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Reading Plato through
Jung
Why must the Third
become the Fourth?

Paul Bishop
 Reading Plato through Jung

“This is a gem of a book! Once again, Paul Bishop demonstrates why he’s a master
of insight and a leading light in Jungian scholarship. Bishop guides us expertly
through the twists and turns of Jung’s interpretation of Plato’s cosmology and
treats us to a feast of weighty ideas and philosophical traditions along the way.
Crafted with Bishop’s usual assiduity and delightful style, this book provides much
needed clarification of Jung’s complex relation to Plato, and Jung’s cryptic
accounts of the ‘third’ and the ‘fourth’.”
—Lucy Huskinson, Professor of Philosophy, Bangor University, UK

“No serious reader of Jung can avoid encountering and, frankly, being perplexed
by Jung’s numerous excited references to the third becoming the fourth. What
does this idea mean? And why was it so important to Jung? With his characteristic
erudition, insight, and open-mindedness, as well as a good deal of sheer sleuthing,
Paul Bishop brilliantly explicates Jung’s major statements on this theme, especially
as they relate to works of Plato, Goethe, and Dorn. What might initially have
seemed an esoteric curiosity turns out, after Bishop’s masterful analysis, to be a key
to understanding the real-world significance and ethical challenge of Jung’s entire
clinical and cultural thought. This is a stunningly illuminating piece of scholarship.”
—Roderick Main, Professor, Department of Psychosocial and Psychoanalytic
Studies, University of Essex, UK

“Paul Bishop applies a unique lens to Jung’s philosophical framework and evinces
fascinating insights into how the influence of Plato resonates through the arche-
typal underpinnings to analytical psychology. In doing so, the spirit of Plato’s
enduring presence in the annals of western thought is marvelously illuminated via
Bishop’s accessible and erudite writing style. This is a book brimming with original
ideas and new connections and will be of keen interest to Jungian thinkers and
practitioners, as well as to academics and students of philosophy. I highly recom-
mend this to anyone interested in the living legacy of Platonic thought and its
influence on depth psychology.”
—Phil Goss, Associate Professor, Centre for Lifelong Learning, University of
Warwick, UK, and Jungian Analyst
 Paul Bishop

Reading Plato through

Jung
Why must the Third become the Fourth?
Paul Bishop
School of Modern Languages and Cultures
University of Glasgow
Glasgow, UK

ISBN 978-3-031-16811-6    ISBN 978-3-031-16812-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16812-3

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
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 Yes, Plato, you are right! All truths are within us: they are US,
and when we think we have discovered them, we are merely looking
within ourselves and saying YES!
(de Maistre, Les Soirées de Saint-Pétersbourg,
Septième entretien)

v
 Acknowledgements

First and foremost I am grateful to Marcus West and Nora Swan-Foster, as

well as to an anonymous reader, for their comments and encouragement
on the first draft of this study, originally intended to be an article for The
Journal of Analytical Psychology. Their advice and input at this early stage
turned out to be crucial, and I am greatly indebted to them for their help
and advice on a manuscript already exploding the lengths of a conven-
tional article. Next, I should also like to thank the three reviewers who
generously gave their time to report on a proposal for an extended version
of this manuscript for the Palgrave Pivot series; their suggestions were all
ones which I have been glad to incorporate.
Many years ago, Alan Cardew drew my attention to the complex rela-
tion between Plato and Jung, and I owe him a large debt of thanks for our
conversations about this and much else ever since. For his assistance locat-
ing a passage in the fourth edition of Adolf von Harnack’s Lehrbuch der
Dogmengeschichte, an email exchange on the topic of the Third and the
Fourth in Jung, and general encouragement in difficult times, I should
like to express my profound gratitude to Peter Kingsley. And for his help-
ful guidance in relation to synchronicity and to Gerhard Dorn and the
stage of the coniunctio, I am greatly indebted to Roderick Main.
I am extremely grateful to Dr Barbara J. Becker, formerly of the History
Department, University of California, Irvine, for permission to reproduce
two diagrams and for taking the time to explain how Plato’s “X” can be
interpreted in terms of the intersection of the celestial equator and the
ecliptic. And I owe to Terence Dawson the comforting thought that,
however clean the final version of a text might seem to be, like a good

vii
viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

carpet maker one should always leave a niggle or two, just to remind one-
self that no one is perfect. Last but not least, my final thanks go to Beth
Farrow at Palgrave Macmillan for progressing the proposal so swiftly and
for her support throughout this project, and to Esther Rani, Production
Editor for Springer Nature.
 Contents

