RECEPTORS

RECEPTORS
You already know that all living organisms can react to external or internal
environmental changes, known as stimuli.
◦Receptors are specialised cells that detect a variety of different stimuli and
convert them into nerve impulses.
◦Different stimuli are detected by receptors:
◦ Light
◦ Sound
◦ Temperature
◦ Pressure
◦ Pain
◦ Chemicals (taste and smell)
HUMAN EYE
 HUMAN EYE
◦ The receptors that detect light stimuli are known as photoreceptors and are concentrated in the eye.
◦ The eye is responsible for sight in humans.
POSITION
◦ The two eyes are positioned in bony eye sockets, at the front of the skull.
STRUCTURE OF THE EYE (EXTERNAL)
◦ The shape of the eyeball is spherical.
◦ The eyelids and eyelashes protect the eye from foreign objects.
◦ The front of the eye is covered by a thin mucous membrane, the conjunctiva. This membrane contains pain
receptors that are stimulated by dust and foreign particles, resulting in the blink reflex. The conjunctiva also lines
the eyelids on the inner surface.
◦ The tear gland is positioned above the eyeball and secretes antiseptic tears that protect the conjunctiva from
bacteria and dehydration.
◦ Each eye is equipped with six eye muscles, making eye movement possible in all directions – from side to side,
up and down as well as diagonally.
HUMAN
EYE

STRUCTURE OF
THE EYE
(INTERNAL)
◦ The internal
structure of the eye
consists of three
layers:
◦ Outer fibrous
layer
◦ Middle vascular
layer
◦ Inner light
sensitive retina
 This layer consists of the:
SCLERA – a strong, white, inelastic layer of
connective tissue that forms the outer layer of the
eyeball and extends to the transparent cornea at the
front.

OUTER FUNCTIONS OF THE SCLERA

◦ Protects the internal parts of the eye.

FIBROUS ◦ Helps to maintain the spherical shape of the eyeball.

◦ Serves for muscle attachment.
CORNEA – the transparent front part of the sclera,
LAYER which is more convex than the rest of the eyeball.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CORNEA
◦ Allows light rays through the inner layers of the eye.
◦ Causes the refraction of incoming light rays.
 This layer consists of three parts: choroid, ciliary body and iris.
CHOROID – a thin, darkly pigment, vascular layer.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CHOROID
◦ Pigment absorbs excess light rays to prevent internal reflection which may cause blurred
images.
◦ Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients to cells.
CILIARY BODY – a thickening of the front part of the choroid, consisting of involuntary
muscles called the ciliary muscles. The ciliary body is attached to the lens by suspensory
MIDDLE ligaments.
FUNCTION OF THE CILIARY BODY

VASCULAR ◦ Contract and relax to change the curvature of the lens during accommodation.
IRIS – a round, coloured structure suspended towards the centre of the eye like a circular
curtain. It is situated in front of the lens and is a continuation of the choroid. It contains
LAYER pigments that give colour to the eye and contains two sets of involuntary muscles, the
radial and circular muscles. There is an opening in the middle of the iris, the pupil,
though which light rays enter the eye.
FUNCTION OF THE IRIS
◦ Regulates the amount of light that enters the eye by controlling the size of the pupil.
LENS – a rubbery, elastic, transparent, biconvex structure that can change shape. It is kept
in position by suspensory ligaments attached to the ciliary body.
FUNCTION OF THE LENS
◦ Changes shape to refract light rays from near and far objects to form a clear image on
the retina.
 The retina lines the inside of the eyeball consists of the:
PIGMENT LAYER – the outer layer that is in contact with the
choroid
FUNCTION OF THE PIGMENT LAYER
◦ The dark pigment absorbs light rays and prevents internal
INNER reflection.

LIGHT-SEN NERVOUS TISSUE LAYER – consists of two types of

photoreceptors: rods and cones.
SITIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE PHOTORECEPTORS
◦ Detect light stimuli and convert the stimuli into nerve impulses.
RETINA ◦ Rods are stimulated in low light intensity (poor light) and give rise
to black and white vision.
◦ Cones are stimulated in high light intensity (bright light) and give
rise to intense, bright, colour vision.
 There is an area (in the direct line of vision) on the retina that
contains mostly cones and very few rods. This area is known as
the yellow spot. In the middle of the yellow spot is the fovea
centralis (which contains cones only)
FUNCTION OF THE YELLOW SPOT
◦ The clearest, most accurate image is formed here.
INNER Nerve fibres from the photoreceptors (rods and cones) from a
LIGHT-SEN synapse with sensory bipolar neurons, which in turn form a
synapse with optic neurons. The optic neurons joins to form the
SITIVE optic nerve. The optic nerve leaves the back of the eye and
transmits impulses to the brain.
RETINA
 FUNCTION OF THE OPTIC NERVE
◦ Conducts nerve impulses to the cerebral cortex of the brain where they are
interpreted, giving rise to the sensation of sight.
The place where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball has rods or cones and is
known as the blind spot. When light rays fall on the blind spot, no nerve
impulses are conducted to the brain and no image is formed.
INNER The lens are dividing the eye internally into two cavities:

LIGHT-SEN ◦ The anterior cavity in front of the lens, filled with watery fluid, the aqueous
humour. It is further subdivided by the iris into two chambers:
◦ Anterior chamber – situated between the cornea and the iris
SITIVE ◦ Posterior chamber – situated between the iris and the lens

RETINA ◦ The posterior cavity behind the lens, filled with jelly-like vitreous humour
FUNCTIONS OF THE VITREOUS HUMOUR
◦ Maintains the shape of the eyeball
◦ Holds the retina in position against the choroid.
◦ Refracts the light rays to form a sharp image.
 INNER
LIGHT-SEN
SITIVE
RETINA
FUNCTIONIN
G OF
THE
EYE
 Sensation
of
sight
◦ Light rays entering the eye are
refracted by the cornea,
aqueous humour, lens and
vitreous humour to focus a
clear image on the yellow spot
of the retina.
◦ The retina contains the
light-sensitive photoreceptors,
i.e. rods and cones.
◦ When the photoreceptors are
stimulated by incoming light
rays, they discharge nerve
impulses.
◦ The nerve impulses travel along
the optic nerve to the cerebral
cortex of the brain where the
sensation of sight arises.
Binocular
vision
◦ The left and right eye
each forms its own
image of the observed
object.
◦ The brain combines the
two images to form a
single three-dimensional
image.
◦ Binocular vision
provides a wider field of
vision and creates a
perception of depth.
◦ This ability to see in 3D
(depth of field) is known
as stereoscopic vision.
 Accommodation
Accommodation is the process during which the eye adapts for the observation of nearby objects (closer than 6m) by changing the shape of the
lens.
◦ For distant objects (6m or further), incoming light can be focused on the retina without any adaptations. The normal eye (unaccommodated)
is in the following state:
◦ Ciliary muscles (circular muscles) are relaxed
◦ Ciliary body moves further away from the lens
◦ Suspensory ligaments are taut
◦ Elastic lens becomes less convex (flatter)
◦ Less refraction of light rays by the flatter lens
◦ A sharp, focused image falls on the retina

◦ For nearby objects (closer than 6m), the curvature of the lens must change to focus the incoming light rays on the retina. The following
changes take place during eye accommodation:
◦ Ciliary muscles (circular muscles) contract
◦ Ciliary body moves closer to the lens
◦ The suspensory ligaments slacken (less tension)
◦ Elastic lens becomes more convex
◦ More refraction of light rays by the thicker lens
◦ A sharply focused image falls on the retina.
 Pupil reflex
◦ The pupil reflex is a reflex action and is also often called the pupillary mechanism.
◦ It responds automatically to the stimulus of the amount of light that enters the eye.
◦ The size of the pupil controls the amount of light that enters the eye.
◦ In bright light, the pupil constricts to allow less light to enter the eye and so prevents damage to the retina by the ultraviolet
rays:
◦ The radial muscle relax
◦ The circular muscles contract
◦ The pupil constricts (become smaller)
◦ Less light enters
◦ The dim light, the pupil dilates to allow as much light as possible to reach the retina in order to form a clear, sharp image:
◦ The radial muscles contract
◦ The circular muscles relax
◦ The pupil dilates (enlarges)
◦ More light enters
VISUAL DEFECTS
HUMAN
EAR
 Human ear
◦ The receptors that detect sound stimuli and movements of the head are known as mechanoreceptors and
are concentrated in the ear.
◦ The ear enables humans to hear and maintain their balance.
POSITION
◦ The two pinnae are positioned outside the skull on opposite sides of the head.
◦ The rest of the ear is embedded in the temporal bone of the skull.
STRUCTURE OF THE EAR
◦ The ear consists of the following three parts:
◦ Outer ear
◦ Middle ear
◦ Inner ear.
 Outer ear
The outer ear consists of two parts, the pinna and the external auditory canal.
◦ Pinna
The pinna it consists of cartilage covered with skin and protrudes on either side of the head.
Function
◦ Collects and directs sound waves into the external auditory opening.
◦ External auditory canal
The external auditory canal is a curved tube, approximately 25mm long, leading to the tympanic
membrane.
Function
◦ Transmits sound waves from the pinna to the tympanic membrane.
 Middle ear
The middle ear is a small air-filled cavity in the temporal bone of the skull, lined
with a mucous membrane. The following structures form part of the middle ear.
◦ Tympanic membrane
The tympanic membrane is a thin membrane that covers the opening between the
external auditory canal and the middle ear. The common name for the tympanic
membrane is eardrum.
◦ Function
◦ Converts sound waves to vibrations that are transmitted to the hammer(malleus), the
first ear ossicle.
 Middle ear
◦Ossicles
◦ The middle ear has three bony ossicles, i.e. the
malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and
stapes(stirrup).
◦ Tiny ligaments joint three ossicles so that they can
articulate with each other freely.
◦ The one end of the malleus is attached to the
tympanic membrane and the other end to the incus,
which in turn articulates with stapes.
◦ The stapes is attached to the oval window.
◦ Together, the three ossicles form a lever system that
connects the outer and inner ear.
◦ Function
◦ Amplifies and transmits the vibrations to the
membrane of the oval window
 Middle ear
◦ Oval window
◦ The oval window is an opening covered by a thin membrane. It connects the middle ear
to the inner ear.
◦ The area of the oval window is much smaller than that of the tympanic membrane.
◦ Function
◦ Transmits vibrations from the air-filled middle ear to the fluid filled inner ear.

