ACTIVITY-1

AIM

To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Resistor, ammeter, (0-1.5A) voltmeter (0-5V ), battery, one way key,

rheostat, sand paper, connecting wires.

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the components as shown in Fig. A 1.1.

2. After closing the key K, check that the voltmeter and ammeter show deflections on the right hand

side.

3. Check the continuity of the assembled circuit using a multimeter (see Activity 4).

RESULT

The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.

PRECAUTIONS

1. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of ammeter and

positive terminal of the voltmeter.

2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter should be

connected in parallel with the resistor.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 129

3. Sand paper should be used to clean the ends of connecting wires and leads of the component

terminals. Grease/oil or oxide layer on their surfaces is insulating in nature and needs to be

removed. However, do not clean the plugs and keys with sand paper. Excessive use of sand paper in

such a case will make the plug unfit to be used with the key.

DISCUSSION

1. Draw the circuit diagram of the experiment before you start connecting apparatus and keep in

front of you.

2. The values of the resistances and the current carrying capacity of the rheostat are given on a plate

fixed on the body of rheostat.

SELF ASSESSMENT

1. What do you mean by emf of a cell?

2. Does the current drawn from the cell remain constant? If not, why?

3. Why is an ammeter always connected in series with the circuit?

4. Why is a voltmeter always connected in parallel to the component across which voltage is to be

measured?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Design different kinds of circuits that you will study in your class and assemble them using the

relevant components, for example (i) circuit to measure the value of an unknown resistance using a

meter bridge (ii) circuit to compare e.m.f. of two cells using a potentiometer, etc.

2. Measure the voltmeter and ammeter readings for different rheostat settings and verify if the ratio

of potential difference across the resistor to the current through it is constant.

3. Modify the circuit using two resistors which may either be connected in series or in parallel.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 130

 ACTIVITY-2
AIM
To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components
that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and
also the circuit diagram.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
A given open circuit comprising atleast a cell or a battery, plug
key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and
sand paper.
PRINCIPLE
An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components of the circuit are connected in proper
order, assuming that all circuit components/devices are in working condition and key is closed. An
open circuit means a break in some part of a circuit which could be deliberate such as a key in open
position or a fault such as broken wire or burnt out component(s) or loose connection. Some of such
circuits are given in Figs. A 2.1 (a), (b), (c) and (d).

Note to teachers: In this activity, students are expected to draw the diagram of a given open circuit
comprising a few circuit components e.g. a key, ammeter, voltmeter, resistor, rheostat etc. After
drawing the given circuit, students would be marking the components which are not connected in

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 131

proper order. Then a correct circuit diagram is to be drawn and accordingly the circuit components
are to be connected in proper order. Teachers are therefore advised to set up a few open circuits in
which some of the components are not arranged in proper order.

PROCEDURE
1. Draw the circuit diagrams in your notebook as given by your teacher [Fig. A 2.1(a), (b), (c) and
(d)].
2. Consider one circuit and mark in Table A 2.1, the various components which have not been
connected in proper order.
3. Draw the correct circuit diagram.
4. Connect the electrical components according to corrected circuit diagram.
5. Close the key in the circuit to verify if the corrected circuit is functional.

Note: Rheostat can be used both as a variable resistance and potential divider. Rheostat as a variable
resistance
1. Draw a diagram as given in Fig. A 2.2 (a) showing use of a rheostat as a variable resistor.
Note to teachers: In this activity, students are expected to draw the diagram of a given open circuit
comprising a few circuit components e.g. a key, ammeter, voltmeter, resistor, rheostat etc. After
drawing the given circuit, students would be marking the components which are not connected in
proper order. Then a correct circuit diagram is to be drawn and accordingly the circuit components
are to be connected in proper order. Teachers are therefore advised to set up a few open circuits in
which some of the components are not arranged in proper order.
2. Connect the terminals of rheostat as drawn below using one end terminal and the other variable
terminal.

Rheostat as a potential divider

1. Draw a diagram as given in Fig. A 2.2 (b) showing use of a rheostat as a potential divider.
2. Connect the terminals of rheostat as drawn above using (i) the end terminals (1) and (2)
connected to input potential (battery) and (ii) one end terminal and the other variable terminal for
variable voltage.

OBSERVATIONS
Table A 2.1: Mark a in appropriate column

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 132

RESULT
The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram is functional.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper before making connections.
2. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of the voltmeter
and positive terminal of the ammeter.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter should be
connected in parallel with it.

