Module 4: Physics of Materials

Dielectric Materials
The dielectric materials are the perfect insulators such as glass, porcelain, wood, rubber
etc. Which provides insulation between the two media (conductors) at different potentials
and also serves as charge storing aid. It also helps in increase of capacitance of a capacitor.
Dielectric constant:
Dielectric constant is a quantity measuring the ability of a substance to store electrical
energy in an electric field. Dielectric constant is a ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor
filled with the given dielectric material to the capacitance of an identical capacitor in a
vacuum without the dielectric material. If C is the value of the capacitance of a capacitor
filled with a given dielectric and C0 is the capacitance of an identical capacitor in a vacuum,
the dielectric constant can be expressed as,

C
r =
C0

Electric dipole and Dipole moment:

An electric dipole is a pair of electric charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign,
separated by small distance. The product of the magnitude of one of the charges and the
distance of their separation is called dipole moment. Consider two charges +q and −q with
a small distance of separation l. The dipole moment is given by.

µ = ql

Polarization:
The displacement of charges in the atoms or molecules of a dielectric under the action
of an applied field leading to the development of dipole moment is called polarization and
the separated charges are called polarization charges.
Polarizability:
When the bulk material is made of an atoms, when the material is subjected to an
electric field E it acquired the dipole moment (µ). It is found that,

µ∝E
or dipole moment of the atom,

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 µ = αE
Where α is the proportionality constant called polarizability of atoms. Its unit is F m2

Types of polarization
There are four different types of polarization, they are
1) Electronic Polarization
2) Ionic Polarization
3) Orientation Polarization
4) Space charge Polarization
Electronic Polarization:
Electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of the centre of the negatively charged
electron cloud relative to the positive nucleus of an atom by the external electric field. The
separation created between the charges leads to development of a dipole moment. The
electronic polarizability is given by,

0 (r − 1)
αe =
N

2
 Where N is the number of atoms per unit volume.
Ionic Polarization:
Ionic polarization occurs in ionic materials like N aCl. When ionic solids are subjected
to an external electric field, the adjacent ions of opposite sign undergo displacement. The
displacement causes an increase or decrease in the distance of separation between the atoms
depending upon the location of the ion pair in the lattice. Ionic polarizability is given by,

µi = α i E
Where αi is known as ionic polarizability.

Orientation Polarization:
This type of polarization occurs in those dielectric materials which possess molecules
with permanent dipole moment i.e., polar dielectrics. In these materials, in the absence of
external electric field electric dipoles are oriented randomly that their net effect becomes
zero. But in the presence of electric field, these dipoles rotate and align in the direction of
electric field. This is known as orientation polarization which is dependent over temperature
also. Orientational polarizability is given by,

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 µ2
αo =
3kT
Where µ is the permanent dipole moment, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the
temperature.
Space charge Polarization:
This type of polarization occurs due to the accumulation of charges at the electrode or
at the interface in a multiphase materials, the ions diffuse over a appreciable distance in
response to applied field, giving rise to a redistribution of charge in a material. This is also
known as interfacial polarization.

Equation for internal fields in solids (One dimensional)

Internal field or the local field is the electric field that acts at the site of any given atom of
a solid or liquid dielectric, subjected to an external electric field and is the resultant of the
applied field and the field due to all the surrounding dipoles.
Consider a dielectric material of solid kept in an external uniform electric field strength
E. In the material, let us consider an array of equidistant atomic dipoles arranged parallel
to the direction of the field as shown in figure. Let the interatomic distance be d and the
dipole moment of the each of the atomic dipole be µ. In the linear array, let us consider an
atom X. At X, the total field due to all the other dipoles in the array can be evaluated.