The difference in the area between the larger tympanic membrane and the smaller
membrane of the oval window amplifies the vibrations significantly.
 Middle ear
◦ Round window
◦ The round window is another opening between the middle and inner ear and is situated directly
below the oval window.
◦ Like the oval window, it is also covered by a thin membrane.
◦Function
◦ The function of the round ear is discussed in the section on the inner ear.
◦Opening to the Eustachian tube
◦ This opening and the Eustachian tube connect the middle ear to the pharynx (throat
cavity).
◦Function
◦ The Eustachian tube ensures that the pressure remains equal on both sides of the
tympanic membrane.
 When a person travels up a mountain pass in a car, temporary deafness often occurs, which is
relieved when a person swallows or yawns. This is caused by a decrease in atmospheric
pressure with altitude. The pressure in the middle ear becomes higher than the pressure outside
the ear. The tympanic membrane bulges, which affects the vibrations of the ossicles. When a
person yawns or swallows, air is drawn from the middle ear through the Eustachian tube and
the pressure difference on either side of the tympanic membrane is corrected.
You know that there are four openings to the middle ear, three of which are covered by
membranes:
◦ The opening between the external auditory canal and middle ear is covered by the tympanic
membrane.
◦ The oval window, covered by a thin membrane, connects the middle ear to the inner ear.
◦ The round window, covered by a thin membrane, connects the inner to the middle ear.
◦ The opening to the Eustachian tube leads to the throat cavity.
 Inner ear
The inner ear consists of the following:
◦ Bony labyrinth – a series of canals and cavities within the temporal bone filled
with a fluid, the perilymph.
◦ Membranous labyrinth – a series of membranous tubes and sacs filled with fluid,
the endolymph. The membranous labyrinth floats in the perilymph of the bony
labyrinth.
◦ These two labyrinths both consist of the:
◦ Vestibular apparatus – for balance
◦ Cochlea – for hearing
Inner ear
 Inner ear
◦ Vestibular apparatus – the vestibular apparatus plays a role in the maintenance of
balance in the body. It consists of two membranous sacs, the utriculus and
sacculus, as well as the three semicircular canals.
◦ Utriculus and sacculus
◦ The utriculus and sacculus are both filled with endolymph and float in the perilymph of the bony
labyrinth.
◦ Inside each utriculus and sacculus is a layer of hair cells embedded in a jelly-like layer. There are
also calcium carbonate (CaCO3) crystals, called otoliths, arranged on the surface of the jelly-like
layer.
◦ The entire structure, including the hair cells, jelly-like layer and otoliths, forms a receptor called
macula (plural= maculae)
◦ Nerve fibres that form part of the vestibular nerve conduct nerve impulses form the maculae to the
cerebellum, where balance is coordinated.
 Inner ear
Functions of the
utriculus and
sacculus
◦ Contains maculae
that respond to
gravity and detect
the position of the
head in space with
respect to gravity.
 Inner ear
Semicircular canals
◦They consist of three canals in the shape of semicircles, that are
positioned at right angles to each other.
◦At the base of each semicircular canal is a widened part, the
ampulla, containing a receptor called a crista.
◦A crista consists of sensitive hair cells embedded in a jelly-like
cap, the cupula.
◦Nerve fibres forming part of the vestibular nerve conduct nerve
impulses from the cristae to the cerebellum where balance is
coordinated.
 Inner ear
Functions of the semicircular canals
◦Contains cristae that detects changes in speed or movement of the head.
The following terms are difficult to remember and can be very confusing:
◦Sacculus and utriculus – membranous sacs filled with endolymph; part of inner
ear.
◦Macula – a receptor in the utriculus and sacculus that detects the position of the
head in space with respect to gravity.
◦Ampulla – a widened part of the base of semicircular canal, containing crista.
◦Crista – a receptor in the semicircular canals that detects changes in the speed or
movement of the head.
◦Cupula – a jelly-like cap that forms part of the crista.
 Inner ear
Cochlea
◦ The cochlea is a long-coiled tube that looks like the shell of a snail.
◦ The cochlear tube (bony and membranous cochlea) is divided longitudinally