DISCUSSION
1. (a) Rheostat can be used in series as a variable resistance. In this case, the end terminal (1) and
the other variable terminal is to be used [Fig. A 2.2(a)].
(b) When rheostat has to be used as a potential divider across the cell, the variable voltage is
derived using any one endterminal and the variable terminal of the rheostat [Fig. A 2.2(b)].
Justify how the discussion points 1(a) and 1(b) are possible?
2. Key is to be kept “OPEN” so that no damage to the components occur.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Interpret the function of each component in the circuit.
2. Draw a circuit diagram of a rheostat as a variable resistance showing the position of sliding
contact for (i) maximum resistance (ii) minimum resistance.
3. What is the function of sand paper in setting up the electric circuit?
4. A rheostat and a resistance box can change the resistance in a circuit, yet their functions are
different. Discuss it.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Draw a circuit diagram using rheostat as a potential divider. Make actual connection and
determine the voltage range it provides.
2. Study the different kinds of keys available in the laboratory and identify their functions in the
electric circuit.
3. Make a detailed study of different types of resistances available in the laboratory (carbon resistor,
wire wound resistance box).
4. Compare the connecting wires used in household circuits and those used in the laboratory.
5. Make a study of different battery eliminators, dc sources (cells, batteries) in the laboratories.
How are they different as compared to car batteries?

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 133

 ACTIVITY-3

AIM
To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or
without iron core.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
Inductor coil (diameter about 2 cm and 2000 turns), soft iron core (cylindrical rod of diameter
about1.75 cm and length equal to that of inductor), resistance box (0 to 10,000 ohm), battery
eliminator (0-2-4-6 volt), a step down transformer with tappings (0-2-4-6 volt, 50 Hz), dc
milliammeter (range 0 - 500 mA), ac milliammeter (range 0 - 500 mA), dc voltmeter (range 0 - 5
V), ac voltmeter (range 0 - 5 V), one way key, connecting wires.

PRINCIPLE
An inductor is a cylindrical coil of very large number of turns of copper wire usually wound on a
hollow cylinder. The resistance of such coil is given as

where V is the potential difference across the coil and I is the dc current through that coil. On
introducing the core of soft iron, the new values of potential difference across the coil, V ¢and the
current, I ¢ through it are measured again. The resistance of the coil with iron core becomes

The resistance offered by the coil to the flow of alternating current is known as impedance Z. If Vac
and Iac respectively be the alternating voltage and alternating current through the coil, without iron
core, then the impedance of the coil, is given as

On introducing the iron core inside the coil, the value of the impedance Z¢ becomes

where, V ¢ac is the alternating voltage across the inductor with core inside and I ¢ac is the
alternating current through the inductor with core inside.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 134

PROCEDURE
1. For resistance of inductor without iron core, arrange the apparatus as per the circuit diagram Fig.
A 3.1 (a) by keeping the key K open.
2. Connect the dc source and dc milliammeter in series with inductor and voltmeter in parallel with
it.
3. Adjust the battery eliminator to the lowest setting and switch on the eliminator. Plug in the key.
Adjust R so that the readings are within scale. Measure the dc current and dc voltage across the
inductor.
4. Set the eliminator to higher voltages in succession and record the dc current and dc voltage across
the inductor.
5. For resistance of inductor with soft iron core, introduce the iron core such that it is fully inside
the coil. [Fig. A 3.1(b)].
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 and record the current and voltage across the inductor.
7. For measurement of impedance of inductor without iron core, use step down transformer with
various tappings (2V, 4V, 6V), ac voltmeter (0-5V) and ac ammeter (0-0.3A) and connect them as
shown in Fig. A 3.2(a).
8. Repeat steps 3 and 4 and for alternating current and alternating voltage. Record the current and
voltage across the inductor.
9. For measurement of impedance of inductor with soft iron core, introduce the core of the soft iron
inside the coil such that the core is fully inside the coil. [Fig. A 3.2(b)].
10. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for alternating current and alternating voltage. Record the current and
voltage across the inductor.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 135

OBSERVATIONS
1. Range of dc voltmeter = 0 to...V
2. Least count of dc voltmeter = ...V
3. Range of dc ammeter = 0 to...mA
4. Least count of dc ammeter = ...mA
5. Range of ac voltmeter = 0 to...V
6. Least count of ac voltmeter =...V
7. Range of ac ammeter = 0 to...mA
8. Least count of ac ammeter =...mA

CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the ratio of voltage and current for each observation to get resistance and impedance.
2. Calculate the mean values of the resistance and impedance in each case, i.e., without and with
iron core.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 136

RESULT
1. The dc resistance of the inductor coil without iron core =...W
2. The dc resistance of the inductor coil with iron core =...W
3. The impedance of the inductor coil without iron core =...W
4. The impedance of the inductor coil with iron core =...W
PRECAUTIONS
1. The ammeter should be connected in series with the coil and the voltmeter in parallel with it.
2. The iron core should be inserted completely within the coil.
3. The ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper before making the
connections.

SOURCES OF ERROR
The least count of the ac milliammeter and ac voltmeter may not be small enough to accurately
record the difference in impedance on inserting the iron core.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What is meant by impedance of a circuit?
2. What differences do you observe in dc and ac ammeters and voltmeters?
3. If iron core of the inductor coil is taken out, what effect will it have on the readings of the
ammeter and voltmeter and why?
DISCUSSION
1. Compare the dc resistance of the coil with and without iron core. It will be found that there is no
change in the resistance of the coil on introduction of iron core. Explain the result.
2. Compare the impedance of the coil with and without iron core. It
will be observed that the impedance increases on introduction of
iron core. Explain the result.
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES
1. Repeat the ac measurement with wooden, plastic or copper cores (which may have any length),
Do you see any change in impedance on introduction of such cores?
2. If the iron core is not fully inside, do you get the same change in impedance?

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 137

 ACTIVITY-4
AIM
To measure resistance, voltage (dc/ac), current (dc) and check continuity of a given circuit using
a multimeter.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A multimeter with its test leads, a resistance box, a key, a cell, a stepdown transformer of 6 V
output voltage, a rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
(Note to teachers: Do not allow students to handle alternating current
sources of 220 V for safety considerations.)

Description of multimeter: A multimeter is an instrument that can work as a current meter

(ammeter) or a voltage meter (voltmeter) or a resistance meter (ohmmeter). Sometimes it is also
referred to as AVO (ampere, volt and ohm) meter. It may measure resistance and potential
difference in both ac and dc circuits and current in dc circuit over several ranges. The function
and the range can be selected by means of either a rotary selector knob or a combination of
switches and sockets.

Multimeters are of two kinds : analog and digital.

Analog multimeter : Analog multimeter Fig. A 4.1 (a) is a dc galvanometer which can be
converted into an ammeter or a voltmeter of different ranges to measure current or voltage or
resistance. For ac measurement, the root mean square (rms) values of current and voltage are
measured. When using a multimeter to measure current, it must be connected in series with the
circuit. For measuring the voltage difference between two points in a circuit, the two leads of the
multimeter are connected across them. For example, to measure the voltage across a resistor, the
multimeter is connected in parallel with the resistor. When the multimeter is in the resistance
measuring mode, a cell within the multimeter automatically gets connected, which makes the
current flow through the externally connected resistor
whose resistance is being measured. The multimeter only senses this current with its dial
calibrated in terms of the resistance. It is essentially nonlinear in calibration.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 138

Digital multimeter : Fig. A 4.1(b) shows a digital multimeter.

To measure voltage and current it uses a digital circuit called ADC (analog to digital converter).
Since the ADC can accept a very small input voltage, a sampling of the input voltage/ current
is necessary.

Voltage is measured directly, whereas current is converted into proportional voltage using
standard resistors built in the instrument.

For resistance measurement, constant current sources are used. It creates voltage proportional to
resistance values which is then digitised by the ADC.

The resolution of such meters depends on the range as well as the number of digits in the display
panel.

PRINCIPLE
When the resistance R is connected in a circuit, for example as shown in Fig. A 4.2, the potential
difference across the two end points of the resistor can be measured by connecting the
multimeter (with proper voltage setting) in parallel with the resistor.

The coil of the multimeter shows a deflection proportional to the direct current (dc) passing
through it. Measurement of alternating current is based on the principle of heating effect of
current. The current flowing through the resistor can be measured by connecting the multimeter
(with proper current setting) in series as shown in Fig. A 4.5.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 139

The continuity of any electrical component can be checked by measuring the resistance of the
component.