1 Introduction:
 Psychoanalysis and the Problem of the Third
and the Fourth  1

2 Jung’s Reading of Plato and the Timaeus 17

3 Jung on the Doctrine of the Trinity 51

4 T
 he Timaeus and Cosmology; The Third and the Fourth in
Alchemy and Synchronicity 91

5 Conclusion127

Bibliography135

Index151

ix
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 How the Demiurge arranges the fabric of the universe.
(Diagram reproduced with the kind agreement of Dr Barbara
J. Becker, Department of History, University of California,
Irvine. https://faculty.humanities.uci.edu/bjbecker/
ExploringtheCosmos/week1c.html)29
Fig. 2.2 How the Demiurge structures the universe. (Diagram
reproduced with the kind agreement of Dr Barbara J. Becker,
Department of History, University of California, Irvine.
https://faculty.humanities.uci.edu/bjbecker/
ExploringtheCosmos/week1c.html)29
Fig. 3.1 Schematic representation of the Trinity. (A compact version of a
basic minimal (equilateral triangular) version of the “Shield of
the Trinity” or “Scutum Fidei” diagram of traditional Christian
symbolism, with original Latin captions. In the public realm and
available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shield_of_the_
Trinity#/media/File:Shield-­Trinity-­Scutum-­Fidei-­compact.svg) 53
Fig. 3.2 Plato’s elements arranged as a quaternity 66
Fig. 3.3 Plato’s elements arranged as a quincunx 67
Fig. 3.4 Cornford’s “full scheme” of the composition of the soul 69
Fig. 4.1 The “chi” 96

xi
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 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Psychoanalysis
and the Problem of the Third and the Fourth

Abstract This introductory chapter examines the notion of the Third and
the Fourth in a range of psychoanalytic thinkers as practitioners identified
by Ann Belford Ulanov in 2007. Ulanov traced the notion of the Third as
a source of healing back to Paul Tillich, who criticized Jung for his “anxi-
ety” about metaphysics. In Jung’s defence, Edward F. Edinger highlighted
the revelatory function of the symbol in Jung’s thought and examined the
rôle of the Third in the dialectic of development Jung proposed. While
Jung’s early work emphasized the Third as the “transcendent function”,
he increasingly insisted on the importance of the Fourth as something that
makes itself known in the human psyche yet lies outside it—the “recalci-
trant” Fourth, as he called it, which he related to Plato’s Timaeus and
Goethe’s Faust II. It is the thinking behind these relations that the present
study undertakes to examine in more detail, in order to answer the ques-
tion: why must the Third become the Fourth?

Keywords Jung • Ulanov • Tillich • Edinger • The Third •

The Fourth

One of the major tropes of psychoanalytic discourse is the notion that “the
Third” is an agent that can in some way or another bring about healing.
This notion of “the Third” as a source of healing can be traced back, as the
US psychoanalyst Ann Belford Ulanov explored in 2007 in an article in

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2022
P. Bishop, Reading Plato through Jung,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16812-3_1
2 P. BISHOP