(lengthwise) into three canals:
◦ Scala vestibuli – the upper canal, forms part of the bony cochlea, bordered by the oval
window, filled with perilymph.
◦ Scala media – the middle canal, the membranous cochlea that is in the bony cochlea,
contains the hearing receptors, filled with endolymph.
◦ Scala tympani – the lower canal, forms part of the bony cochlea, ends in the round
window, filled with perilymph.
 Inner ear
Cochlea
◦The two outer canals, filled with perilymph, join at the tip of the
cochlear tube, at an opening called the helicotrema.
◦The scala media is separated from the scala vestibuli by the vestibular
membrane (also known as the Reissner’s membrane), while the scala
media is separated from the scala tympani by the basilar membrane.
The vestibular membrane forms the ‘roof’ of the scala media, and the
basilar membrane the ‘floor’.
 Inner ear
Cochlea
◦There are hair cells on the basilar membrane, the tips of which are
embedded in an immovable, stiff membrane, the tectorial membrane.
◦This membrane stretches over the hair cells.
◦The tectorial membrane and hair cells form the organ of Corti.
◦The organ of Corti is thus a specialised structure containing the hearing
receptors.
 Inner ear
Functions of the organ of Corti
◦The hair cells detect mechanical stimuli (vibrations) and convert them into
nerve impulses.
From the hair cells the nerve impulses are conducted along nerve fibres that
form the cochlear nerve. The cochlear and vestibular nerves merge to form the
auditory nerve.
Functions of the auditory nerve
◦Conduct nerve impulses to the cerebral cortex where the sensation of hearing is
produced.
◦Conducts nerve impulses to the cerebellum where balance is coordinated.
FUNCTIONING OF THE EAR
 Hearing
◦The ear is responsible for hearing and balance
◦Sound waves are received by the pinna and directed into the external
auditory opening.
◦The external auditory canal transmits the sound waves to the tympanic
membrane (eardrum).
◦The tympanic membrane vibrates and transmits the vibrations to the
ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) in the middle ear.
◦The ossicles amplify the vibrations and transmits them via the middle ear
to membrane of the oval window.
 Hearing
◦ The oval window vibrates and causes pressure waves in the perilymph of the scala
vestibuli.
◦ The waves travel along the scala vestibuli and cause the vestibular membrane to
vibrate.
◦ This produces waves in the endolymph of the scala media, causing the basilar
membrane to vibrate.
◦ These vibrations cause mechanical stimulation of the hair cells embedded in the
tectorial membrane (organ of Corti) as they are pulled and bent which then generates
nerve impulses.
◦ Nerve impulses are conducted along the cochlear nerve and finally the auditory nerve
to the cerebral cortex of the brain, where the sensation of hearing is produced.
 Balance
There are two types of receptors for balance: maculae and cristae.
Maculae
◦The maculae in the utriculus and sacculus provide information about the position
of the head in space with respect to gravity.
◦The otoliths (CaCO3 crystals) in the jelly-like layer of the maculae respond to
gravity.
◦ When the position of the head changes, the otoliths move and exert more
pressure on some hair cells than on others.
◦These mechanical stimuli are converted into nerve impulses by the hair cells.
 Balance
Cristae
◦ The cristae in the ampullae of the semicircular canals detect changes in speed or
movement of the head.
◦ As soon as the head turns in one direction, the endolymph in the corresponding canal
will move.
◦ The moving endolymph displaces the jelly-like cupula of the crista.
◦ The moving cupula exerts a pulling force on the sensory hair cells.
◦ These mechanical stimuli are converted into nerve impulses by the hair cells.
◦ The nerve impulses are conducted by nerve fibres from the maculae and cristae to the
cerebellum of the brain, where balance is coordinated. These nerve fibres form part of
the vestibular nerve.
 Balance
When you spin around a few times and suddenly stop, you feel dizzy
The reason for this is that the rotation causes the endolymph in the
semicircular canals to move, displacing the cupulae. The cupulae pull on the
hair cells, generating nerve impulses, which are transmitted to the brain.
Because the endolymph keeps on moving for a while after the sudden stop,
confusing information is sent to the brain.
HEARING
DEFECTS