An infinite resistance across the two ends of a component indicates a discontinuity. A very low
resistance (£ 0.1 W) between the two ends of a component indicates that the component under test
has a short circuit. (Fig. A 4.2).

PROCEDURE
Analog multimeter
1. Clean the ends of connecting wires by a sand paper till they shine. Preferably, use fresh
connecting wires, as wires not in use for long may have some insulating layer deposited on them.
Also check that the metallic ends of the multimeter test leads are not having any rust or any
insulating layer deposited on them.
2. For measurement of resistance: set the multimeter in resistance measuring mode. Connect the
red and black probes to the multimeter.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 140

3. Connect open end of the red probe directly to the black probe and adjust the zero adjustment
knob to read zero ohm on the resistance scale (extreme right).
4. Separate the two metallic ends of the test probes and connect the resistance box with the
multimeter as shown in Fig. A 4.2.
5. Insert a resistor of known resistance R in the circuit by taking out the corresponding resistor
key from the resistance box and read multimeter reading RM for the value of resistance of the
resistor used in the circuit. Repeat this step for four more resistors.
6. Carefully observe the reading in the non-linear scale noting that its zero lies at the extreme
right of the scale. Use the multiplication factor appropriately to the range selected. For example:
4 divisions of deflection in R × 100 scale means resistance measured is 4 × 100W = 400W.
7. For measurement of dc voltage: select the suitable position of the function switch (ac/dc) and
then select the highest range available. Ensure that the test probes are inserted/ connected in
sockets with proper polarity. It is a convention to use red probe for positive and black probe for
negative polarity.
8. Connect the multimeter in the circuit as shown in Fig. A 4.3.
9. Set the multimeter to measure the dc voltage. Select a suitable range. For example, if a cell of
1.5V emf (say) is used in the circuit, keep the range at 2.5V.
10. To measure the emf of the cell, connect the positive terminal of the multimeter to the
positive terminal of the cell and negative terminal to negative terminal of the cell, through a plug
key K. Do not insert any resistor of resistance R in the circuit from the resistance box. Insert the
key in the plug K of the circuit and read the multimeter reading. (A continuous flow of current in
the circuit will heat the connecting wires). Record your observations in Table A 4.2. Then open
the key K.
11. Now insert a resistance R of known value (10 W say) by taking out the resistance key from
the resistance box in the circuit. Insert the key in the plug K. Read the multimeter reading for
measuring the potential difference across the two ends of the resistor. Do you find any change in
the reading as observed in step 10 when there was no resistance in the circuit (i.e. R = 0)?
12. Repeat step 11 for three more values of resistance in the circuit. Record your observations in
Table A 4.2.
13. For measurement of ac voltage: connect an ac step down transformer of 6 V output voltage, a
rheostat XY as voltage divider, resistance box RBOX, a plug key K, and the multimeter as
shown in Fig. A 4.4. Fix the value of R to be 5 ohm (say).
14. Set the multimeter to act as an ac voltmeter at 10V range.
15. Bring the variable connector Z of the rheostat close to point X. In this situation the resistance
of rheostat coil would be minimum. Close the key in the plug K and record the multimeter
reading for ac voltage drop across the resistor of resistance R in Table A 4.3. Repeat the
observations for atleast four positions of the variable connection (Z) of the rheostat on coil XY
(Table A 4.3).

Note to students: Please do not handle alternating current sources of 220 V for safety
considerations.

16. For measurement of dc current: select the function switch and the range switch/sockets
suitable for proper dc current measurement. For example, if one cell of 1.5 V emf is used in
the circuit as a source and the value of resistance to be used during the experiment varies from 2
W to 10 W, a range of 1A (or 1000 mA) would be appropriate.

17. Insert the probes of the multimeter in series with the cell so that the positive terminal of the
multimeter is connected to the positive terminal of the cell and negative terminal of the
multimeter with the negative terminal of the cell as shown in Fig. A 4.5.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 141

18. Read the multimeter reading for measuring the dc current flowing through the multimeter.
19. Bring a resistance (R) in the circuit and read multimeter reading for measuring the current
flowing in the circuit after closing the key in plug K. Repeat it for four more values of resistance
(R) in the circuit. Record the observations in Table A 4.4. Digital multimeter Procedure for
measuring voltage, current and resistances is very similar to that of the analog measurement. The
notable difference is that digital multimeter is not vulnerable to damage as easily as their analog
counterparts. They can accept voltage with reversed polarities (shown by positive and negative
sign), and display the number as
and when the magnitude of the measured quantity crosses the upper limit of the range used.
There are no adjustments required (on any of the ranges) for measuring R.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Range of resistance scale on the multimeter panel =... W
2. Least count of the scale =... W