The Journal of Analytical Psychology, to the theologian Paul Tillich: and, in

fact, various analysts have understood “the Third” in different ways: as
“the space in between” (in the case of Winnicott), as located in the mind
of the mother or of the analyst (André Green), as speech (Lacan), as inter-
subjectivity (Thomas Ogden), or as process (Jessica Benjamin) (Ulanov
2007, 585–589). This demonstrates an extremely wide range of how this
term is understood; let us consider each one briefly.
In Playing and Reality (1971), the English psychoanalyst and object
relations theorist Donald Winnicott (1896–1971) argued that play, espe-
cially in its use of a transitional object, enables individuals not just to
develop in early childhood but to engage with “the abstractions of politics
and economics and philosophy and culture seen as the culmination of
natural growing processes”, thereby opening up a “third area”—the area
of “cultural experience which is a derivative of play”, that is, play as a third
area which “expands into creative living and into the whole cultural life of
[humankind]” (Winnicott 2005, 187 and 138). Then again, in his lecture
“On thirdness” (1991), the French psychoanalyst André Green
(1927–2012) argued that “the real problem with the developmental per-
spective is not the journey from two to three—from the dyad to the
triad—but the transition from the stage of potential thirdness (when the
father is only in the mother’s mind) to effective thirdness when he is per-
ceived as a distinct object by the child” (Green 2000, 46). Drawing on the
work of the American philosopher and semiotician Charles Sanders Peirce
(1839–1914), Green proposed another view of what he called “the crux
of the matter: that one day this paradise has to come to an end, that two
in one becomes two who are kept apart, and this is why a third is needed”—
namely, that “firstness is being, secondness relating, and thirdness think-
ing” (ibid., 50 and 63). Thirdness is said to be “the highest capacity of the
mind”, because “thought is the manipulation of signs” and “this capacity
of thought opens the way for an infinite system of interpretation” (ibid.,
64 and 66).
Although he was affiliated to the SSP (Société psychanalytique de
Paris), in the early 1960s Green began attending the seminar of Jacques
Lacan (1901–1981). According to Lacan, the human psyche can be
understood in terms of three “orders” or “registers”, which he calls the
Imaginary, the Symbolic, and the Real. On this account, speech itself is a
kind of third, represented by the symbolic father who stands between the
mother and the infant (or between the analysand and the unconscious)
(Evans 1996, 131–132; Ulanov 2007, 587). On 1 November 1974, Lacan
 1 INTRODUCTION: PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PROBLEM OF THE THIRD… 3

gave an address to the 7th Congress of the École freudienne de Paris in

Rome entitled “La Troisième”, that is, “The Third”, where he declared:
“It is not because the unconscious is structured like a language that
lalangue does not have to play against its own enjoyment, since it is made
out of this very enjoyment. The subject supposed to know, who is the
analyst in the transference, is not supposed in error, if he knows what the
unconscious consists of, in being a knowledge that is articulated from
la­langue, the body that speaks only being knotted to it by the real that it
enjoys” (Lacan 2019, 94–95; cf. Lacan 2011). (As it happens, this address
opens with an allusion to (or a misquotation from? a playful calque on?) a
piece of numerological esotericism by the French Romantic poet Gérard
de Nerval (1808–1855), his poem “Artémis” (the sixth in a sequence of
eight sonnets published under the title Les Chimères [The Chimeras] in
1854), which opens, “La Treizième revient … C’est encor la première”
[i.e. “The Thirteenth returns … It’s still the first”] [Nerval 1966, 702].)1
Along with his use of reverie, his focus on the use of language in psy-
choanalysis, and his approach to the relationship between psychoanalysis
and literature, Thomas Ogden (b. 1946) introduced into psychoanalysis
in 1992 the concept of the analytic third. In addition to the analyst and
the analysand, he argued, there is a third subject of analysis—the “inter-
subjective analytic third” or simply the “analytic third”, defined as stand-
ing “in dialectical tension with the analyst and analysand as separate
individuals with their own subjectivities”, inasmuch as each participates
“in the unconscious intersubjective construction (the analytic third)”,
albeit asymmetrically (Ogden 1997, 109). On this account, the relation-
ship of the rôles of analyst and analysand “structures the analytic interac-
tion in a way that strongly privileges the exploration of the unconscious
internal object world of the analysand”, because the analytic relationship
itself fundamentally “exists for the purpose of helping the analysand make
psychological changes that will enable him to live his life in a more fully
human way” (ibid., 109).
In the case of the New York-based psychoanalyst Jessica Benjamin (b.
1946), thirdness is bound up with the idea of intersubjectivity (Benjamin
2004). For Benjamin, this idea of passes into psychoanalysis thanks to
Lacan, whose view of intersubjectivity “derived from Hegel’s theory of
recognition and its popularization by the French Hegelian writer Kojève”
(ibid., 11; see Lacan 1991; Kojève 1980). Whereas, on her account, Lacan
saw the Third as something which “keeps the relationship between two
persons from collapsing” in various ways: in the form of merger (oneness),
4 P. BISHOP

