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large

geographical area comprising a region, a country, a continent or even the whole
world. WAN includes the technologies to transmit data, image, audio and video
information over long distances and among different LANs and MANs.

The distinguishing features of WAN are

 WANs have a large capacity, connecting a large number of computers over a
large area, and are inherently scalable.
 They facilitate the sharing of regional resources.
 They provide uplinks for connecting LANs and MANs to the Internet.
 Communication links are provided by public carriers like telephone
networks, network providers, cable systems, satellites etc.
 Typically, they have low data transfer rate and high propagation delay,
i.e.they have low communication speed.
 They generally have a higher bit error rate.

37llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Example of WAN
 The Internet
 4G Mobile Broadband Systems
 A network of bank cash dispensers.

iv)Internet

Internet is a system that interconnects the different computer systems across the
world. It uses the Internet protocol suite to link devices located in different
corners of the world.
The Internet system carries an extensive range of information resources and
services including World Wide Web (WWW), telephony, electronic mail, etc. It
uses standard internet protocols, such as TCP/IP and HTTP, etc.

38llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

An internal web comprises of all Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) nodes on a

private network; for example, an organization’s LAN or WAN.

Features of Internet

Let us now discuss the features of Internet. The features are described below −
Accessibility
An Internet is a global service and accessible to all. Today, people located in a
remote part of an island or interior of Africa can also use Internet.
Easy to Use
The software, which is used to access the Internet (web browser), is designed very
simple; therefore, it can be easily learned and used. It is easy to develop.
Interaction with Other Media
Internet service has a high degree of interaction with other media. For example,
News and other magazine, publishing houses have extended their business with
the help of Internet services.
Low Cost
The development and maintenance cost of Internet service are comparatively low.

39llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Extension of Existing IT Technology

This facilitates the sharing of IT technology by multiple users in organizations and
even facilitates other trading partners to use.
Flexibility of Communication
Communication through Internet is flexible enough. It facilitates communication
through text, voice, and video too. These services can be availed at both
organizational and individual levels.
Security
Last but not the least, Internet facility has to a certain extent helped the security
system both at the individual and national level with components such as CCTV
camera, etc.

Internet Software

Internet Software comprises of all the tools needed for networking through
computer. Following are a few important components of the Internet Software −

 Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

 Dialer Software
 Internet Browser
40llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)
 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Internet Applications

Internet applications are server-based applications. Following are a few Internet

Applications −

 World Wide Web (WWW)

 Electronic mail (e-mail)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Telnet (i.e., log-in to the computer located remotely)
 Internet Relay Chat (IRC) (Real time video chatting)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet

Advantages:
1) Information on almost every subject imaginable.
2) Powerful search engines.
3) Ability to do research from your home versus research libraries.
4) Information at various levels of study. Everything from scholarly articles to ones
directed at children.
5) Message boards where people can discuss ideas on any topic. Ability to get wide
range of opinions. People can find others that have a similar interest in whatever
they are interested in.
6) The internet provides the ability of emails. Free mail service to anyone in the
country.
7) Platform for products like SKYPE, which allow for holding a video conference
with anyone in the world who also has access.
8) Friendships and love connections have been made over the internet by people
involved in love/passion over similar interests.
9) Things such as Yahoo Answers and other sites where kids can have readily
available help for homework.
10) News, of all kinds is available almost instantaneously. Commentary, on that
news, from every conceivable viewpoint is also available.

Disadvantages:
1) There is a lot of wrong information on the internet. Anyone can post anything,
and much of it is garbage.
2) There are predators that hang out on the internet waiting to get unsuspecting
41llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)
 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

people in dangerous situations.

3) Some people are getting addicted to the internet and thus causing problems with
their interactions of friends and loved ones.
4) Pornography that can get in the hands of young children too easily.
5) Easy to waste a lot of time on the internet. You can start surfing, and then
realize far more time has passed than you realized. Internet and television together
of added to the more sedentary lifestyles of people which further exacerbates the
obesity problem.
6) Internet has a lot of ―cheater‖ sites. People can buy essays and pass them off as
their own far more easily than they used to be able to do.
7) There are a lot of unscrupulous businesses that have sprung up on the internet to
take advantage of people.
8) Hackers can create viruses that can get into your personal computer and ruin
valuable data.
9) Hackers can use the internet for identity theft.
10) It can be quite depressing to be on the internet and realize just how uneducated
so many people have become in today’s society.

B)Based on how Computer Nodes are arranged

i) Client Server Network

In client server computing, the clients requests a resource and the server provides that
resource. A server may serve multiple clients at the same time while a client is in
contact with only one server. Both the client and server usually communicate via a
computer network but sometimes they may reside in the same system.
An illustration of the client server system is given as follows −

42llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Characteristics of Client Server Computing

The salient points for client server computing are as follows:

 The client server computing works with a system of request and response. The
client sends a request to the server and the server responds with the desired
information.
 The client and server should follow a common communication protocol so they
can easily interact with each other. All the communication protocols are available
at the application layer.
 A server can only accommodate a limited number of client requests at a time. So
it uses a system based to priority to respond to the requests.
 Denial of Service attacks hinders servers ability to respond to authentic client
requests by inundating it with false requests.
 An example of a client server computing system is a web server. It returns the
web pages to the clients that requested them.

ii)Peer to Peer Networking

The peer to peer computing architecture contains nodes that are equal participants in
data sharing. All the tasks are equally divided between all the nodes. The nodes interact
with each other as required as share resources.
A diagram to better understand peer to peer computing is as follows −

43llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Characteristics of Peer to Peer Computing

The different characteristics of peer to peer networks are as follows −

 Peer to peer networks are usually formed by groups of a dozen or less

computers. These computers all store their data using individual security but also
share data with all the other nodes.
 The nodes in peer to peer networks both use resources and provide resources.
So, if the nodes increase, then the resource sharing capacity of the peer to peer
network increases. This is different than client server networks where the server
gets overwhelmed if the nodes increase.
 Since nodes in peer to peer networks act as both clients and servers, it is difficult
to provide adequate security for the nodes. This can lead to denial of service
attacks.
 Most modern operating systems such as Windows and Mac OS contain software
to implement peer to peer networks.
Network Topologies(arrangement)
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network
devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical
aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different
in a same network.

Bus Topology (Linear)

In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable. Bus
topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time.
Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as

44llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a
failure of a device does not affect the other devices. But failure of the shared
communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one
direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data
from the line.

Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device,
using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection
between hosts and hub. The hub device can be any of the following:

 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

45llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Hub

As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all
hosts to all other hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place through
only the hub. Star topology is not expensive as to connect one more host, only one
cable is required and configuration is simple.

Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a
circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a
host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To
connect one more host in the existing structure, the administrator may need only one
more extra cable.

46llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the
ring is a point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup ring.

Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology has
hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which
are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct
point-to-point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:

47llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the
network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides
the most reliable network structure among all network topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host.
Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists
where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently.This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits
properties of bus topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in
LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowermost is
access-layer where computers are attached. The middle layer is known as distribution
layer, which works as mediator between upper layer and lower layer. The highest layer
is known as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree from
which all nodes fork.

All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them.Similar to the Bus
topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even.though it is not the
single point of failure. Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which
divides the network into unreachable segment.

48llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating
topologies.

The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies
may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are
connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks connected to them are
mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology
Software
As you know, the hardware devices need user instructions to function. A set of
instructions that achieve a single outcome are called program or procedure. Many
programs functioning together to do a task make a software.
For example, a word-processing software enables the user to create, edit and save
documents. A web browser enables the user to view and share web pages and
multimedia files. There are two categories of software −

 System Software
 Application Software
 Utility Software
Let us discuss them in detail.

49llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

System Software(OS)
Software required to run the hardware parts of the computer and other application
software are called system software. System software acts as interface between
hardware and user applications. An interface is needed because hardware devices or
machines and humans speak in different languages.
Machines understand only binary language i.e. 0 (absence of electric signal) and 1
(presence of electric signal) while humans speak in English, French, German, Tamil,
Hindi and many other languages. English is the pre-dominant language of interacting
with computers. Software is required to convert all human instructions into machine
understandable instructions. And this is exactly what system software does.
Based on its function, system software is of three types −

 Operating System
 Language Processor

50llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

 Device Drivers

Operating System(OS)
System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and their
interoperability to carry out tasks successfully is called operating system (OS). OS is
the first software to be loaded into computer memory when the computer is switched
on and this is called booting. OS manages a computer’s basic functions like storing
data in memory, retrieving files from storage devices, scheduling tasks based on
priority, etc.
Device Drivers
System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device on
computer is called device driver. Each device like printer, scanner, microphone,
speaker, etc. that needs to be attached externally to the system has a specific driver
associated with it. When you attach a new device, you need to install its driver so that
the OS knows how it needs to be managed.

Application Software
A software that performs a single task and nothing else is called application software.
Application software are very specialized in their function and approach to solving a
problem. So a spreadsheet software can only do operations with numbers and nothing
else. A hospital management software will manage hospital activities and nothing else.
Here are some commonly used application software −

 Word processing
 Spreadsheet
 Presentation
 Database management
 Multimedia tools

Utility Software
Application software that assist system software in doing their work is called utility
software. Thus utility software is actually a cross between system software and
application software. Examples of utility software include −

 Antivirus software
 Disk management tools
 File management tools
 Compression tools
 Backup tools

51llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Introduction to Operating System(OS)

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer
hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management, handling input and output,
and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows
Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Function of OS
Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory.
Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own
address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a
program to be executed, it must be in the main memory. An Operating System does
the following activities for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what
part are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and
how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been
terminated.

Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor
when and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An
Operating System does the following activities for processor management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for
this task is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management

52llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It

does the following activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories (folder) for easy
navigation(searching) and usage. These directories may contain files and other
directories.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are
often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

Types of OS
i)Batch operating system
The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each
user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the
computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched
together and run as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator
and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches. It
takes longer period of time to take input value like a minute, hour, day, month, year or
a hundreds of years.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the
CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing operating systems

53llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals,

to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a
logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among
multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing
Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to
maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to
minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches
occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example,
in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst
or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a
time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few
seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each
user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as
batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.

Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time
applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the
processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines
(such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled
systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size
and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

54llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources
available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue
operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to
manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer
access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a
private network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.

The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System(RTOS)

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval
required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment.
The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated
information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is
very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of
a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device
in a dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed

55llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)

 Computing Devices, Software and Operating System (OS)

time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments,
medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air
traffic control systems, (perseverance rover landed on moon),etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time
systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In
these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over
other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have
limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality,
Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary roversetc.

The End

56llMukti Ghimire||[email protected]||BBA I Semester_Computer and IT applications(PU)