Range of dc voltage scale selected on the multimeter panel = ... V

Least count of the scale = ... V

Range of ac voltage scale selected on the multimeter panel = ...V

Least count of the scale = ...V

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 142

RESULT
1. The dc/ac voltage, dc current and resistance have been measured using a multimeter.
2. The values of resistance measured by the multimeter is nearly the same as the decoded values
of resistors.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Appropriate selection of function switch and range switch for a given measurement of voltage
or current and resistance should be made.
2. The polarity probe leads should be connected to the proper polarities in measuring dc voltage
and current

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The scale used in reading of voltage/ current may be improper.
2. Zero adjustment in measuring R with analog multimeter may not be accurate.

DISCUSSION
1. If in place of a resistance box, carbon resistors are used, the heating of carbon resistor should
be avoided. Heating of resistors may change the resistance value of the resistor.
2. The percentage error in the measurement is more for smaller values of the measured quantity.
3. If the two test leads of the multimeter are not identical, and also there is significant resistance
across the junctions of the multimeter (test leads and the test resistance), how is your
measurement going to be affected?

SELF ASSESSMENT
Can the measurement of dc voltage/ current be done using ac voltage/ current function switch?
Justify your answer.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

A collection of assorted colour coded resistors are provided to you. Verify the decoded values
using multimeter within the tolerance limit specified by the code on the resistor.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 143

 ACTIVITY-5
AIM
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse and a
power source.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three (on/off) switches, socket, a fuse of 1.0 A, plug, flexible
connecting wire, main switch.

PRINCIPLE
If P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, ... be the power consumed by different domestic electrical appliances in a
circuit then the total power consumption, P at any instant is given by
P = P1+ P2+ P3+ P4+ P5+ ...
If electric potential is V, then current I drawn from the mains is given by

where P is in watt, V in volt and I in ampere. In order to protect the appliances from damage,
when accidentally a high current is drawn (e.g. when the terminals of the appliance get
accidentally connected), a fuse of rating little higher (10 to 20 per cent higher than the current
normally drawn) is connected in series with the set of appliances (Fig. A 5.1).

PROCEDURE

1. Take the bulbs B1, B2, B3 and connect them in series with switches S1, S2 and S3
respectively. Connect B1, B2, B3 alongwith S1, S2, S3 in parallel with each other as shown in
Fig. A 5.1.
2. Connect fuse F in series with the set up as shown in Fig. A 5.1. Connect a plug and the socket
at the end of two leads. Connect a wire from the earth pin of the plug.
3. Insert the plug in socket provided in the main electric board.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 144

4. Press the switches S1, S2, S3 one by one and observe the bulb that is switched on and off
independently of the other bulb.
5. Press all the switches simultaneously and observe what happens. Record your observations.

RESULT

Household circuit assembly is complete and installed with safety.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Care should be taken while working with mains.

2. Carefully determine the rating of the fuse by calculating the maximum current drawn by the
circuit.
DISCUSSION

1. Fuse is a safety device. Never use fuse of much higher rating than the recommended value.
2. The rating of the main electricity in our houses is determined by the total power requirements.
In general, it is 220 V, 30 A and 50 Hz. The supply is connected to a distribution board which
divides the power into different circuits; some having a rating of 220 V,
15 A meant for heavy duty appliances like room heater, airconditioner, geysers, hot plates etc.,
others have a rating of 220 V, 5 A meant for light appliances like light bulbs, ceiling fans etc.
Let us consider one electrical circuit with 220 V, 5 A supply. In such a circuit all appliances are
connected in parallel with a switch.

This switch is in series with each appliance in supply live line.

SELF ASSESSMENT

1. Calculate the maximum current drawn for three bulbs used in the circuit.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Draw a circuit diagram consisting of two light points, one fan point and one plug point.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 145

 ACTIVITY-6
AIM
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a
steady current.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Potentiometer, battery eliminator of constant voltage, dc power supply or lead accumulator,
voltmeter and ammeter of suitable range, plug key, jockey, rheostat, connecting wires, etc.