of the elimination of difference, or of the polarized opposition of the

power struggle (ibid., 11–12), Benjamin conceives as thirdness “both as a
mental function and as an intersubjective state” (Benjamin 2005, 197). As
an intersubjective state, thirdness is “the position that turns the opposition
of dichotomies into tensions, spaces, possibilities for creative dissonance
and harmony”—hence an image of thirdness “based on a musical meta-
phor” of “two or more people following a score, not one they have already
read but one that reveals itself only as they go along” (ibid., 197).
In their various ways, all these analysts are seen by Ulanov as having
endorsed the view of the importance of the Third expressed by the
German-US Christian existentialist philosopher and theologian, Paul
Tillich (1886–1965).2 On Tillich’s account, there are three fundamental
concepts in the Christian tradition: first, esse qua esse bonum est, that is,
“being as being is good”; second, the universal fall, in the sense of “the
transition from this essential goodness into existential estrangement from
oneself”, is something that happens “in every living being and in every
time”; and third, there is the possibility of salvation, in the sense of salvus
or salus, that is, “healing” or “wholeness” (Tillich 1959, 118–119). For
Tillich, all “genuine theological thinking” contains these three principles:
(1) “essential goodness”; (2) “existential estrangement”; and (3) “the
possibility of something, a ‘third,’ beyond essence and existence, through
which the cleavage is overcome and healed” (ibid., 119). (In so arguing,
Tillich concluded, our “essential and existential nature” points to our
“teleological nature” (in the sense of our telos, aim, or that for which and
towards which our life drives) [ibid., 119].)
In his contribution to a public memorial meeting held in 1961 in hon-
our of C.G. Jung after his death and sponsored jointly by the New York
Association for Analytical Psychology and the Analytical Psychology Club
of New York, Paul Tillich paid tribute to the way in which “many of Jung’s
ideas are of great help to theology and especially to Protestant theology”
(see Bertine et al., 28–32). Yet he went on to criticize what he saw as
Jung’s scepticism about metaphysics, going so far as to speak of “Jung’s
anxiety about what he calls metaphysics”:

This, it seems to me, does not agree with his actual discoveries, which on
many points reach deeply into the dimension of a doctrine of being, that is,
an ontology. This fear of metaphysics, which he shares with Freud and other
nineteenth-century conquerors of the spirit, is a heritage of this century.
[…] In taking the biological and, by necessary implication, the physical
 1 INTRODUCTION: PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PROBLEM OF THE THIRD… 5

realm into the genesis of archetypes, he has actually reached the ontological
dimension “imprinted upon the biological continuum.” And this was
unavoidable, given the revelatory power he attributes to the symbols in
which the archetypes express themselves. For to be revelatory one must
express what needs revelation, namely, the mystery of being. (Ibid., 31)

(Some of Jung’s current critics in the academy might raise their eyebrows
at the suggestion that Jung was not sufficiently metaphysical!) In Jung’s
defence, the American analyst Edward F. Edinger (1922–1998) later
argued that Jung was not so much afraid of metaphysics as of metaphysi-
cians, pointing to the parallel between Tillich’s call for symbols that are
“revelatory” inasmuch as they “express what needs revelation, namely, the
mystery of being”, and Jung’s statement in Aion (1951) about the impor-
tance of the shadow, the syzygy, and the self:

[It] is possible, through them, to relate so-called metaphysical concepts,

which have lost their root connection with natural experience, to living,
universal psychic processes, so that they can recover their true and original
meaning. In this way the connection is re-established between the ego and
projected contents now formulated as “metaphysical” ideas. Unfortunately,
[…] the fact that metaphysical ideas exist and are believed in does nothing
to prove the actual existence of their content or of the object they refer to,
although the coincidence of idea and reality in the form of a special psychic
state, a state of grace [eines status gratiae], should not be deemed impossi-
ble, even if the subject cannot bring it about by an act of will. Once meta-
physical ideas have lost their capacity to recall and evoke the original
experience they have not only become useless but prove to be actual impedi-
ments on the road to wider development. One clings to possessions that
have once meant wealth; and the more ineffective, incomprehensible, and
lifeless they become the more obstinately people cling to them. (Naturally it
is only sterile ideas that they cling to; living ideas have content and riches
enough, so there is no need to cling to them.) Thus in the course of time
the meaningful turns into the meaningless. This is unfortunately the fate of
metaphysical ideas. (Jung 1959, §65)

In fact, Edinger himself drew attention to the fact that one of Jung’s
“major discoveries” had been “the psychological significance of the num-
ber four as it relates to the symbolism of psychic wholeness and the four
functions”, arguing that the significance of the quaternity is “basic to his
whole theory of the psyche, both as regards its structure and its
6 P. BISHOP

developmental goal”, that is, the individuation process (Edinger 1973,

179). At the same time, however, Edinger conceded that one encounters
other numerical motifs in dreams as in myth and folklore, notably the
theme of three, but that “because of the predominant value that Jung
attached to the quaternity, he tended in most cases to interpret trinitarian
images as incomplete or amputated quaternities” (ibid., 179). Such an
approach, Edinger noted, could provoke objections, such as the one
expressed by Victor White (1902–1960), the English Dominican priest
with whom Jung famously conducted a lengthy correspondence about
psychology and theology. As White wrote in Soul and Psyche (1960):

[…] Are we always compelled to ask, when confronted with the number
three, “Where is the fourth”? Are we to suppose that always and everywhere
the number three us to be understood only a four minus one?—that every
triangle is only a failed square? […] Or could it possibly be that ternary
symbols are, so to speak, archetypal images in their own right, which present
a content distinct from that of the quaternity? (White 1960, 106)

In his chapter in Ego and Archetype (1972) entitled “The Trinity Archetype
and the Dialectic of Development”, Edinger picks up this challenge, pro-
posing that “th[e] ternary symbol is a separate and valid entity in itself”
and distinguishing between (a) the quaternity image as expressing “the
totality of the psyche in its structural, static or eternal sense”; and (b) the
trinity image as expressing “the totality of psychological experience in its
dynamic, developmental, temporal aspect” (Edinger 1973, 182). For sup-
port for this position, Edinger turns to the English psychoanalyst
H.G. Baynes (1882–1943), who wrote in Mythology of the Soul (1940) that
“the triune archetype symbolizes the dynamic or vital aspect” and that
“the number three is specifically associated with the creative process”:
“Every function of energy in nature has, indeed, the form of a pair of
opposites, united by a third factor, their product. Thus the triangle is the
symbol of a pair of opposites joined above or below by a third factor”
(Baynes 1969, 565 and 405).
And Edinger can point to other threefold developmental models as
well. According to William Inge (1860–1954), the mystical process of
spiritual development is threefold (purgative, illuminative, and unitive)
(Inge 1918, 9–10); the Italian theologian and apocalyptic thinker, Joachim
of Fiore (c. 1135–1202), developed a theory of historical time, dividing
history into three stages (the Age of the Father, corresponding to the Old
 1 INTRODUCTION: PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PROBLEM OF THE THIRD… 7