We know that the components of the electric field at a point P due to electric dipole
are given in the polar form as,

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 µ cos θ
Er = − − − − − −(1)
2π0 r3
and

µ sin θ
Eθ = − − − − − −(2)
4π0 r3
Where µ is the dipole moment, r is the distance OP of the point P from the mid-point
O of the dipole, θ is the angle between OP and the line joining the two charges.
Using the above, let us calculate the electric field at X due to the dipole A1 . Since the
distance of X from A1 is d and since the directions of dipole moment of both are collinear,
then,

r=d
and
θ=0
Therefore the above equations becomes,
µ
Er =
2π0 d3
and

Eθ = 0
Thefore, the field at X due to A1 is,
µ
Er + Eθ =
2π0 d3
Now consider the dipole A2 . Since it is situated symmetrically on the other side of X,
its field at X will also be,
µ
=
2π0 d3
Therefore, the field E1 at X due to both the dipoles A1 and A2 is,

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µ µ
E1 = 2 =
2π0 d3 π0 d3
If we consider the two dipoles B1 and B2 , each of which is located at a distance of 2d,
then the field E2 at X due to both of them is,
 
µ
E2 =
π0 (2d)3
Similarly, the combined field at X due to the dipoles C1 and C2 is,
 
µ
E3 =
π0 (3d)3
Therefore, the total field E 0 induced at X due to all the dipoles in the linear array is,

E 0 = E1 + E2 + E3 + ......
     
µ µ µ
= + + + ......
π0 d3 π0 (2d)3 π0 (3d)3
 
µ 1 1
= 1 + 3 + 3 + ......
π0 d3 2 3
∞
µ X1
=
π0 d3 n3
n=1

Where, n = 1, 2, 3, − − − − −∞
But, we know the summation of series that,
∞
X 1
= 1.2
n3
n=1

Therefore,
1.2µ
E0 =
π0 (d)3
The total field at X which is the internal field Ei , is the sum of the applied field E and
the field due to all the dipoles, i.e., E 0 . Therefore,
1.2µ
Ei = E + E 0 = E +
π0 (d)3
If αe is the electronic polarizability for the dipoles, then,

µ = αe Ei − − − − − −(5)
or

1.2αe Ei
Ei = E +
π0 (d)3
By rearranging the above we have,

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 E
Ei = 1.2αe
1− π0 (d)3

This is the expression for internal field in case of one-dimensional array of atoms in
dielectric solids or liquids.
Lorentz field:
Above equation considering one dimensional array of atoms. But in 3-dimensional case,
the general equation for internal field is expressed as,
 
γ
Ei = E + P
0
Where P is the polariztion and γ is a proportionality constant called internal field
constant. In 3-dimensional case, if it is a cubic lattice, then it can be shown that γ = 1/3,
hence the internal field is named as Lorentz field is given by,

P
Ei = E +
30
The above equation is known as Lorentz relation

Clausius - Mossotti equation / Relation between microscopic and macroscopic

property
Consider an elemental solid dielectric material of dielectric constant r . If N is the number
of atoms/unit volume of the material, µ is the atomic dipole moment, then we have,
Dipole moment/unit volume = N µ —– (1)
Here, the field experienced by the atoms is the internal field Ei . Hence, if αe is the
electronic polarizability of the atoms, we can write the equation for µ as,

µ = αe Ei − − − − − (2)
Therefore, equation (1) becomes,
Dipole moment/unit volume = N αe Ei —– (3)
In equation (3), its left side is same as polariztion P , therefore,

P = N αe Ei − − − − − (4)
or

P
Ei = − − − − − (5)
N αe
But we have the relation for P as,

P = 0 (r − 1)E
Where E is the applied field. Therefore,

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 P
E= − − − − − (6)
0 (r − 1)
Also, we have the equation for internal field as,

P
Ei = E + γ − − − − − (7)
0
Where, γ is the internal field constant.
Substituting for Ei and E from equations (5) and (6) in equation (7), we have,

P P P
= +γ
N αe 0 (r − 1) 0
or
 
1 1 1
= +γ
N αe 0 (r − 1)
Considering the internal field in the material to be Lorentz field, we have γ = 13 . Sub-
stituting the same in the above equation we get,
   
1 1 1 1 1 3 + r − 1
= + =
N αe 0 (r − 1) 3 0 3(r − 1)
Therefore,
 
0 (r + 2)
=
N αe 3(r − 1)
By rearranging the above we have,

(r − 1) N αe
=
(r + 2) 30
The above equation is called Clausius - Mossotti equation and is holds good for crystals of
high degree of symmetry. This equation provides a relation between the dielectric constant
(r ), which is a macroscopically measurable quantity and electronic polarizability (αe ) which
is an microscopic or atomic property.