PRINCIPLE
If a steady current is flowing through a wire of uniform area of cross section and having its
resistance per unit length constant, potential drop V across two points of the wire is directly

proportional to the length l between those two points. Mathematically,

PROCEDURE
1. Set up the electrical circuit as shown in Fig. A 6.1.
2. Connect positive terminal of the battery to point A (zero length) of the potentiometer.
3. Connect negative end of the battery to the other end B (point) of the potentiometer wire
through an ammeter, plug key and a rheostat. The ammeter should be connected in such a way
that its negative terminal is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
4. Connect positive end of the voltmeter to point A and other end to a jockey J.
5. Now close the key K and press the jockey at point B. Adjust the rheostat to get full scale
deflection in voltmeter.
6. When jockey is pressed at point A, you will get zero deflection in the voltmeter.
7. Now press the jockey at 40 cm and note the corresponding voltmeter reading.
8. Repeat your observation by pressing the jockey at various lengths like 80 cm, 120 cm etc.
which may extend up to, say 400 cm of potentiometer wire. Record voltmeter reading in each
case as shown in Table A 6.1.

OBSERVATIONS
Range of the voltmeter = ... V

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 146

Least count of the voltmeter = ...V
Zero error = ... V

CALCULATIONS
V
The ratio 
l
is calculated. It is the potential gradient of the wire. Its value is almost constant.

PLOTTING GRAPH
Plot a graph of V versus I, with V on y-axis and I on x-axis. Slope of the line give.

RESULT
V
The ratio   is found to be constant within the limits of experimental error. Its mean value
l
V
is... V cm–1. The graph shows a linear relationship between V and l . The value of   from
l
the graph is ... V cm–1.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Zero error in the voltmeter and ammeter (if there is any) should be corrected by adjusting the
screw provided at the base of the needle.
2. The current in the wire should remain constant throughout the experiment. To ensure this,
current should be drawn intermittently for short duration of time. It should be monitored by an
ammeter and readjusted whenever necessary, with the help of a rheostat.
3. Do not press the wire too hard with the jockey while noting down the observations or else
there is a possibility that the wire will become non-uniform (diameter will change) at these
points during the course of time.
4. Check for uniformity of wire at its various points before the start of the experiment. If wire is
non-uniform, the potential gradient will not be constant.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The wire must have a uniform cross section along its entire length. This should be checked by
measuring its diameter at various points before the start of the experiment.
2. Voltmeter may not give accurate reading.

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 147

DISCUSSION
1. The potentiometer wire is connected firmly to thick copper strips after every 100 cm of its
length of 400 or 1000 cm. However, these small sections of wire do not contribute to the
total length of the potentiometer wire since electrical current flows through the copper strips
rather than the potentiometer wire in these sections.
2. Potentiometer has the advantage that it draws no current from the voltage source being
measured. As such it is unaffected by the internal resistance of the source.
3. If the graph is non-linear, what conclusion will you draw?

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. A 100 cm wire of homogeneous material and uniform area of crosssection form a square as
shown in Fig. A 6.2. How can this arrangement be used to select voltages 1/4, 1/2, 3/4 of the
voltage across AE.

2. A rheostat Rh used in laboratories along with a key K, battery of emf E and internal resistance
r is shown inFig. A 6.3. RL is some load resistance that represents an auxiliary circuit which may
be there in reality. If D is the midpoint of the wire AB, what would be the voltmeter reading?
Does it depend on the value of RL or RV, if RV represents the resistance of the voltmeter? Does
it depend on r ?

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 148

3. Consider a case in the above problem, wherein a potential difference across ends A and B of
the wire is 3 V. An experiment requires a potential difference of 1.7 V as precise as possible.
Think of the possibilities of reducing emf of the source, using another resistor in series or using a
rheostat of the same resistance but of greater length. Is it possible to get negative potentials using
the same circuit? If yes, how?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Connect a circuit as shown in Fig. A 6.3. Record potential difference at various length l from
end A. Plot a graph of V versus l. Obtain from the graph the length that corresponds to 1.3 V.
Draw a circuit diagram to show how you can supply 1.3 V to an auxiliary circuit that works at
1.3 V.
2. A small circuit called the ‘level indicator’ (popularly known as dancing LED’s) is available in
the entertainment electronics market. It is often used in stereophonic two-in-one recorders or
graphic equalisers. Connect such a circuit in place of a voltmeter in this activity and estimate the
voltage levels at which the LED’s in the array glow one after another

CBSE+2 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 149