Testament; the Age of the Son, corresponding to the New Testament; and
the Age of the Holy Spirit, corresponding to an imminent utopian age and
a new dispensation of universal love); the Swiss physician and alchemist
known as Paracelsus (c. 1493–1541) combined the mediaeval view of the
human being as composed of body, soul, and spirit and the alchemical
view of metals as composed of three primary principles of mercury, sul-
phur, and salt, when he identified mercury as the spirit, sulphur as the
soul, and salt as the body (Paracelsus 1967, 125); G.W.F. Hegel
(1770–1831) (or, rather, Hegelians) proposed an understanding of the
process of history in terms of three stages of thesis, antithesis, and synthe-
sis3; while Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) distinguished three
stages in the natural learning process (the stages of romance, precision,
and generalization) (Whitehead 1929). Closer to his psychoanalytic home,
Edinger could point to Freud’s three stages of psychosexual development
(oral, anal, and genital)4; the distinction made by Gerhard Adler
(1904–1988) between feminine and masculine triads (Adler 1961,
26–261); the three stages of psychological development identified by
M. Esther Harding (1888–1971) (autos, ego, and Self) (Harding 1963,
22–23); and, indeed, Edinger’s own scheme of psychological develop-
ment, involving (1) the stage of the Self, in which the ego is identified with
the Self; (2) the stage of the ego, in which the ego becomes alienated from
the Self; and (3) the stage of the ego-Self axis, in which the ego becomes
reunited with the Self—three phases of a repetitive cycle which recurs time
and again throughout the individual’s lifetime (Edinger 1973, 186).
Yet originally, however, Jung had been as keen as any post-Hegelian
thinker might have been to think in terms of triads. In his early work, for
instance, we find an emphasis on the Third as the so-called transcendent
function. In an important essay with this title written in 1916 (in another
words, during the time that he was working on the fifth and sixth of his
Black Books), but not discovered in his files until 1953 and not published
until 1957, Jung sought to answer the “universal question”, viz.: “How
does one come to terms in practice with the unconscious?” (Wie setzt man
sich praktisch mit dem Unbewußten auseinander?) (Jung 1969b, 67). In
this paper Jung distinguished two key stages in the analytic process: after
(1) the unconscious content has been “given form” and “the meaning of
this formulation is understood”, the question arises as to (2) “how the ego
will relate to this position” and “how the ego and the unconscious are to
come to terms [with each other]” (damit hebt die Auseinandersetzung
zwischen dem Ich und dem Unbewußten an) (Jung 1969b, §181). This
8 P. BISHOP

second stage is, Jung believed, the more important one, because it involves
“the bringing together of opposites for the production of a third: the tran-
scendent function”—a stage in which “it is no longer the unconscious that
takes the lead, but the ego” (ibid., §181).
Jung claimed that, despite its name, there was “nothing mysterious or
metaphysical” about the term “transcendent function” (perish the
thought!), and that as a psychological function it was comparable to the
mathematical function of the same name, that is, a function of real and
imaginary numbers (Jung 1969b, §131). (According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, a transcendental function is a function not expressible as a
finite combination of the algebraic operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, raising to a power, and extracting a root. It
includes the functions log x, sin x, cos x, ex (and any functions containing
them), which are are expressible in algebraic terms only as infinite series.
In short, the term transcendental means nonalgebraic.) Jung’s choice of
the term transzendente Funktion is nevertheless problematic, because it
risks terminological confusion around the terms transzendent and tran-
szendental, and their different implications in the discourses of mathemat-
ics and philosophy. In the philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804),
“transcendental” is defined as “all cognition […] that is occupied not so
much with objects but rather our a priori concepts of objects in general”
(Critique of Pure Reason, A 11; Kant 1997, 133). So “transcendental”
refers to what is prior to or makes experience possible, while “transcen-
dent” refers to what goes beyond experience. (Does Jung himself always,
if ever, stick to this distinction?)
Faced with the products of the unconscious, Jung argues, the ego must
seize the initiative and, like Faust when faced with the sign of the Earth
Spirit, should ask: “How am I affected by this sign?” (Wie anders wirkt dies
Zeichen auf mich ein?) (Jung 1969b, §188; cf. Faust, Part One, l. 460). To
answer this question requires more than “clever talk” (gescheites Geschwätz),
it involves “the shuttling to and fro of arguments and affects [which] rep-
resents the transcendent function of opposites”:

The confrontation of the two positions generates a tension charged with

energy and creates a third, living thing [Lebendiges … ein Drittes]—not a
logical stillbirth in accordance with the principle tertium non datur [i.e., the
law of the excluded third or principium tertii exclusi, viz.: “no third possibil-
ity is given”], but a movement out of the suspension between opposites, a
living birth that leads to a new level of being, a new situation. (Ibid., §189)
 1 INTRODUCTION: PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PROBLEM OF THE THIRD… 9

Thus the transcendent function “manifests itself as a quality of conjoined

opposites” and “so long as these are kept apart—naturally for the purpose
of avoiding conflict—they do not function and remain inert [toter
Stillstand]” (ibid., §189; see Miller 2004).
Nearly thirty years later, in a letter to Olga Fröbe-Kapteyn of 20 August
1945 Jung wrote that the opus consists of three parts (insight, endurance,
and action), and he speaks here in powerful, dramatic terms about how
“everyone goes through this mill, consciously or unconsciously, volun-
tarily or forcibly”, of “a conflict that rages in itself and against itself […] in
the fire of suffering”: we are, he told her, “crucified between the opposites
and delivered up to the torture until the ‘reconciling third’ takes shape”
(Jung 1973–1975, vol. 1, 375). (“A life without inner contradiction is
either only half a life or else a life in the Beyond, which is destined only for
angels”, he concluded, adding: “But God loves human beings more than
the angels” [ibid., 375].)
Ten years after this letter, in Mysterium coniunctionis (1955–1956)
Jung reaffirms that “what the union of the opposites really ‘means’ tran-
scends human imagination”, and he repeats (yet again) the law of the
excluded middle, tertium non datur (Jung 1970, §201).5 This third thing
is “an eternal image, an archetype, from which individuals can turn away
their mind for a time but never permanently”—a point substantiated,
Jung argued (here as elsewhere), by the promulgation in 1950 of the
dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary by Pope Pius XII in his
apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus) (ibid., §201).6 For Jung,
this insight was of the greatest existential significance: “Whenever this
image is obscured our life loses its proper meaning and consequently its
balance”, but “so long as we know that we are the carrier of life and that
it is therefore important for us to live, then the mystery of our soul lives
also—no matter whether we are conscious of it or not” (ibid., §201). But
the converse is also true, and “if we no longer see the meaning of our life
in its fulfilment, and no longer believe in humankind’s eternal right to this
fulfilment, then we have betrayed and lost our soul, substituting for it a
madness which leads to destruction”—as was demonstrated, Jung believed,
by his time (and, one might add, as it is by ours, too) (ibid., §201).
Over time, however, this emphasis on the Third as the “transcendent
function” gave way in Jung’s thinking to an increasing insistence on the
importance of “the Fourth” as something that makes itself known in the
human psyche, yet lies outside us; this mysterious Fourth is said to lead
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“straight to the Anthropos idea that stands for human wholeness, that is,
the conception of a unitary being”: as Jung put it in “Individual Dream
Symbolism in Relation to Alchemy” (1936), “the one joins the three as
the fourth and thus produces the synthesis of the four in a unity” (Jung
1968, §210).7 In the alchemical terms of the Hermetic Basilian Aphorisms,
the Fourth is like the “life force (vis animans)” or the “‘glue of the world’
(glutinum mundi)”—“the medium between mind and body and the
union of both” (ibid., §209). Leaving to one side the reasons for Jung’s
strategic preference for alchemical literature, we should note that, in this
paper, he also highlights the presence of the issue of the Third and the
Fourth in two rather more traditionally canonical works, Plato’s Timaeus
and Johann Wolfgang Goethe’s Faust.
For her own part, Ann Belford Ulanov (b. 1938) herself illustrates how,
in the wake of Jung, many practitioners of analytical psychology have
embraced this shift from the reconciling, uniting the Third to the Fourth—
the “recalcitrant” Fourth, as Jung liked to call it (Jung 1969a, §191). In
her paper, “The third in the shadow of the fourth”, Ulanov advanced
Jung’s own work on the Fourth by “playing around”, as Amy Lamborn
has put it, with the notion that “the fourth does three things” (Lamborn
2011, 114). First, the Fourth reveals to us “the limits of our perceptions”,
inasmuch as it is “ever living and moving us, not captured in a fixed defini-
tion of time” (Ulanov 2007, 602). Second, without the Fourth, “the pur-
posiveness gains no purpose, no channel into living, no stepping over into
concrete life” (ibid., 602–603). And third, the Fourth shows itself as the
One—not the original One of undifferentiation, but “the unity with mul-
tiplicity and the multiplicity within unity” (Lamborn 2011, 114; cf.
Ulanov 2007, 603). Thus the functioning of the Fourth allows us to
glimpse what the German-US psychoanalyst Hans Loewald (1906–1993)
called sublimation: “In genuine sublimation, this alienating differentiation
is being reversed in such a way that a fresh unity is created by an act of
uniting. In this reversal—a restoration of unity—there comes into being a
differentiated unity (a manifold) that captures separateness in the act of
uniting, and unity in the act of separating” (Loewald 1988, 24), or what
Winnicott termed “the separation that is not a separation but a form of
union” (Winnicott 2005, 132).
Yet why must “the Third become the Fourth”? And what does the prob-
lem of the Third and the Fourth have to do with Plato—and with Goethe?
In this short study I shall go on in the second chapter to offer a brief survey
 1 INTRODUCTION: PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PROBLEM OF THE THIRD… 11

of some of the work that has been done on Jung’s relation to Plato, before
turning to consider the central ideas of the dialogue Jung most frequently
cites, the Timaeus. Jung attached a particular significance to its account of
the composition, division, and fashioning of the World Soul into two cir-
cles (which can be interpreted in different ways), commenting on this epi-
sode in Transformations and Symbols of the Libido (1911–1912) and
drawing (via Arthur Drews) on the Enneads of Plotinus. In the third chap-
ter we shall examine the essay “A Psychological Approach to the Dogma of
the Trinity”, first delivered as a lecture at Eranos in 1940. Here Jung sug-
gests that the Timaeus (with its opening question, “One, two, three,—but
where, my dear Timaeus, is the fourth of our guests […]?” [17a])8 invites
an interpretation of the text in terms of Pythagoras’s theory of number and
the numerology of Gerhard Dorn. After pausing to explore Jung’s refer-
ence to Plato’s career as a political thinker, we return to the Timaeus and
its opening question, which Jung links to the Cabiri scene in the second
part of Goethe’s Faust. Jung argues that the Three “yearns” to become a
Four, although he curiously neglects to consider other examples of number
symbolism in the Timaeus—even though they might have helped confirm
his reading. Finally, in the fourth chapter, we consider Jung’s account in
the Black Books of “an unforgettable night in the desert” when he “saw the
X for the first time” and “understood the Platonic myth”; examine Jung’s
further discussions of the motif of the Third and the Fourth (as well as the
Seventh and the Eighth) in various alchemical texts, as well as in his paper
on “Synchronicity” (1952); and investigate how the parallel interpretative
approaches to the problem of the Third and the Fourth in the Timaeus and
in the Cabiri scene in Faust recur (and in fact converge) in Jung’s late, great
work, Mysterium coniunctionis. By way of a conclusion, the fifth chapter
argues that Jung’s Platonism is paradoxical, characterized by an apparent
rejection of metaphysics while nevertheless reformulating them in psycho-
logical terms. Even more paradoxically, in his embrace of the quest to expe-
rience the perfection of wholeness (symbolized by the circle), Jung thereby
reveals himself to be a true student of Plato.

Notes
1. Not surprisingly, Jung too was attracted to the mysterious figure of Nerval,
famous for his pet lobster, Thibault, whom he took for walks on a silk rib-
bon lead, explaining to Théophile Gautier that lobsters know the secrets of
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